Chapter 3 - Biological Perspectives on Creativity

ventromedial PFC

heavily connected to limbic system

Regressive Imagery Dictionary

identifies words and phrases that are indicative of primary process thinking.

dorsolateral PFC

implements semantic memory retrieval, sustained attention, major connection with temporal, occipital, parietal (TOP) regions

Deliberate creativity

involves deliberately focusing attention on problem and putting effort into coming up with creative solution

Primary process cognition

irrational, free associative, uninhibited, analogical

Martindale & Hasenfus (1978): Experiment 2

• 16 subjects performed similar story-writing task, except that: • creativity measured by Remote Associates Test • Researchers varied whether or not subjects were specifically told to be "creative" and "original"

Martindale & Hasenfus (1978): Experiment 2 - Results

- Found same increase in alpha activity during inspiration phase for highly-creative subjects, but only when they were instructed to be creative and original So, there is evidence of a change of brain activity when creative thinking (as compared to non-creative thinking) is going on!

Snyder's explanation for the effects:

- In normal brain, the conceptual networks concerned with meaning tend to inhibit networks concerned with detail - By inhibiting these networks, it may facilitate conscious access to literal details, leading to savant-like skills More evidence of role of temporal lobe in creativity - impeding activity of temporal lobes can change level of detail we are conscious of, leading to increase of certain creative abilities

TenHouten (1994) - Split brain Results

- Split-brain patients significantly more alexithymic than control subjects - They used few affect-laden words, and relatively few adjectives, suggesting speech that is flat, dull, uninvolved, lacking in expression - Lack of creativity in spoken and written verbal productions - Researcher described split-brain subjects as dull, flat, colorless, unexpressive, passive, indirect, lacking fantasy, unimaginative, unresponsive to symbolism, and describing circumstances surrounding events rather than feelings about the events Creativity appears to involve interaction of both hemispheres - split-brain patients seem to show impairments to creativity

Martindale & Hasenfus (1978) - Results

- Writers rated as "highly creative" had higher alpha activity during the "inspiration" phase than during "elaboration" phase - Less creative writers showed no differences in EEG activity during different phases of process

Alexithymia

- lack of emotional awareness, emotional relating, social attachment -Difficulty distinguishing, identifying, and appreciating emotions -Difficulty describing feelings to other people -Decreased imaginal processes (e.g. scarcity of fantasies) -Alexithymics have difficulty being creative - they don't get very excited about opportunities/challenges and aren't interested or motivated to think creatively

Hoppe (1988) - Results

- split-brain patients' completely lacked affect (compared to controls) - they described their reactions in very unemotional terms - reactions were essentially "episodic" - focused on the details of the event, not the meaning of what was going on (ex: didn't comment on disappearance of child or significance of empty swing)

"Dominant" hemisphere

- the hemisphere that tends to be more active while performing certain cognitive functions • Researchers have sometimes used a person's handedness as an indicator of hemispheric dominance (righties being left-hemisphere dominant, lefties being right-hemisphere dominant) • In general, there haven't been many differences found in creativity of left handers vs. right-handers

Q: might VMPFC damage be beneficial to creativity?

A: No. - The unconventional tendencies of creative people tend to be intentional and controllable. They know what they're doing when they're being unconventional - they are aware of social convention, they just aren't that concerned with it! Creativity doesn't LACK judgment (as one might find with impaired VMPFC function) - it is required. Creative ideas are not only original, they are fitting, valuable, and effective, implying judgement AND a fully-functional PFC.

Martindale et al (1986) - CONCLUSION

Authors suggest that people who have a high-level of righthemisphere (as opposed to left-hemisphere) activation tend to think in a more "primary process" way.

Flaherty (2005) - The Emotional Brain

Emotion also plays a role in creativity - they help drive us to be creative, motivating us and making creative work emotionally important to us Flaherty (2005) • Proposed model of creativity focusing on the interaction of: • Frontal lobes, temporal lobes, and limbic system • Proposes link between creative drive and hypergraphia and mania

Connection Between Creative Drive and Creative Ability

Hypergraphics have increased creative drive, but that doesn't mean they are producing a high-quality creative product!

EEG Studies and Creativity

Many EEG studies suggest that there are particular brain wave patterns and brain structures associated with creative problem solving

Peterson & Lansky (1977)

Peterson & Lansky (1977) • Looked at Univ. of Cincinnati architecture program • Results - 29% of faculty left-handed (~10% in general population) - Left-handers performed better in program than right-handers - In general, more left-handers apply to architecture schools Looking at handedness is not a DIRECT measure of brain function, it is only inferred based on their dominant hand - the usefulness of this information regarding lateralization is limited.

Martindale et al (1986) continued

Studies suggest that creative people employ more primary process thinking (Kris, 1952) and that there is a higher level of primary process content in the fantasy narratives of more creative subjects (as opposed to less-creative subjects) (Hines & Martindale, 1973). • Researchers recorded EEG activity as subjects wrote a fantasy story. • Researchers also evaluated stories in terms of primary process content (using the Regressive Imagery Dictionary).

