Chapter 23 secionts 3, 4, 5

Napoleon's goals

Napoleon did not try to return the nation to the days of Louis XVI. Rather he kept many of the changes that had come with the revolution. In general, he supported laws that would both strengthen the central government and achieve some of the goals of the Revolution. His first task was to get the economy on a solid footing. He set up and efficient method of tax collection and established a national banking system. In addition to ensuring the government a steady supply of tax money, these actions promoted sound financial management and better control of the economy. He also took steps to end corruption and inefficiency in government. He dismissed corrupt officials and, in order to provide the government with trained officials, set up lycees, or government run public schools. These lycees were open to male students of all backgrounds. Graduates were appointed to public office on the basis of merit rather than family connections. One area where Napoleon disregarded changes introduced by the revolution was religion. Both the clergy and many peasants wanted to restore the position of the church in France. Responding to their wishes, napoleon signed a concordat, or agreement, with Pope Pius VII. This established a new relationship between church and state. The government recognized the influence of the church, but rejected church control in national affairs. The concordat gained Napoleon the support of the organized Church as well as the majority of the French people. Napoleon thought that his greatest work was his comprehensive system of laws, know as the Napoleonic Code. This gave the country a uniform set of laws and eliminated many injustices. However, it actually limited liberty and promoted order and authority over individual rights. For example, freedom of speech and of the press, established during the revolution, were restricted under the code, the code also restored slavery in the French colonies of the Caribbean. In 1804, Napoleon decided to make himself emperor, and the French voters supported him. On December 2, 1804, dressed in a splendid robe of purple velvet, he walked down the long aisle of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The pope waited for him with a glittering crown. As thousands watched, the new emperor took the crown from the pope and place it on his own head. With this gesture, napoleon signaled that he was more powerful than the church, which had traditionally crowned the rulers of France. Napoleon was not content simply to be master of France. He wanted to control the rest of Europe and to reassert French power in the Americas. He envisioned his western empire including Louisiana, Florida, French Guiana, and the French West Indies. He knew that the key to this area was the sugar producing colony of Saint Domingue (now called Haiti) on the island of Hispaniola. In 1789, when the ideas of the Revolution reached the planters in Saint Domingue, they demanded that the National Assembly give them the same privileges as the people of France. Eventually, enslaved Africans in the colony demanded their rights too- in other words, their freedom. A civil war erupted, and enslaved Africans under the leadership of Toussaint L'Overture seized control of the colony. In 1801, Napoleon decided to take back the colony and restore its productive sugar industry. However, the French forces were devastated by disease. And the rebels proved to be fierce fighters. After the failure of the expedition to Saint Domingue, Napoleon decided to cut his losses in the Americas. He offered to sell all of the Louisiana Territory to the United States, and in 1803 President Jefferson's administration agreed to purchase the land for 15 million. Napoleon saw a twofold benefit to the sale. First, he would gain money to finance operations in Europe. Second, he would punish the British. "The sale assures forever the power of the United States," he observed, "and I have given England a rival who, sooner or later, will humble her pride."

Coup D'etat

A sudden seizure of power like Napoleon's is known as a coup, from the French phrase coup d'état, or "blow to the state". At the time of Napoleon's coup, France was still at war

Conservatives

Across Europe, conservatives held firm control of the governments, but they could not contain the ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. France after 1815 was deeply divided politically. Conservatives were happy with the monarchy of Louis XVIII and were determined to make it last. Liberals, however, wanted the king to share more power with the legislature. And many people in the lower classes remained committed to the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Similarly, in other countries there was an explosive mixture of ideas and factions that would contribute directly to revolutions in 1830 and 1848.

Liberals

Across Europe, conservatives held firm control of the governments, but they could not contain the ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. France after 1815 was deeply divided politically. Conservatives were happy with the monarchy of Louis XVIII and were determined to make it last. Liberals, however, wanted the king to share more power with the legislature. And many people in the lower classes remained committed to the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Similarly, in other countries there was an explosive mixture of ideas and factions that would contribute directly to revolutions in 1830 and 1848.

President Jefferson

After the failure of the expedition to Saint Domingue, Napoleon decided to cut his losses in the Americas. He offered to sell all of the Louisiana Territory to the United States, and in 1803 President Jefferson's administration agreed to purchase the land for 15 million. Napoleon saw a twofold benefit to the sale. First, he would gain money to finance operations in Europe. Second, he would punish the British. "The sale assures forever the power of the United States," he observed, "and I have given England a rival who, sooner or later, will humble her pride."

Plebiscite

At first, Napoleon pretended to be the constitutionally chosen leader of a free republic. In 1800, a plebiscite, or vote of the people, was held to approve a new constitution. Desperate for strong leadership, the people voted overwhelmingly in favor of the constitution. This gave all real power to Napoleon as first consul.

