Chapter 23: The Modern Era of the 1920s
William Harding Domestic Policy
1) reduction in the income tax 2) an increase in tariff rates under Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act of 1922. 3) establishment of Bureau of the Budget with procedures for all government expenditures to be placed in a single budget for Congress to vote on.
Henry Ford Assembly Line
1914- perfected system for manufacturing cars by means of an assembly line. Instead of losing time moving around a factory as in the past, Ford's workers remained at one place all day, doing to the same step quickly,
Marcus Garvey
1916- United Negro Improvement Ass. brought to Harlem from Jamaica by charasmatic immigrant, _____________- who advocated for individual and racial pride for __________ and developed political ideas of black nationalism. Going beyond efforts of DuBois, ____________- established organization for black separatism, economic self-sufficiency and back-to Africa movement. His sale of stock in Black Star Steamship line led to federal charges of fraud --> 1925 jailed and later deported to Jamaica and his movement collapsed.
18th Amendment
1919- prohibited manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages, including liquor, wines, and beers. Federal law that enforced it: Volstead Act.
Calvin Coolidge
1919-was MA Governor who broke Boston police strike. Said very few things, thinking if you don't say anything, you won't be called on to repeat it. Summarized his presidency and the era in this phrase "the business of American is business."
Sport superstars
1920s- Knockouts of heavyweight boxer Jack Dempsey Swimmer Gertrude Ederle Football- Jim Thorpe Baseball- Babe Ruth Golf- Bobby Jones
Harlem Renaissance
1930- almost 20% of AA lived in N as migration from S continued. In the North, AA still faced discrimination in housing and jobs, but found at least some improvement in earnings and material standard of living. Largest AA community developed in __________- in NYC. Had a population of almost 200K by 1930. Became famous in 1920a for its concentration of talented actors, artists, musicians, and writers. Their artistic achievements --> ________.
21st Amendment
1933- Repealed 18th
______% in manufacturing output between 1919-1929
64%
Musicians
AA jazz musicians such as Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong were so popular among ALL races that 1920a is often called Jazz Age. Other great performers include blues singer Bessie Smith and singer and actor Paul Robeson. These artists performed in front of integrated audiences in Harlem, but segregated audiences in rest of U.S.
Kellog-Briand Pact
AM Women took lead in a peace movement committed to outlaw future wars. The movement achieved its greatest success in 1928 with signing of treaty arranged by U.S. SOS Frank Kellogg and FR foreign minister Aristide Briand. Almost all nations of the world agreed to sign ________________ which renounced aggressive use of force to achieve national ends. The international agreement would prove ineffective since it 1) permitted defensive wars 2) faired to provide for taking actions against violators of the agreement.
Rival groups of gangsters, including Chicago gang headed by _______ fought for control of __________. Organized crime became big business. The millions made from sale of illegal ooze allowed _____ to expand other illegal activities: _______________
Al Capone; lucrative bootlegging trade, gangs, prostitution, gambling, and narcotics.
Nine-Power Treaty .
All nine nations represented at the conference agreed to respect the Open Door policy by guaranteeing the territorial integrity of China
KKK: Decline
At first majority of native-born white AM appeared to tolerate b/c it vowed to uphold high standards of Christian morality and drive out bootleggers, gamblers, and adulterers. Beginning I 1923: investigative reports in N press reveal;ed fraud and corruption in KKK were rife. 1925- ID leader Grand Dragon David Stephenson (WHAT KIND OF NAME IS THAT) convicted of murder --> influence and membership declined quickly.
Divorce
Because of women's suffrage, state lawmakers now forced to listen to feminists who demanded changes to divorce laws to permit women to escape abusive and incompatible husbands. Liberalized divorce laws --> 1 in 6 marriages ended in divorce by 1930 (was 1 in 8 in 1920).
Energy Technologies
Cause of economic growth was an increase in use of oil and electricity although coal was still used for RR and heat most homes. Oil was used more and more to power factories and to provide gas for quickly increasing numbers of cars. 1930- oil accounted for 23% of U.S. energy (up 3% from 1900). Electric motors in factories and new appliances at home increased electrical generation over 300% during the decade.
New Culture
Census of 1920 said 50%+ of AM lived in urban areas. Culture of cities based on popular tastes, morals, and habits of mass consumption were increasingly at odds with strict religious and moral codes of rural U.S. Moralists of 1920s blamed car "a bordello on wheels" for breakdown of morals, especially among young. Soon music, dances, music, and fashion were added to list.