Genetics and Creativity - Nichols (1978)

To what degree is creativity influenced by genes vs. environment? • Reviewed 10 twin studies of divergent thinking • RESULTS: - average correlation of divergent thinking scores was .61 for identical twins and .50 for fraternal twins. - All together, about 22% of variation in divergent thinking scores due to influence of genes

Secondary process cognition

logical, realistic

commissurotomy

surgical severing of commissures

Bourassa & Vaugeois (2001)

• Compared creativity effects of marijuana on regular (3x/week) vs. novice (never) users • RESULTS: marijuana had no effect on divergent thinking of novices, but reduced divergent thinking in regular users. • Some research shows enhancement of creativity, some shows inhibition. • Effects may depend on amount ingested - Weckowitz et al (1975) found that low levels of marijuana associated with enhanced performance on divergent thinking tests, higher does inhibited performance. • Effects likely differ from person-to-person, and from task-to-task

Snyder et al (2003) - continued

• Eleven subjects given drawing and proofreading tasks performed before, during, and after TMS • Drawing Results: - 4 of 11 subjects showed stylistic changes in their drawings after TMS - Judges described post-TMS drawings as being more lifelike, flamboyant, and complex than before TMS - Three of these 4 subjects also reported altered states of perception - feeling more alert and conscious of detail - One subject even said he wished he had been asked to write an essay (something he previously disliked) because the TMS led him to be highly aware of detail in his surroundings - These subjects' drawings did not revert back to original pre-TMS style even after 45 minutes, suggesting the effect may persist for longer time frames

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

• Enables such high-level cognitive functions as the self-construct, self-reflective consciousness, willed action, planning, theory of mind, and much more. • Three other PFC functions allow these high-level functions: - Working memory - Temporal integration - Sustained and directed attention

Waller et al (1993)

• Evaluated data from 45 pairs of MZ twins reared apart, one set of identical triplets reared apart, and 32 of pairs of DZ twins reared apart • Subjects part of Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart • Subjects completed Creative Personality Scale

Ito (1997)

• Explained how cerebellum manipulates ideas in similar way to how it manipulates motor control • Ideas/concepts are manipulated just like limbs are in movement (e.g. mentally arranging furniture is similar to actually controlling limbs to accomplish same thing) • When we repeatedly perform mental manipulations - just like with physical actions, the cerebellum works to make those manipulations smoother, faster, and more efficient

Burke et al (1989)

• Found that left-handers did slightly better than right-handers on 4 visual tests of divergent thinking (only 1 was statistically significant) • No difference between lefties/righties in verbal divergent thinking • CONCLUSIONS: - In creative activities where lefties have an advantage, it may be because they've developed a "coping" skill from having to adjust to "right-handed" environments (right-handed "mice", classroom desks, writing without smudging, etc) - This may contribute to their flexibility and creative thinking

Carlsson, Wendt & Risberg (2000)

• Had high-creativity and low-creativity subjects perform creativity test ("uses" test) • RESULTS: high-creativity people show (bilateral) increase in brain activity in various areas of the prefrontal cortex (compared to low-creativity subjects)

Martindale et al (1986)

• Investigated differences in EEG activity when one is involved in primary process thinking compared to secondary process thinking.

Altered States and Brain Function: Alcohol - Norlander & Gustafson (1998)

• Investigated effects of alcohol on divergent thinking • Subjects given "uses" task under one of three conditions: control (no alcohol), alcohol-influenced (.08 blood-alcohol level), placebo

Altered States and Brain Function: Marijuana - West (1983)

• Investigated effects of marijuana on creativity • Subjects wrote stories after looking at picture from Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • Subjects wrote a story first without being under influence (baseline condition) before writing story while under influence of marijuana or a placebo • Stories analyzed with the Regressive Imagery Dictionary (for primary process content). • RESULTS - Marijuana group wrote stories with higher primary process content than control subjects, and more primary process content when under the influence of marijuana than when not.

Hoppe (1988) - Split-Brain Studies Bearing on Creativity

• Investigated how much affect (the "feeling" or experience of emotion) split-brain patients experience when shown an emotional film (ex: child disappearing from swing) • Subjects watched emotionally-evocative film and described feelings and reactions to film

Hypergraphia - the compulsive drive to write

• It is generally associated with decrease in temporal lobe activity (most commonly, a lesion to the right temporal lobe) • The equilibrium between right and left temporal lobes is disrupted, causing disinhibition of left hemisphere language-related activity • Disinhibition - weakening of restraint against performing actions • Disinhibition symptoms similar to mania - most hypergraphics have mania • Mania has been found to be associated with increased creativity Temporal lobes seem to be involved in creative drive (or creative suppression!)