Napoleon Bonaparte (beginning/rise)

Born in 1769 on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. When he was nine years old, his parents sent him to a military school. In 1785, at the age of 16, he finished school and became a lieutenant in the artillery. When the revolution broke out, he joined the army of the new government. He was a short man, just five feet three inches; however he cast a long shadow over the history of modern times. He would come to be recognized as one of the world's greatest military geniuses, along with Alexander the great of Macedonia, Hannibal of Carthage, and Julius Caesar of Rome. In only four years, from 1795 to 1799, Napoleon rose from a relatively obscure position as an officer in the French army to become master of France. In October 1795, when royalist rebels marched on the national convention, a government official told napoleon to defend the delegates. Napoleon and his gunners greeted the thousands of royalists with a cannonade. Within minutes, the attackers fled in panic and confusion. Napoleon Bonaparte became the hero of the hour and was hailed throughout Paris as the savior of the French republic. In 1796, the Directory appointed Napoleon Bonaparte to lead a French army against the forces of Austria and the kingdom of Sardinia. Crossing the Alps, the young general swept into Italy and won a series of remarkable victories. Next, in an attempt to protect French trade interests and to disrupt British trade with India, napoleon led an expedition to Egypt. But he was unable to repeat the successes he had achieved in Europe. His army was pinned down in Egypt and the British admiral Horatio Nelson defeated his naval forces. However, napoleon manages to keep stories about his setbacks out of the newspapers and thereby remained a great hero to the people of France. When napoleon returned from Egypt, his friends urged him to seize political power. He took action in early November 1799. Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature and drove out most of its members. The lawmakers who remained then voted to dissolve the Directory. In its place, they established a group of three consuls, one of whom was Napoleon. Napoleon quickly took the title of first consul and assumer the powers of a dictator. At the time of Napoleon's coup, France was still at war. In 1799, Britain, Austria, and Russia joined forces with one goal in mind, to drive Napoleon from power. Once again, Napoleon rode from Paris at the head of his troops. Eventually, as a result of war and diplomacy, all three nations signed peace agreements with France. By 1802 Europe was at peace for the first time in ten years. Napoleon was free to focus his energies on restoring order in France. 1769-1821 (lifespan) because of his small stature and thick Corsican accent, Napoleon was mocked by his fellow students at military school. Haughty and proud, he refused to grace tormentors' behavior with any kind of response. He simply ignored them, preferring to lose himself in his studies. He showed a particular passion for three subjects-classical history, geography, and mathematics. In 1784 he was recommended for a career in the army and he transferred to the Ecole Militaire (the French equivalent of West Point) in Paris. There, he proved to be a fairly poor soldier, except when it came to artillery. His artillery instructor quickly notices his abilities: "he is most proud, ambitious, aspiring to everything. This young man merits our attention." At first, Napoleon pretended to be the constitutionally chosen leader of a free republic. In 1800, a plebiscite, or vote of the people, was held to approve a new constitution. Desperate for strong leadership, the people voted overwhelmingly in favor of the constitution. This gave all real power to Napoleon as first consul.

Congress of Vienna

European heads of government were looking to establish long-lasting peace and stability on the continent after the defeat of Napoleon. They had a goal of the new European order- one of collective security and stability for the entire continent. A series of meetings in Vienna, known as the Congress of Vienna, were called to set up policies to achieve this goal. Originally, the Congress of Vienna was scheduled to last for four weeks. Instead, it went on for eight months. Most of the decisions made in Vienna during the winter of 1814-1815 were made in secret among representatives of the five "great powers"-Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and France. By far the most influential of these representatives was the foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich. Metternich had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he wanted to prevent future aggression by surrounding France with strong countries. Second, he wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others. Third, he wanted to restore Europe's royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon's conquests. 3 steps taken The congress took the following steps to make the weak countries around France stronger: 1) The former Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic were united to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 2) A group of 39 German states were loosely joined as the newly created German Confederation, dominated by Austria. 3) Switzerland was recognized as an independent nation. 4) The Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was strengthened by the addition of Genoa. These changes enabled the countries of Europe to contain France and prevent it from overpowering weaker nations. The participants in the Congress of Vienna believed that the return of the former monarchs would stabilize political relations among the nations. The Congress of Vienna was a political triumph in many ways. For the first time, the nations of an entire continent had cooperated to control political affairs. The settlements they agreed upon were fair enough that no country was left bearing a grudge. Therefore, the Congress did not sow the seeds of future wars. In that sense, it was more successful than many other peace meetings in history. By agreeing to come to one another's aid in case of threats to peace, the European nations had temporarily ensured that there would be a balance of power on the continent. The Congress of Vienna, then, created a time of peace in Europe. It was a lasting peace. None of the five great powers wages war on one another for nearly 40 years, when Britain and France fought Russia in the Crimean War.

Guerrillas

For six years, bands of Spanish peasant fighters, know as guerrillas, struck at French armies in Spain. The guerrillas were not an army that Napoleon could defeat in open battle. Rather, they worked in small groups that ambushed French troops and then fled into hiding. The British added to the French troubles by sending troops to aid the Spanish. Napoleon lost about 300,000 men during this Peninsular War- so called because Spain lies on the Iberian Peninsula. These losses weakened the French Empire. Like the Spanish guerrillas, Germans and Italians and other conquered peoples turned against the French.

Lycees

Government run public schools. These lycees were open to male students of all backgrounds. Graduates were appointed to public office on the basis of merit rather than family connections.