Movie Industry
Centered in Hollywood, duh became big business in 1920s. Going to movies became national habit in cities, suburbs, and small towns. Movie stars like Greta Garbo and Rudolf Valentino idolized by millions. Elaborate movie theater "palaces" were built for general public. Sound pictures in 1927, movie industry reached new heights. By 1929 over 80M tickets to latest Hollywood movies sold each week.
Impact of the Automobile
Changed society more than anything; by 1929 26.5 M automobiles were registered, compared to 1.2M by 1913. Enormous increase in car sales meant by end of decade, nearly one car per AM family. In economic terms, production of cars replaced RR industry as key promoter of economic growth. Other industries -- steel, glass, rubber, gasoline, and highway construction --- now depend on car sales. In social terms, cars affected all Americans: shopping, traveling for pleasure, commuting to work, even dating. New problems: traffic in cities, injuries, and death.
CBS
Columbia Broadcasting System (1927)
Increased Productivity
Companies made greater use of research, <--> their use of Frederick W. Taylor's time-and- motion studies and principles of scientific management. Manufactoring process was more efficient by the adoption of improved methods of mass production. Henry Ford's Assembly Line 1920s- most major industries adopted assembly lines and realized major gains in worker productivity.
Vetoes and Inaction
Coolidge believed in limited government that stood aside while business conducted its own affairs. Little was accomplished in WH besides keeping a close eye on the budget. He cut spending to the bone and vetoed acts of the Republican majority in Congress. He vetoed the McNary-Haugen Bill of 1928 that would of helped farmers as crop prices fell and refused to give bonuses for WWI vets.
Election of 1928
Coolidge declined to run, Repbs turned to able, spotless reputation, self-made M, and SO Commerce, Herbert Hoover who had served Wilson, Harding, and Coolidge in administrative roles, but never ran for office. Dems nominated NY give Alfred E. Smith who was a Roman catholic and against Prohibition. He appealed to immigrants, Protestant were against him. Republicans boasted of "Coolidge of Prosperity" which Hoover promised to extend. Hoover won big, even getting some S electoral votes as TX, Fl, and VA and the taste of prosperity and gene`ral dislike for Smith's religion outweighed their usual allegiance to Dems.
Election of 1924
Coolidge was the overwhelming choice of Republican party; Dems nominated conservative lawyer from WV, John W. Davis and tried to make Teapot Dome scandal an issue. Liberals formed new Progressive Party as they were unhappy with the conservative dominance in both parties, nominated Robert La Follete of WI.
Election of 1924 Results
Coolidge won easily but Progressive Party did really well for a 3rd party with nearly 5M votes from discontented farmers and laborers.
Literature
Criticized religion as hypocritical, condemned sacrifices of wartime as fraud perpetrated by money interests were 2 dominant themes of leading writers of post war decade.
Affect of 19th Amendment
Did not change women's lives or U.S. politics as much as anticipated. Women did not vote as a bloc, adopted party preferences of their husbands or fathers SEXISM!!!!LIKE THE 2016 ELECTION
Farm Problems
Didn't share in prosperity. Best years 1916-1918 when crop prices had been kept artificially high by 1) wartime demand in ER and 2) U,S, government's wartime policy of guaranteeing a minimum price for wheat and corn. When war ended, farm prosperity ended too. Farmers who borrowed heavily to <--> during war now left with heavy burden of debt. New technologies (chemical fertilizers, gasoline tractors) helped farmers increase their production in the 1920s, but didn't solve issues. Productivity increased debts as growing surpluses produced falling prices.
Other AA leaders reaction of Marcus Garvey
Du Bois and other AA leaders disagreed with his back- to Africa idea, but endorsed his emphasis on racial pride and self-respect. In 1960s, his thinking helped to inspire later gen. to embrace the cause of black pride and nationalism.
Examples of Painters
Edward Hopper
Consumer Economy
Electricity in homes enabled millions of AM to buy new consumer appliances od the peace like refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines. Cars were more affordable and sold by the millions, making horse and big era over with. Advertising <--> as businesses found that consumer's demand for new products could be manipulated by appealing to their desires for status and popularity. Stores increased sales of new appliances and cars by allowing customers to buy on credit. Consumers faced more "easy monthly payments" than they could afford, they curtailed buying, contributing to the collapse of the economic boom.
KKK (DISGUSTING) Tactics
Employed many methods for terrorizing and intimidating anyone un-American. Wore white hoods to disguise identity. Burned crosses and applied vigilante justice, punishing victims with whips, tars, and feathers, even hangman's noose. HEYDAY: in early 1920s; developed strong political influence, in ID and TX its support became crucial for candidates hoping to win state and local elections.
