chapter 2 modules
what are proteins made of
over 100 amino acids bonded together through covalent bonds forming a polypeptide, must be over 100 to form a protein
explain the structures of eicosanoids than describe how this contributes to it's diverse functions and explain what those functions are.
*eicosanoids: lipids made from arachidonic acid (fatty acid that must be absorbed from food) Ex/ Prostaglandins: compound released by cell to coordinate cell activity, extremely powerful. Structure involves a short chain fatty acid in which five of the carbons are joined in a ring towards the end.
describe the 3 states of matter. What is the importance of hydrogen bonding in water molecules?
1.) solid: maintains volume, and shape at ordinary temp and pressure. 2.) liquid: constant volume but not shape 3.) gas: no constant volume or shape water: -only substance that occurs as a solid, liquid, and gas at temperatures compatible with life. -What are hydrogen bonds? A: tiny positive charges on H atoms within a polar molecule are attached to larger negative charge on a neighboring polar molecule causing the molecules to change shape or be pull neighboring molecules together. as ice: h bonds lock molecules of water in lattice structure that occupies more space than liquid water (makes it less dense than liquid water) as vapor: water become vapor when all H bonds between neighboring molecules are broken from one another.
explain the structures of proteins and their functions
-long chains of amino acids (organic molecules) 20 different amino acids are used as building blocks of proteins in human body -amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen: they are simple organic compounds that when combined to make polymers form proteins -amino acids are made up of a central carbon atom surrounded by an H atom, an amino group, carboxyl group, and a variable group
explain the structures of glycolipids than describe how this contributes to it's diverse functions and explain what those functions are.
-synthesized from fatty acids -carbohydrate is attached to diglyceride -facilitate cellular recognition and maintain stability of cell membrane
explain the structures of phospholipids than describe how this contributes to it's diverse functions and explain what those functions are.
-synthesized from fatty acids -phosphate group links a diglyceride to a nonlipid group -makes up the cell membrane (hydrophobic end is oriented towards the cell where hydrophilic end is oriented outside the cell. Another layer does the same thing and attached to the other side creating a protective bilayer for the membrane)
explain the structure and function of high energy compounds
-usually the energy donor for enzymatic reactions to occur -contains high energy bonds (covalent bonds whose breakage releases energy) most common high energy compound is ATP. *ATP: consist of adenine (small ring shaped) and ribose (simple sugar) energy is used to add phosphate groups to adenosine.
what are the differences between the major types of chemical reactions important to physiology
1.) decomposition reaction: breaks molecule into smaller fragments 2.) synthesis: assembles smaller molecules into larger molecule 3.) exchange reaction: parts of reacting molecules are shuffled around to to produce new products (ab + cd = ad + cb)
list the four important properties of water and explain their significance
1.) lubrication: little friction between water molecules allows it to greatly reduce friction between joints and body cavities 2.) chemical reactant: many chemical reaction happen in water and water is used in hydrolysis and dehydration reactions 3.) high heat capacity: water requires high temperature for the hydrogens between them to break becoming a vapor, water takes heat with it when it evaporates (cools us down by sweating), it takes a large mass of water a long time to change temperature (good for us considering we need to maintain a relative constant body temperature) 4.) solvent: a lot of inorganic molecules will be absorbed in water which is good for the our cells to hold the necessary molecules they need.
define an atom. What are the properties of each of it's subatomic particles?
an atom is the smallest stable unit of matter that are composed of subatomic particles including: 1.) protons: located in nucleus of atom and have positive electrical charge 2.) neutrons: located in nucleus and are electrically neutral 3.) electrons: way smaller than protons and neutrons, located outside of nucleus and have a negative electrical charge
describe an atom. How does atomic structure affect the mass number and atomic weight of various chemical elements?
atoms usually have equal amount of protons and electrons. *atomic number=number of protons in an atom *mass number= protons + neutrons in the atom *element= pure substance only made up of atoms that all have the same atomic number (aka all have same number of protons) there are elements that are the same elements but have varying amounts of neutrons (they're called isotopes) which causes a fluctuation in mass number. The atomic weight (avg of different atomic masses variations of an element and divided proportionally with the amount of it's isotopes) is changed marginally on the variations of the different isotopes and how many of each variation of the isotope there are.
compare and contrast DNA and RNA structure
both: -made of nucleic acids. Subunits of nucleic acids are nucleotides. *nucleotides: have a phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine) -phosphate and sugar of neighboring nucleotides are strung together forming the backbone of RNA and DNA while phosphate groups project to the side. RNA and DNA contain the instructions for making specific proteins DNA: -deoxyribose -A,G,C,T always more than 45 million nucleodtides in each -paired strand coiled in double helix -stores genetic information RNA: -ribose -A, G, C, and U -only 100-50,000 nucleotides (much smaller) -varies in molecular shape -performs protein synthesis how DNA tells it to DNA: deoxyribonucleic RNA: ribonucleic
how are atoms combining to form molecules different from how atoms combine to form compounds?