Battle of Austerlitz

Having abandoned his imperial ambitions in the New World, Napoleon turned his attention to Europe. He had already annexed the Austrian Netherlands and parts of Italy to France and set up a puppet government in Switzerland. Now he looked to expand his influence further. Fearful of his ambitions, the British persuaded Russia, Austria, and Sweden to join them against France. Napoleon met this challenge with his usual boldness. In a series of brilliant battles, he crushed the opposition. The commanders of the enemy armies could never predict his next move and often took heavy losses. After the battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Napoleon issued a proclamation expressing his pride in his troops.

Napoleon's battles (section 3)

Having abandoned his imperial ambitions in the New World, Napoleon turned his attention to Europe. He had already annexed the Austrian Netherlands and parts of Italy to France and set up a puppet government in Switzerland. Now he looked to expand his influence further. Fearful of his ambitions, the British persuaded Russia, Austria, and Sweden to join them against France. Napoleon met this challenge with his usual boldness. In a series of brilliant battles, he crushed the opposition. The commanders of the enemy armies could never predict his next move and often took heavy losses. After the battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Napoleon issued a proclamation expressing his pride in his troops. In time, Napoleon's battlefield successes forced the rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia to sign peace treaties. These successes also enabled him to build the largest European empire since that of the Romans. France's only major enemy left undefeated was the great naval power, Britain. During the first decade of the 1800's, Napoleon's victories had given him mastery over most of Europe. By 1812, the only areas of Europe free from Napoleon's control were Britain, Portugal, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire. In addition to the lands of French Empire, Napoleon also controlled numerous supposedly independent countries. These included Spain, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and a number of German kingdoms in Central Europe. The rulers of these countries were Napoleon's puppets; some, in fact, were member of his family. Furthermore, the powerful countries of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were loosely attached to Napoleon's empire through alliances. Although not totally under Napoleon's control, they were easily manipulated by threats of military action. The French Empire was huge but unstable. Napoleon was able to maintain it at its greatest extent for only five years- from 1807 to 1812. Then it quickly fell to pieces. Its sudden collapse was caused in part Napoleon's actions.

Francisco Goya

His painting, The Third of May, 1808 shows a French firing squad executing Spanish peasants suspected of being guerrillas.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

In 1789, when the ideas of the Revolution reached the planters in Saint Domingue, they demanded that the National Assembly give them the same privileges as the people of France. Eventually, enslaved Africans in the colony demanded their rights too- in other words, their freedom. A civil war erupted, and enslaved Africans under the leadership of Toussaint L'Overture seized control of the colony. In 1801, Napoleon decided to take back the colony and restore its productive sugar industry. However, the French forces were devastated by disease. And the rebels proved to be fierce fighters.

Joseph

In 1808 Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This outraged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings.

Napoleon's second Mistake

In 1808 Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This outraged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings. The Spanish, who were devoutly catholic, also worried that Napoleon would attack the Church. They had seen how the French revolution had weakened the Catholic Church in France, and they feared that the same thing would happen to the church in Spain. For six years, bands of Spanish peasant fighters, know as guerrillas, struck at French armies in Spain. The guerrillas were not an army that Napoleon could defeat in open battle. Rather, they worked in small groups that ambushed French troops and then fled into hiding. The British added to the French troubles by sending troops to aid the Spanish. Napoleon lost about 300,000 men during this Peninsular War- so called because Spain lies on the Iberian Peninsula. These losses weakened the French Empire.

Peninsular War

In 1808 Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This outraged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings. The Spanish, who were devoutly catholic, also worried that Napoleon would attack the Church. They had seen how the French revolution had weakened the Catholic Church in France, and they feared that the same thing would happen to the church in Spain. For six years, bands of Spanish peasant fighters, know as guerrillas, struck at French armies in Spain. The guerrillas were not an army that Napoleon could defeat in open battle. Rather, they worked in small groups that ambushed French troops and then fled into hiding. The British added to the French troubles by sending troops to aid the Spanish. Napoleon lost about 300,000 men during this Peninsular War- so called because Spain lies on the Iberian Peninsula. These losses weakened the French Empire. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America) seized control of many colonies in the Americas. When the Congress of Vienna restored the king to the Spanish throne, royalist peninsulares (colonists born in Spain) tried to regain control of these colonial governments.