Scopes Trial
Entire nation followed it both by radio and newspaper. Defending scopes was famous lawyer Clarence Darrow. Representing fundamentalists, 3x Dem POTUS nominee WJB, who testified as an expert of Bible.
Revivalists on the Radio
Ever since GA, religious revivals swept through U.S. every now and then. __________- of the 1920s preached a fundamentalist message but did so for the 1st time making full use of the radio. The leading radio evangelists were Billy Sunday who drew large crowds as he attacked drinking, gambling, and dancing; and Aimee Semple McPherson who condemned town evils of communism and jazz music from Los Angeles.
Quota Acts with Latinos and Canadians
Exempt from restrictions, 500K MX migrated legally to SW in 1920s.
Architecture
Fusion of art and technology in 20s and 30s created new profession of industrial designers. Influenced by Art Deco and streamlining styles, they created functional products from toasters to locomotives that had aesthetic appeal.
Government Policy
Govt at all levels in the 1920s favored growth of big businesses by offering corporate tax cuts and doing almost nothing to enforce antitrust laws of Prog era. Large tax cuts for higher income AM --> imbalance in incomes and increased speculation in markets. The Federal Reserve --> overheated economic boom 1st through low interest rates and relaxed regulation of banks and then by tightening $ supply at wrong time.
Examples of regional artists
Grant Wood and Thomas Hart Benton
Scandals and Death of Warren Harding's Presidency
Harding had appointed some incompetent and dishonest men to fill important positions. Secretary of Interior Albert B. Fall and Atty. Gen Harry M Daugherty. 1924- Congress discovered that Fall had accepted bribes for granting oil leases near Teapot Dome, WY. Daugherty took bribes for agreeing not to prosecute certain criminal suspects.
Harding and the Scandals effects
He died before the public discovered these; was never implicated on these.
Warren Harding's few good choices
He recognized his limitations and hoped to address them by appointing able men to his cabinet. Appointed former POTUS candidate and SC Justice Charles Evans Hughes to be secretary of state Admired former mining engineer and Food Administration leader Herbert Hoover to be secretary of commerce Pittsburgh industrialist and millionaire Andrew Mellon to be secretary of treasury Filled open Chief Justice SC spot with the Tafter.
Jazz Age
High School and college youth expressed rebellion against elders culture by dancing to jazz. Jazz was brought north by AA musicians, jazz became symbol of new and modern culture of cities. Proliferation of phonographs and radios made new style of music available to huge and mainly youthful public.
Popular Heroes
In the past, politicians like William Jennings Bryan, Teddy R, and WW had been viewed as heroes. AM radically shifted viewpoint and adopted as role models the larger than life personalities, athletes and movie stars/
Art on the Stage
Jewish immigrants played a major role int he development of American musical theatre during this era. For example composer George Gershwin (son of Russian-Jewish immigrants) blended jazz and classical music in the symphonic Rhapsody in Blue and the folk opera Porgy and Bess.
Poets
Leading Harlem poets included Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, James Weldon Johnson, and Claude McKay. Commented on AA heritage, their poems included range of emotions from bitterness and resentment to joy and hope.
Case of Sacco and Vanzetti
Liberal AM artists and intellectuals were few in #, but loudly protested against racist and nativist prejudices. They rallied to support of 2 Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti who in 1921 were convicted in MA court of robbery and murder. Liberals protested that they were innocent and were accused, convicted, and sentenced to die because they were poor Italians and anarchists. After 6 years of appeals and national/inter debates over fairness of trial, they were executed in 1927.
First Quota Law of 1921
Limited immigration 3% of # of foreign born persons from a given nation counted in 1910 Census (max of 357k).
Skyscrapers
Many skyscrapers were built to Art Deco style that captured modernist simplification of forms whole using machine age materials. Chrysler and Empire State Building in NY
Political Discord and Repeal
Most Republicans publicly supported "noble experiment" of Prohibition (privately most drank). Democrats were divided on the issue while southerners supporting it and northern city politicians calling for repeal. 18th supporters pointed to decline in alcoholism and alcohol related deaths, but as years passed, they gradually weakened in face of growing public resentment and clear evidence of increased criminal actitivt. W/ coming of GD, economic arguments for repeal --> 1933 21st amendment
NBC
National Broadcasting Company (1924)
1. Five-Power Treaty
Nations with the five largest navies agreed to main tain the following ratio with respect to their largest warships, or battleships: the United States, 5; Great Britain, 5; Japan, 3; France, 1.67; Italy, 1.67. Britain and the United States also agreed not to fortify their possessions in the Pacific, while no limit was placed on the Japanese.