compounds involve atoms from two or more different elements in fixed proportion regardless of the type of bond holding them together. Ex/ sodium chloride --> sodium atom loses electron to chloride atom then becomes slightly positive charged and is not attracted to the slightly negatively charge chloride which forms an ionic bond between the two. The ratio is always in simplest terms 1:1 A molecule is the same as a compound but the atoms of the elements must be held together through covalent bonds. Ex/ hydrogens share their one electrons with each other forming a single covalent bond; oxygen atoms has 6 electrons in outer shell and shares 2 of it's electrons with another oxygen atom to make a stable 8 electrons in each of it's shells. This is called a double covalent bond.
discuss the structure and function of lipids
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbon to hydrogen is near 1:2 ratio. Contain much less o2 than carbohydrates but still with the same number of carbon atoms. Usually insoluble in water and special transport mechanisms have to transport them into the bloodstream. *fatty acids: carbon chains with hydrogens attached. One end contains a carboxyl (-COOH) group (longer hydrocarbon tail the more insoluble the molecule is). Used as NRG source. *saturated fatty acids: each carbon atom has 4 single covalent bonds *unsaturated fatty acids: when one or more of the single covalent bonds between carbon atoms is replaced by double covalent bond (this means that carbon atoms will only bind with one H atom instead of the normal two)--->changes shape and way fatty acid is digested. -fatty acids can be attached to a compound glycerol which results in a lipid called a glyceride. Lipids form essential components of cells and serve as energy reserves.
how is pH important in the body and how do buffers affect pH
hydrogen atoms at times lose their electrons and become H+ ions and lose an OH- counterpart which then becomes negative. pH scale (0-14) the lower the number the more H+ ions and the more acidic, the higher the number the more OH- ions and the more basic. **acids are any solute that when dissociated release an H+ ion (lowering the pH) ** bases are solutes that remove hydrogen ions from a solution by acting as a proton acceptor **buffers are either acids or bases that work to stabilize the pH
explain the structures of steroids than describe how this contributes to it's diverse functions and explain what those functions are.
large lipid molecules that share distinctive carbon chain framework. They differ in the functional groups that are attached to their basic structure. *cholesterol: outer boundary of animals cells important in maintaining plasma membrane and for cell growth and division *estrogen *testosterone
define metabolism. What is the difference between "work", "kinetic energy", and "potential energy"?
metabolism: all of the reactions happening in all the cells/tissues of the body at any given time potential energy is stored energy in the form of bonds, positions of protein, etc. when movement or a change in a physical structure takes place potential energy is being used up as kinetic energy (energy of motion) to do the above description of work.
how do the chemical properties of water affect solubility of inorganic and organic molecules?
negative and positive sides of water molecules can cause other molecules to dissociate. Polar molecules bond with water and are carried in the body along with the water molecule (in other words it dissolves) *electorylytes conduct electrical current in solutions (ex/ salt [sodium chloride])
list the common elements of organic compounds. Explain how functional groups modify the properties of organic compounds.
organic compounds contain hydrogen, carbon, and usually oxygen. Functional groups can link molecules to the organic compounds to form larger structures, they can act as an acid or a base, can store energy, and they can affect solubility
explain the structures and functions of carbohydrates
organic molecule contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a likely 1:2:1 ratio. Most important as energy sources that are not stored. *monosaccharides: is carbohydrate that has 3 to 7 carbon atoms and are the monomer building blocks for more complex carbohydrates. -The 3D structure of carbohydrate molecules usually determine it's fate. Molecules can have same types and numbers of atoms but in different structures (the variations are called isomers). *disaccharides: two monosaccharides joined together, usually soluble in water ex/ sucrose --> formed through dehydration reaction *polysaccharides: formed when repeat dehydration reactions add more monosaccharides or disaccharides. Ex/starch broken down into monosaccharides in digestive tract before being used as energy source
how are electrons and energy levels related?
the number of electrons in the outermost electron shell (valence shell) determines it's "energy level" and determines how it can participate in chemical reactions. energy levels of atoms 1st.) can contain 2 electrons 2nd.) can contain 8 electrons 3rd.) can contain up to 8 electrons
explain how enzymes function in the body
they have a specific shape that only the right reactants (substrates) can bind to. When the substrates bind to the active site the physical change in the enzyme shape can cause the reaction to happen or an outside energy source is needed. Once the process is completed the product is released and the enzyme is free to start the process over again.
how are enzymes crucial to metabolism?
they lower the activation energy in a reaction without causing a massive change in the environment of our cells. We need our cells to stay at a relatively stable environment while still performing chemical reactions that are vital to life which is why enzymes are so important because they do just that.