French Revolution

In 1808 Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This outraged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings. The Spanish, who were devoutly catholic, also worried that Napoleon would attack the Church. They had seen how the French revolution had weakened the Catholic Church in France, and they feared that the same thing would happen to the church in Spain. The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with other nations of Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution. Despite their efforts to undo the French Revolution, the leaders at the Congress of Vienna could not turn back the clock. The revolution had given Europe its first new political experiment in democratic government. Although the experiment had failed, it had set new political ideas in motion. The major political upheavals of the early 1800's had their roots in the French Revolution. Ideas about the basis of power and authority had changed permanently as a result of the French Revolution. More and more people saw democracy as the best way to ensure equality and justice for all. The French revolution, then, changed the social attitudes and assumptions that had dominated Europe for centuries. A new era had begun. Metternich distrusted the democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Across Europe, conservatives held firm control of the governments, but they could not contain the ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. France after 1815 was deeply divided politically. Conservatives were happy with the monarchy of Louis XVIII and were determined to make it last. Liberals, however, wanted the king to share more power with the legislature. And many people in the lower classes remained committed to the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Similarly, in other countries there was an explosive mixture of ideas and factions that would contribute directly to revolutions in 1830 and 1848.

scorched-earth policy

In June 1812, napoleon and his Grand Army of more than 420,000 soldiers marched into Russia. As napoleon advanced, Alexander pulled back his troops, refusing to be lured into an unequal battle. On this retreat, the Russians practiced a scorched-earth policy. This involved burning grain fields and slaughtering live stock so as to leave nothing for the enemy to eat.

Grand Army

In June 1812, napoleon and his Grand Army of more than 420,000 soldiers marched into Russia. As napoleon advanced, Alexander pulled back his troops, refusing to be lured into an unequal battle. On this retreat, the Russians practiced a scorched-earth policy. This involved burning grain fields and slaughtering live stock so as to leave nothing for the enemy to eat. As the snows-and the temperature-began to fall in early November, Russian raiders mercilessly attacked napoleon's ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow (Battle of Borodino) had devastated the Grand Army-only 10,000 soldiers were left to fight.

Blockade

In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade- a forcible closing of ports- to prevent all trade and communications between Great Britain and other European Nations. Napoleon called this policy the Continental System because it was supposed to make continental Europe more self-sufficient. Napoleon also intended it to destroy Great Britain's commercial and industrial economy. Napoleon's blockade, however, was not nearly tight enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times, Napoleon's allies also disregarded the blockade. Even members of Napoleon's family defied the policy, including his brother, Luis, whom he made the king of Holland. While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own blockade. And because the British had a stronger navy, they were better able than the French to make the blockade work. To enforce the blockade, the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and forced them to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed. American ships were among those stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U.S. congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the war of 1812 lasted two years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon.

Napoleon's First Mistake

In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade- a forcible closing of ports- to prevent all trade and communications between Great Britain and other European Nations. Napoleon called this policy the Continental System because it was supposed to make continental Europe more self-sufficient. Napoleon also intended it to destroy Great Britain's commercial and industrial economy. Napoleon's blockade, however, was not nearly tight enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times, Napoleon's allies also disregarded the blockade. Even members of Napoleon's family defied the policy, including his brother, Luis, whom he made the king of Holland. While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own blockade. And because the British had a stronger navy, they were better able than the French to make the blockade work. To enforce the blockade, the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and forced them to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed. American ships were among those stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U.S. congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the war of 1812 lasted two years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon.

War of 1812

In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade- a forcible closing of ports- to prevent all trade and communications between Great Britain and other European Nations. Napoleon called this policy the Continental System because it was supposed to make continental Europe more self-sufficient. Napoleon also intended it to destroy Great Britain's commercial and industrial economy. Napoleon's blockade, however, was not nearly tight enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times, Napoleon's allies also disregarded the blockade. Even members of Napoleon's family defied the policy, including his brother, Luis, whom he made the king of Holland. While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own blockade. And because the British had a stronger navy, they were better able than the French to make the blockade work. To enforce the blockade, the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and forced them to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed. American ships were among those stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U.S. congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the war of 1812 lasted two years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon.

Continental System

In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade- a forcible closing of ports- to prevent all trade and communications between Great Britain and other European Nations. Napoleon called this policy the Continental System because it was supposed to make continental Europe more self-sufficient. Napoleon also intended it to destroy Great Britain's commercial and industrial economy. Napoleon's blockade, however, was not nearly tight enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times, Napoleon's allies also disregarded the blockade. Even members of Napoleon's family defied the policy, including his brother, Luis, whom he made the king of Holland. While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own blockade. And because the British had a stronger navy, they were better able than the French to make the blockade work. To enforce the blockade, the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and forced them to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed. American ships were among those stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U.S. congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the war of 1812 lasted two years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon. In 1808 Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This outraged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings.

Nationalism

In Spain and elsewhere, nationalism, or loyalty to one's own country, was becoming a more powerful weapon against Napoleon. People who had at first welcomed the French as their liberators now felt abused by a foreign conqueror. Like the Spanish guerrillas, Germans and Italians and other conquered peoples turned against the French.

Battle of Trafalgar

In his drive for a European empire, Napoleon lost only one major battle, the Battle of Trafalgar. This naval defeat, however, was more important than all of his victories on land. The battle took place in 1805 off the southwest coast of Spain. The British commander, Horatio Nelson, was as brilliant in warfare at sea as Napoleon was in warfare on land. In a bold maneuver, he split the larger French fleet, capturing many ships. The destruction of the French fleet had two major results. First, it ensured the supremacy of the British navy for the next 100 years. Second, it forced Napoleon to give up his plans of invading Britain. He had to look for another way to control his powerful enemy across the English Channel. Eventually, Napoleon's extravagant efforts to crush Britain would lead to his own undoing.