Ventromedial PFC (VMPFC)

• Most common deficit associated the VMPFC lesions is impaired social function - Inappropriate social behaviors, lack of moral judgment - Lowered social inhibitions, showing little concern for self/others - Showing little regard for social restraints • Creative people are often described as being - Eccentric, nonconformist, radical, and (sometimes) socially inappropriate

Cerebellum's Connections to the Prefrontal Cortex

• Organized into many parallel circuits allowing powerful processing capabilities • The basic circuitry of these circuits is the same, what differs is the particular incoming information a circuit receives from other parts of the brain, and particular output destination for the information • So, the basic processing of incoming information would seem to be similar, no matter if it is motor, sensory or cognitive information • Cerebellum has numerous connections with the prefrontal cortex: - Cerebellum receives input from PFC via the pons - Cerebellum sends its output to PFC via the thalamus • Researchers believe that the cerebellum would be useful in processing novel situation requiring creative/innovative solutions - In processing a novel situation, a person may need to engage in preliminary processing before taking action (processing potential consequences), which activates working memory in PFC - Via numerous parallel connections with cerebellum, this information in working memory can be processed very rapidly and a quick decision could be made • These deep connections between PFC and cerebellum (and cerebellum's known processing capabilities) strongly suggest role in creative thinking

How might creative drive help increase creative skill?

• Practice effects - the more you create, the better you get • "Darwinian" model - If someone is driven to produce more ideas or creative works, more novel, original, or useful ideas will be created - Prediction: subjects who come up with the best ideas will usually be subjects who are most driven- creative "skill" is less important - Research suggests that for people who are above the IQ threshold for creativity, creativity is more dependent on the brain's motivational systems than on that person's creative "skill"

Altered States and Brain Function: Alcohol - Norlander & Gustafson (1998) - Results and Conclusion

• RESULTS - Alcohol group had higher originality scores than other groups - However, alcohol group had lower flexibility scores than other groups - Fluency was not significantly affected - Lower levels of alcohol (.05 blood-alcohol level) showed no effects on creativity • CONCLUSION - Under moderate does of alcohol, people have slightly more original ideas, but are less flexible, not shifting their thinking as much as when they are sober

Waller et al (1993) - Results and Conclusion

• RESULTS: - Moderately high (.54) correlation in responses of MZ twins - Very low, non-significant (-.06) for DZ twins • CONCLUSION: Creativity is an EMERGENIC trait - High-order traits that "emerge" from interaction among a cluster of more fundamental traits - They are unlikely to "run in families" because it's unlikely for relatives to share all - or even a large percentage of - the necessary components of the trait cluster. - So, creativity is highly influenced by genes, but tends not to run in families

The Cerebellum and Creativity

• Research suggests that the cerebellum may make significant contributions to creativity • Research suggests that cerebellum is involved in general timing and sequencing, not just with motor processes, but with cognitive processes as well (including those of working memory)

Snyder et al (2003): Proofreading Results

• Savants often described as atypically LITERAL - they tend to concentrate on parts than on whole, allowing them to see world in a less-biased light. • This suggests that savants may be better proofreaders than others • Subjects looked for grammatical errors in short proverbs • Two subjects (who had also shown drawing improvement) also showed improvement in proofreading after TMS • TMS caused impairment leading to savant-like ability to see details of the PARTS and not be fooled by what they expected to see

Manipulations of the Human Brain - Savants

• Show amazing excellence in some area (often creative areas) despite being severely brain-impaired • How might they acquire their skills? - Through repetitive practice? - Maybe they have more highly-developed brains in their particular domain? - Probably not - these explanations don't explain all savant skills • Perhaps savant skills are largely INNATE and reside equally in everyone - they just aren't accessible without a rare form of brain impairment! - Example: our brains possess algorithms for calculating the shape of an object from surface shading - We aren't CONSCIOUS of this shading, or we could all draw without training - However, savants' brain damage enables privileged access to this information - Snyder et al (2003) tested this theory!

TenHouten (1994) - Split brain

• Split-brain patients (and controls) watched 3-minute film portraying (with images and background music) death of baby and boy • Subjects were asked questions about film, and asked to write 4 sentences expressing what they felt about the film

Martindale et al (1986) Results

• Theory: primary process cognition is related to a pattern of greater RIGHT-hemisphere activation than LEFT-hemisphere activation. • Results showed a basal asymmetry (greater right-hemisphere activation than left-hemisphere activation) in subjects whose narratives contained more primary process content. • Researchers had predicted the hemispheric asymmetry to occur during the short-term "inspirational" phase, in particular, but the asymmetry only showed up in basal (baseline), more stable long-term EEG measures.

Martindale & Hasenfus (1978) - EEG Studies and Creativity

• Took EEG readings of 12 creative-writing students as they went through phases of story-writing activity: 1. Waiting for study to begin 2. During a 3-minute "inspiration" period (thinking about what they would write) 3. While actually writing the story • Students had been rated in creativity by their creative writing professor • Asked to make up story about a man who meets a woman and asks her out • Asked to "use their imagination" and make up story of who the man and woman are, how they met, and what will happen • They were specifically asked to be creative and original

Snyder et al (2003)

• Used Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to simulate temporary lesions of left fronto-temporal lobe • The fronto-lemporal lobe implicated in savant syndrome in young artistic savants and savants who emerge late in life due to fronto-temporal lobe dementia

There is a tendency to oversimplify functions of different hemispheres

• Virtually any cognitive function involves both hemispheres to some degree • thinking of left hemisphere as where "logical" and "rational thought" occurs, and right hemisphere being where "creativity" occurs is oversimplified