Warren Harding
Newspaper publisher; well-liked among Republicans who he usually played poker with. He was less than presidential as a leader. Party nominated him in a smoke-filled room as a compromise choice at the Republican national convention of 1920.
Jane Addams won
Nobel Peace Prize in 1931
Nativism
Over 1M immigrants entered U.S. between 1919-1921 after a stoppage during WWI. New arrivals were mainly Catholics and Jews from E and S ER. Nativist prejudices of native-born Protestants were aroused. Workers feared job competition. Isolationissts wanted minimal contact with ER and feared immigration might --> forment revolution. In response, Congress passed the Quota Laws.
Art
Painters were inspired by architecture of American cities to explore loneliness and isolation of urban life. Regional artists celebrated the rural people and scenes of heartland of America.
Women in Labor Force
Participation of women in workforce remained same as before war. Employed women usually lived in cities were limit to certain categories of jobs, clerks, nurses, teachers, and domestics and received lower wages than men.
Mixed Economic Development
Politics took a backseat in the 1920s as AMs adapted economic growth and social changes. During the boom years, the unemployment rate was usually below 4%. Standard of living for most improved. Indoor plumbing and central heating became commonplace and by 1930 2/3 of all homes had electricity. Real income for middle and working class increased. But, 1920s-40%+ of U.S. families in both rural and urban areas had incomes in poverty range, struggling to live on less than $1,500. Farmers did not share in this prosperity.
Scandals and Corruption post WWI like
Post Civil War with Ulysses S. Grant
Defying the Law
Prohibition didn't stop people from drinking alcohol either in public or at home. Especially in cities, became fashionable to defy law by going to speakeasies. City Police and judges were paid to look the other way, even elected officials like POTUS Harding served alcoholic drinks to guests. Liquors, beers, and wines were readily available fro, bootleggers smuggling them in from Canada or making them in garages/basements.
Fundamentalism
Protestant preachers in rural areas condemned modernists and taught that every word in the Bible must be accepted as literally true. Key point in __________ doctrine was that creationism (idea God created universe in 7 days) explained organ of ALL life. _________________ blamed liberal views of modernists for causing a decline in morals.
New type of medium in 1920s
Radio First commercial radio station went on air in 1920 and broadcast to a few thousand listeners. By 1930 over 800 stations broadcasted to 10M radios -- about 1/3 of all U.S. Homes. The organization of NBC and CBS provided network of radio stations that enabled people from coast to coast to listen to the same programs: news broadcasts, sporting events, soap operas, quiz shows, and comedies.
Modernism
Range of influences, changing role of women, Social Gospel movement, and scientific knowledge caused large #s of Protestants to define their faith in new ways. _______ took a historical and critical view of certain parts of Bible and believed they could accept Darwin's theory of evolution without abandoning religious faith.
Disarmament and Peace
Republican POTUS of 1920s tried to promote peace and also scale back expenditures on defense by arranging treaties of disarmament.
Business Doctrine
Republican leadership in 1920s did not preach laissez faire economic, but accepted the idea of limited government regulation as an aid to stabilizing business.
When good old Teddy died
Return of old-guard conservative Republicans.
Washington Conference (1921)
SOS Charles Evans Hughes initiated talks on naval disarmament hoped to stabilize size of U.S. Navy relative to that of other powers and resolve conflicts in Pacific. Reps to the _____________- came from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, and Portugal. They agreed to 3 treaties to relive tensions. 5,4,9 power treaties
Aftermath of Scope Trial
Scopes was convicted, but conviction was later overturned on a technicality. Laws banning teaching of evolution remained on books for years, though rarely enforced. N press asserted Darrow and modernists had theology discredited fundamentalism, but question between religion and public schools remained controversial and unresolved.
Quota Acts
Severely limited immigration by setting quotas based on nationality. Although Quotas for all ER and Asian nationalists, they chiefly restricted groups considered undesirable by the nativists. By 1927, the quota for all Asians and E and S ER had been limited to 150K, with all JP immigrants barred. The U.S. policy of unlimited immigration ended.
Second Quota Law of 1924
To reduce # of immigrants from S and E ER, Congress passed ______ that set quotas of 2% based on Census of 1890 ( before new immigrant arrival).
Women at home
Traditional separation of labor between men and women continued in 1920s. Most middle class women expected to spend their lives as homemakers and mothers. Introduction into home of laborsaving devices as the washing machine and vacuum cleaners eased but did not really change the daily routines of homemakers.
Prevailing idea of Republican party
U.S. would benefit if business and the pursuit of profits took the lead in developing the economy.