Leipzig

In only a few months, Napoleon managed to raise another army. However, most of his troops were untrained and ill prepared for battle. He faced the allied armies of the European powers outside the German city of Leipzig in October 1813. The allied forces easily defeated his inexperienced army and French resistance crumbled quickly. By January of 1814, the allied armies were pushing steadily toward Paris. Some two months later, King Frederick William III and Czar Alexander I of Russia led their troops in a triumphant parade through the French capital.

Frederick William III

In only a few months, Napoleon managed to raise another army. However, most of his troops were untrained and ill prepared for battle. He faced the allied armies of the European powers outside the German city of Leipzig in October 1813. The allied forces easily defeated his inexperienced army and French resistance crumbled quickly. By January of 1814, the allied armies were pushing steadily toward Paris. Some two months later, King Frederick William III and Czar Alexander I of Russia led their troops in a triumphant parade through the French capital. The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with other nations of Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution

Hundred Days

In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussians army arrived. Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way. And the British and Prussians forced chased them from the battlefield. This defeat ended Napoleon's last bid for power, called the Hundred Days. Taking no chances this time, the British shipped Napoleon to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. There, he lived in lonely exile for sic years, writing his memoirs. He died in 1821 of a stomach ailment, perhaps cancer.

St. Helena

In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussians army arrived. Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way. And the British and Prussians forced chased them from the battlefield. This defeat ended Napoleon's last bid for power, called the Hundred Days. Taking no chances this time, the British shipped Napoleon to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. There, he lived in lonely exile for sic years, writing his memoirs. He died in 1821 of a stomach ailment, perhaps cancer.

Louis XVI, XVII, and XVIII

Louis XVI's brother assumed the throne as Louis XVIII. (The executed king's son, Louis XVII, had died in prison in 1795.) However, the new king quickly became unpopular among his subjects, especially the peasants. They suspected him of wanting to undo the revolution's land reforms.

Napoleon's Downfall Continued

Louis XVI's brother assumed the throne as Louis XVIII. (The executed king's son, Louis XVII, had died in prison in 1795.) However, the new king quickly became unpopular among his subjects, especially the peasants. They suspected him of wanting to undo the revolution's land reforms. The news of Louis's troubles as all the incentive Napoleon needed to try to regain power. He escaped from Elba and, on March 1, 1815, landed in France. Joyous crowds welcomed him on the march to Paris. And thousands of volunteers swelled the ranks of his army. Within days, Napoleon was again emperor of France. In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussians army arrived. Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way. And the British and Prussians forced chased them from the battlefield. This defeat ended Napoleon's last bid for power, called the Hundred Days. Taking no chances this time, the British shipped Napoleon to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. There, he lived in lonely exile for sic years, writing his memoirs. He died in 1821 of a stomach ailment, perhaps cancer. Without doubt, Napoleon was a military genius and a brilliant administrator. Yet all his victories and other achievements must be measured against the millions of lives that were lost in his wars. The French writer Alexis de Tocqueville summed up Napoleon's character by saying, "he was as great as a man can be without virtue." Napoleon's defeat opened the door for the freed European countries to establish a new order. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America) seized control of many colonies in the Americas.

balance of power

Metternich had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he wanted to prevent future aggression by surrounding France with strong countries. Second, he wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others. Third, he wanted to restore Europe's royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon's conquests. Although the leaders of Europe wanted to weaken France, they did not want to leave it powerless. If they severely punished France, they might encourage the French to take revenge. If they broke up France, then another country might become so strong that it would threaten them all. Thus, the victorious powers did not exact a great price from the defeated nation. As a result, France remained a major but diminished European power. Also, no country in Europe could easily overpower another.

five great powers

Most of the decisions made in Vienna during the winter of 1814-1815 were made in secret among representatives of the five "great powers"-Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and France. By far the most influential of these representatives was the foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich. By agreeing to come to one another's aid in case of threats to peace, the European nations had temporarily ensured that there would be a balance of power on the continent. The Congress of Vienna, then, created a time of peace in Europe. It was a lasting peace. None of the five great powers wages war on one another for nearly 40 years, when Britain and France fought Russia in the Crimean War.

Klemens von Metternich

Most of the decisions made in Vienna during the winter of 1814-1815 were made in secret among representatives of the five "great powers"-Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and France. By far the most influential of these representatives was the foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich. Metternich distrusted the democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Like most other European aristocrats, he felt that Napoleon's behavior had been a natural outcome of experiments with democracy. Metternich wanted to keep things as they were and remarks, "the first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of laws-never their change". Metternich had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he wanted to prevent future aggression by surrounding France with strong countries. Second, he wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others. Third, he wanted to restore Europe's royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon's conquests. The Congress of Vienna was a victory for conservatives. Kings and princes resumed power in country after country, in keeping with Metternich's goals. A series of alliances devised by Metternich, called the Concert of Europe, ensured that nations would help one another if any revolutions broke out.

Napoleonic Code

Napoleon thought that his greatest work was his comprehensive system of laws, know as the Napoleonic Code. This gave the country a uniform set of laws and eliminated many injustices. However, it actually limited liberty and promoted order and authority over individual rights. For example, freedom of speech and of the press, established during the revolution, were restricted under the code, the code also restored slavery in the French colonies of the Caribbean.

Elba

Napoleon wanted to fight on (battle at Leipzig), but his generals refused. In April 1814, he accepted the terms of surrender and gave up his throne. The victors gave Napoleon a small pension and exiled, or banished, him to Elba, a tiny island off the Italian coast. The allies expected no further trouble from Napoleon, but they were wrong. The news of Louis's troubles as all the incentive Napoleon needed to try to regain power. He escaped from Elba and, on March 1, 1815, landed in France. Joyous crowds welcomed him on the march to Paris. And thousands of volunteers swelled the ranks of his army. Within days, Napoleon was again emperor of France.

Saint Domingue

Napoleon was not content simply to be master of France. He wanted to control the rest of Europe and to reassert French power in the Americas. He envisioned his western empire including Louisiana, Florida, French Guiana, and the French West Indies. He knew that the key to this area was the sugar producing colony of Saint Domingue (now called Haiti) on the island of Hispaniola. In 1789, when the ideas of the Revolution reached the planters in Saint Domingue, they demanded that the National Assembly give them the same privileges as the people of France. Eventually, enslaved Africans in the colony demanded their rights too- in other words, their freedom. A civil war erupted, and enslaved Africans under the leadership of Toussaint L'Overture seized control of the colony. In 1801, Napoleon decided to take back the colony and restore its productive sugar industry. However, the French forces were devastated by disease. And the rebels proved to be fierce fighters. After the failure of the expedition to Saint Domingue, Napoleon decided to cut his losses in the Americas. He offered to sell all of the Louisiana Territory to the United States, and in 1803 President Jefferson's administration agreed to purchase the land for 15 million. Napoleon saw a twofold benefit to the sale. First, he would gain money to finance operations in Europe. Second, he would punish the British. "The sale assures forever the power of the United States," he observed, "and I have given England a rival who, sooner or later, will humble her pride."

more on Napoleon from section 4

Napoleon worried about what would happen to his vast empire after his death. He feared it would fall apart unless he had an heir whose right to succeed him was undisputed. His wife, Josephine, had failed to beat him a child. He, therefore, divorced her and formed an alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise, the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome. National Convention In October 1795, when royalist rebels marched on the national convention, a government official told napoleon to defend the delegates. Napoleon and his gunners greeted the thousands of royalists with a cannonade. Within minutes, the attackers fled in panic and confusion. Napoleon Bonaparte became the hero of the hour and was hailed throughout Paris as the savior of the French republic. Napoleon's own personality proved to be the greatest danger to the future of his empire. His desire for power had raised him to great heights, and the same love of power led him to his doom. In his efforts to extend the French Empire and crush Great Britain, Napoleon made three disastrous mistakes.

Horatio Nelson

Napoleon's army was pinned down in Egypt and the British admiral Horatio Nelson defeated his naval forces. However, napoleon manages to keep stories about his setbacks out of the newspapers and thereby remained a great hero to the people of France. In his drive for a European empire, Napoleon lost only one major battle, the Battle of Trafalgar. This naval defeat, however, was more important than all of his victories on land. The battle took place in 1805 off the southwest coast of Spain. The British commander, Horatio Nelson, was as brilliant in warfare at sea as Napoleon was in warfare on land. In a bold maneuver, he split the larger French fleet, capturing many ships. The destruction of the French fleet had two major results. First, it ensured the supremacy of the British navy for the next 100 years. Second, it forced Napoleon to give up his plans of invading Britain. He had to look for another way to control his powerful enemy across the English Channel. Eventually, Napoleon's extravagant efforts to crush Britain would lead to his own undoing.

Luis

Napoleon's brother. Napoleon made him the king of Holland.

Napoleon's Downfall

Napoleon's enemies were quick to take advantage of his weakness. Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden joined forces against him. Austria also declared war on Napoleon, despite his marriage to Marie Louise. All of the main powers of Europe were now at war with France. In only a few months, Napoleon managed to raise another army. However, most of his troops were untrained and ill prepared for battle. He faced the allied armies of the European powers outside the German city of Leipzig in October 1813. The allied forces easily defeated his inexperienced army and French resistance crumbled quickly. By January of 1814, the allied armies were pushing steadily toward Paris. Some two months later, King Frederick William III and Czar Alexander I of Russia led their troops in a triumphant parade through the French capital. Napoleon wanted to fight on, but his generals refused. In April 1814, he accepted the terms of surrender and gave up his throne. The victors gave Napoleon a small pension and exiled, or banished, him to Elba, a tiny island off the Italian coast. The allies expected no further trouble from Napoleon, but they were wrong.

Josephine

Napoleon's first wife. she failed to bear any children and was thus divorced by Napoleon.