Union efforts at strikes usually failed during era strongly favoring business
United Mine Workers led by John L. Lewis suffered setbacks in series of violent and ultimately unsuccessful strokes in PA, WV, and KY. Conservative courts routinely issued injunctions against strikes and nullified labor laws aimed at protecting workers' welfare.
Ku Klux Klan-- UGH
Unlike KKK of 1860s/70s, new Klan founded in 1915 was strong in MW as in S. They attracted new members because of silent film, Birth of a Nation, portraying KKK during Reconstruction as heroes and from white backlash to race riots of 1919. They used modern ad techniques to grow to 5M by 1925. Drew most support from lower middle class Protestants in small cities and towns. N branches of KKK directed hostility against Blacks, Catholics, Jews, foreigners, and suspected communists.
Chain stores like Woolworth's and A & P, proliferated.
Variety of products were attractively displayed and often priced lower than neighborhood stores, which they threatened to displace.
Fundamentalism and the Scopes Trial
Very publicized trial in TN focused on debate between religious fundamentalists in the rural S and modernists of N cities. TN like other S states, outlawed teaching of Darwin's theory ion evolution in public schools. To challenge the constitutionality of it, American Civil Liberties Union persuaded a TN Bio teacher, John Scopes to teach it in his HS class--> arrested and tried in 1925.
Labor Issues
Wages rose during 1920s, but union movement went backward. Membership in unions declined 20% because most companies insisted on an open ship (keeping jobs. open to nonunion workers). Some companies began to practice welfare capitalism --voluntarily offering their employees improved benefits and higher wages in order to reduce their interest in organizing unions. In the S, companies used police, state militia, and local mobs to violently resist efforts to unionize textile industry.
Prohibition
Wartime concerns to conserve grain and maintain sober workforce moved Congress to pass the 18th Amendment in 1919.
Education
Widespread belief in value of education and economic prosperity stimulated more state governments to enact compulsory school laws. Universal HS education now AM goal. End of 1920s, # of HS grads doubled to over 25% of school-age young adults.
Election of 1920
William Harding: Republican; unclear on stance on every issue; only memorable phrase was his assertion to AMs. "wanted a return to normalcy" Governor of OH James Cox: urged adoption of LON
Married women were expected to _______________, _____________, and ___________________
abandon flapper look, quit their jobs, and settle down as wives and mothers.
Regulatory commissions established in Progreesive Era...
administered by appointees who were more sympathetic to business than to general public.
Margaret Sanger and other advocates for ________ achieved growing ___________ in the 20s
birth control, acceptance.
Use of contraceptives for ____________ still against the law in ________________ ___________ state.
birth control, almost every
Gertrude Stein
called the writers "a lost generation" as disillusionment was the theme
speakeasies
clubs or bars where bootleg (smuggled) liquor was sold
Flapper look
dressed hemmed at knee, not ankle. Bobbing of the hair Smoking cigarettes Driving cars
Novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and Sinclair Lewis
expressed disillusionment with ideals of earlier time and with materialism of a business oriented culture.
Plays of Eugene O'Neil
expressed disillusionment with ideals of earlier time and with materialism of a business oriented culture.
Poems of Ezra Pund and T.S. Eliot
expressed disillusionment with ideals of earlier time and with materialism of a business oriented culture.
Eliot and Hemingway
expressed sadness by moving into exile in ER.
Special fashion that set youth apart from elders
flapper look
Movies, novels, automobiles, and new dance steps (_________) encouraged greater _________.
fox- trot and Charleston, promiscuity.
Flapper look was influenced by __________ and own desires for __________-
movie actresses, own desires for independence.
Greatest change in lives of youth of 1920s:
revolt against sexual tacos. Some influenced by writings of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud who stressed role of sexual repression in mental illness. Others who might haven't heard of Freud took to premarital sex as if it were like radio and jazz music --- one of the inventions of modern age.
Most celebrated heros of the decade
young activist who in 1927 flew around the entire world by flying nonstop across Atlantic from Long Island to Paris. Ams listened to radio for news of Charles Lindbergh's flight and when he came back he got ticker tape parades larger than returning WWI vets.
Divisions of 1920s
young vs old urban modernists vs rural fundamentalists prohibitionists vs anti nativists vs foreign born
2.Four-PowerTreaty
TheUnitedStates,France,GreatBritain,andJapan agreed to respect one another's territory in the Pacific.
William Harding's Surprising Domestic Policy
Surprised his conservative allies by pardoning and releasing federal prisoner Socialist leader Eugene Debs who was convicted under the Espionage Act. Did so because he was generous
High school and college graduates _________ until ________
took office jobs, marriage
Fitzgerald and O'Neill
took to a life of drinking