Alexander I

Napoleon's most disastrous mistake of all came in 1812. Even though Alexander I had become Napoleon's ally, the Russian czar refused to stop selling grain to Britain. In addition, the French and Russian rulers suspected each other of having competing designs on Poland. Because of this breakdown in their alliance, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. In June 1812, napoleon and his Grand Army of more than 420,000 soldiers marched into Russia. As napoleon advanced, Alexander pulled back his troops, refusing to be lured into an unequal battle. On this retreat, the Russians practiced a scorched-earth policy. This involved burning grain fields and slaughtering live stock so as to leave nothing for the enemy to eat. On September 7, 1812, the two armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino. After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When napoleon entered Moscow seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia's "holy city" to the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France. In only a few months, Napoleon managed to raise another army. However, most of his troops were untrained and ill prepared for battle. He faced the allied armies of the European powers outside the German city of Leipzig in October 1813. The allied forces easily defeated his inexperienced army and French resistance crumbled quickly. By January of 1814, the allied armies were pushing steadily toward Paris. Some two months later, King Frederick William III and Czar Alexander I of Russia led their troops in a triumphant parade through the French capital. The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with other nations of Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution.

Napoleon's Third Mistake

Napoleon's most disastrous mistake of all came in 1812. Even though Alexander I had become Napoleon's ally, the Russian czar refused to stop selling grain to Britain. In addition, the French and Russian rulers suspected each other of having competing designs on Poland. Because of this breakdown in their alliance, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. In June 1812, napoleon and his Grand Army of more than 420,000 soldiers marched into Russia. As napoleon advanced, Alexander pulled back his troops, refusing to be lured into an unequal battle. On this retreat, the Russians practiced a scorched-earth policy. This involved burning grain fields and slaughtering live stock so as to leave nothing for the enemy to eat. The Directory In 1796, the Directory appointed Napoleon Bonaparte to lead a French army against the forces of Austria and the kingdom of Sardinia. By 1999, the Directory had lost control of the political situation and the confidence of the French people. When napoleon returned from Egypt, his friends urged him to seize political power. He took action in early November 1799. Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature and drove out most of its members. The lawmakers who remained then voted to dissolve the Directory. In its place, they established a group of three consuls, one of whom was Napoleon. Napoleon quickly took the title of first consul and assumer the powers of a dictator.

Battle of Borodino

On September 7, 1812, the two armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino. After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When napoleon entered Moscow seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia's "holy city" to the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France. As the snows-and the temperature-began to fall in early November, Russian raiders mercilessly attacked napoleon's ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow had devastated the Grand Army-only 10,000 soldiers were left to fight.

Moscow

On September 7, 1812, the two armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino. After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When napoleon entered Moscow seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia's "holy city" to the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France. As the snows-and the temperature-began to fall in early November, Russian raiders mercilessly attacked napoleon's ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow had devastated the Grand Army-only 10,000 soldiers were left to fight.

Napoleon in battle of Borodino

On September 7, 1812, the two armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino. After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When napoleon entered Moscow seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia's "holy city" to the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France. As the snows-and the temperature-began to fall in early November, Russian raiders mercilessly attacked napoleon's ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow had devastated the Grand Army-only 10,000 soldiers were left to fight.

Concordat

One area where Napoleon disregarded changes introduced by the revolution was religion. Both the clergy and many peasants wanted to restore the position of the church in France. Responding to their wishes, napoleon signed a concordat, or agreement, with Pope Pius VII. This established a new relationship between church and state. The government recognized the influence of the church, but rejected church control in national affairs. The concordat gained Napoleon the support of the organized Church as well as the majority of the French people.

United Nations

The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe tried to keep the world safe from war. The modern equivalent of these agreements is the United Nations, an international organization established in 1945 and continuing today, whose purpose is to promote world peace. Like the Congress of Vienna, the United Nations was formed by major powers after a war- World War II. These powers agreed to cooperate to reduce tensions and bring greater harmony to international relations. Throughout its history, the United Nations has used diplomacy as its chief method of keeping peace.

Nationalism (section 5)

The Congress of Vienna left a legacy that would influence world politics for the next 100 years. The continent-wide efforts to establish and maintain a balance of power diminished the size and power of France. At the same time, the power of Britain and Prussia increased. Nationalism began to spread in Italy, Germany, Greece and other areas that the Congress had put under foreign control. Eventually, the nationalistic feelings would explode into revolutions, and new nations would be formed. European colonies also responded to the power shift. Spanish colonies took advantage of the events in Europe to declare their independence and break away from Spain. At the same time, ideas about the basis of power and authority had changed permanently as a result of the French Revolution. More and more people saw democracy as the best way to ensure equality and justice for all. The French revolution, then, changed the social attitudes and assumptions that had dominated Europe for centuries. A new era had begun.

Congress of Vienna continued

The Congress of Vienna was a victory for conservatives. Kings and princes resumed power in country after country, in keeping with Metternich's goals. Nevertheless, there were important differences from one country to another. Britain and France now had constitutional monarchies. Generally speaking, however, the governments in Eastern and Central Europe were more conservative. The rules of Russia, Prussia and Austria were absolute monarchs. Despite their efforts to undo the French Revolution, the leaders at the Congress of Vienna could not turn back the clock. The revolution had given Europe its first new political experiment in democratic government. Although the experiment had failed, it had set new political ideas in motion. The major political upheavals of the early 1800's had their roots in the French Revolution. The actions of the Congress of Vienna had consequences far beyond events in Europe. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America) seized control of many colonies in the Americas. When the Congress of Vienna restored the king to the Spanish throne, royalist peninsulares (colonists born in Spain) tried to regain control of these colonial governments. The Creoles, however, attempted to retain and expand their power. In response, the Spanish king took steps to tighten control over the American colonies. The Congress of Vienna left a legacy that would influence world politics for the next 100 years. The continent-wide efforts to establish and maintain a balance of power diminished the size and power of France. At the same time, the power of Britain and Prussia increased. Nationalism began to spread in Italy, Germany, Greece and other areas that the Congress had put under foreign control. Eventually, the nationalistic feelings would explode into revolutions, and new nations would be formed. European colonies also responded to the power shift. Spanish colonies took advantage of the events in Europe to declare their independence and break away from Spain. At the same time, ideas about the basis of power and authority had changed permanently as a result of the French Revolution. More and more people saw democracy as the best way to ensure equality and justice for all. The French revolution, then, changed the social attitudes and assumptions that had dominated Europe for centuries. A new era had begun. The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe tried to keep the world safe from war. The modern equivalent of these agreements is the United Nations, an international organization established in 1945 and continuing today, whose purpose is to promote world peace. Like the Congress of Vienna, the United Nations was formed by major powers after a war- World War II. These powers agreed to cooperate to reduce tensions and bring greater harmony to international relations. Throughout its history, the United Nations has used diplomacy as its chief method of keeping peace.

Creoles

The actions of the Congress of Vienna had consequences far beyond events in Europe. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America) seized control of many colonies in the Americas. When the Congress of Vienna restored the king to the Spanish throne, royalist peninsulares (colonists born in Spain) tried to regain control of these colonial governments. The Creoles, however, attempted to retain and expand their power. In response, the Spanish king took steps to tighten control over the American colonies. This action angered the Mexicans, who rose in revolt and successfully threw off Spain's control. Other Spanish colonies in Latin America also claimed independence. At about the same time, Brazil declared independence from Portugal.

Peninsulares

The actions of the Congress of Vienna had consequences far beyond events in Europe. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America) seized control of many colonies in the Americas. When the Congress of Vienna restored the king to the Spanish throne, royalist peninsulares (colonists born in Spain) tried to regain control of these colonial governments. The Creoles, however, attempted to retain and expand their power. In response, the Spanish king took steps to tighten control over the American colonies. This action angered the Mexicans, who rose in revolt and successfully threw off Spain's control. Other Spanish colonies in Latin America also claimed independence. At about the same time, Brazil declared independence from Portugal.

Legitimacy

The great powers affirmed the principle of legitimacy-agreeing that as many as possible of the rulers whom Napoleon had driven from their thrones be restored to power. The ruling families of France, Spain, and several states in Italy and Central Europe regained their thrones. The participants in the Congress of Vienna believed that the return of the former monarchs would stabilize political relations among the nations.

Duke of Wellington

The news of Louis's troubles as all the incentive Napoleon needed to try to regain power. He escaped from Elba and, on March 1, 1815, landed in France. Joyous crowds welcomed him on the march to Paris. And thousands of volunteers swelled the ranks of his army. Within days, Napoleon was again emperor of France. In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussians army arrived. Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way. And the British and Prussians forced chased them from the battlefield.

Waterloo

The news of Louis's troubles as all the incentive Napoleon needed to try to regain power. He escaped from Elba and, on March 1, 1815, landed in France. Joyous crowds welcomed him on the march to Paris. And thousands of volunteers swelled the ranks of his army. Within days, Napoleon was again emperor of France. In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussians army arrived. Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way. And the British and Prussians forced chased them from the battlefield.

Holy Alliance

The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with other nations of Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution.

Concert of Europe

The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with other nations of Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution. Finally, a series of alliances devised by Metternich, called the Concert of Europe, ensured that nations would help one another if any revolutions broke out.

Marie Antoinette

When Napoleon divorced Josephine he then formed an alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise. She is the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In 1811, she gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome.

Napoleon II

When Napoleon divorced Josephine he then formed an alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise. She is the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In 1811, she gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome.

Marie Louise

When Napoleon divorced Josephine he then formed an alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise. She is the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In 1811, she gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome. (Austria later on declared war despite Napoleon's marriage to Marie).

National Legislature

When napoleon returned from Egypt, his friends urged him to seize political power. He took action in early November 1799. Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature and drove out most of its members. The lawmakers who remained then voted to dissolve the Directory. In its place, they established a group of three consuls, one of whom was Napoleon. Napoleon quickly took the title of first consul and assumer the powers of a dictator.

Alexis de Tocqueville

Without doubt, Napoleon was a military genius and a brilliant administrator. Yet all his victories and other achievements must be measured against the millions of lives that were lost in his wars. The French writer Alexis de Tocqueville summed up Napoleon's character by saying, "he was as great as a man can be without virtue." Napoleon's defeat opened the door for the freed European countries to establish a new order.