Chapter 3: Matter and Minerals

Question concept check 3.9 1. List 3 examples of renewable resources and 3 examples of nonrewable resources. renewable nonrenewable

1. corn 2. cotton 3. forest for lumber and paper nonrenewable 1. iron 2. aluminum 3. copper 4. oil 5. natural gas 6. coal

In addition, native elements including 1. 2. 3. plus a host of other nonsilicate minerals 1. 2. 3.

1. gold 2. silver 3. carbon (diamonds) 1. fluorite (flux in making steel) 2. corundum (gemstone, abrasive) 3. uraninite (a uranium source)

Two other nonsilicate minerals frequently found in sedimentary rocks are 1. 2. Both minerals are found in thick layers that are last vestiges of ancient ____________ that have long since ____________________.

1. halite 2. gypsum seas evaporated

Cooling can occur at or near Earth's surface 1. _________________temperaure 2. _________________ pressure

1. lowtemperature 2. low pressure

What are the 4 optical properties used for mineral identification?

1. luster 2. their ability to transmit light 3. their color 4. their streak

Every silicate mineral contains the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust: 1. 2.

1. oxygen 2. silicon

Natural resources are typically grouped into broad categories according to 1. their ability to be ____________________ 2. their _________________ or the type

1. regenerated (renewable or nonrenewable) 2. origin

Distinguish between ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding and the role that electrons play in each?

Ionic bond= when the valence electrons are transferred between the elements to form ions. Covalent bond = when the electrons are shared between the atoms. Metallic = When the valence electrons are shared among all the atoms in a substance

Explain how a mineral deposit that previously could not be mined profitably might be upgraded to an ore deposit.

It is important to understand that due to economic or technological changes, a deposit may either become profitable or lose its profitability. If the demand for a metal increases and its value rises sufficiently, the status of a previously unprofitable deposit can be be upgraded from a mineral to an ore. Technological advances that allow a resource to be extracted more efficiently and, thus, more profitably than before may also trigger a change in status.

Terms used to describe other crystal habits include 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

bladed fibrous tabular prismatic platy blocky banded granular botryoidal

Mineral strength refers to how easily minerals ________ or ________ under stress is determined by the type and strength of the chemical bonds that hold the crystals together.

break or deform

some minerals exhibit special optical properties. When a transparent piece of _________ is placed over printed text, the letters appear twice. This optical property is known as ______________ ________________

calcite double refraction

The two most common carbonate minerals are ______________________ and ______________________.

calcite CaCO3 or calcium carbonate dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 or calcium/magnesium carbonate

The carbonate group is composed of the ________________ ion and one or more kinds of positive ions.

carbonate

When dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on a freshly broken mineral surface, some minerals called __________________ will __________________ ( ) as carbon dioxide gas is released. this test is especially useful in identifying the common carbonate mineral ____________________.

carbonates effervesce (fizz) calcite

Some of the most common nonsilicate minerals belong to one of three classes of minerals: the _______________________, the ___________________, and the halides ( ______, _______ , _______), The carbonate minerals are much simpler structurally than the _____________________.

carbonates, sulfates, halides (Cl-1, F-1, Br-1) silicates

A ______________ _____________ is a transfer or sharing of electrons that allows each atom to attain a full valence shell of electrons

chemical bond

Most elements join with atoms of other elements to form _____ ___________.

chemical compounds

Minerals within the same ______ are often found together in the same _____________. ex: halite (NaCl) and silvite (KCl) belong to the halide class and commonly occur together in _____________ deposits.

class rock evaporite

Metallic minerals generally have a dense __________ ________________

dark streak

___________________ , an important property of matter is defined as ___________ per unit ______________. Mineralogists often use a related measure called _____________________ __________________ to describe the density of minerals.

density mas per unit volume specific gravity

Although color is generally the most conspicuous characteristic of any mineral, it is considered a ________________ ______________ of only a few minerals.

diagnostic property

what is the hardest mineral of all? It will scratch anything, including other _____

diamond diamonds

Each cleavage surface that a different orientation is counted as a ______________________ direction of cleavage. For example, some minerals cleave to form a six-sided cubes. Because cubes are defined by three different sets of parallel planes that intersect at ____ degree angles, cleavage is described as _______ directions of cleavage that meet at _____ degrees.

different 90 3 90

garnets form __________________________

dodecahedrons

Other nonmetallic minerals are described as having a ____ or ____________, luster (a dull appearance like the soil) or a ____________________ luster (such as a pearl or the inside of a clamshell). Still others exhibit a _______________ luster (like a satin cloth) or a _______________ luster (as though coated in oil)

dull or earthy pearly luster silky luster greasy luster

Compare and contrast mineral resource and ore deposit

mineral resource- are occurrences of useful minerals that are formed in such quantities that eventual extraction is reasonably certain. an ore deposit is a naturally occurring concentration of one or more metallic minerals that can be extracted economically . In common usage, the term ore is also applied to some nonmetallic minerals such as fluorite and sulfur.

granite

occurs as aggregates of several different minerals. The term aggregate implies that the minerals are joined in such a way that their individual properties are retained.

magnetite crystals sometimes form ___________________

octahedrons

Although some nonrenewable resources, can be recycled, others, such as the ______ used for fuel , cannot

oil

solid substance

only solid crystalline substances are considered minerals. ex: Ice (frozen water) fits this criterion and is considered a mineral versus liquid water and water vapor are not minerals

The Dark Silicates iron = ferro magnesian = magnesium

or ferromagnesian silicates are minerals containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structure. Because of their iron content, ferromagnesian silicates are dark in color and have a greater specific gravity between 3.2 and 3.6, that nonferromagnesian silicates. The most common dark silicate minerals are olivine, the pyroxenes, the amphiboles, dark mica (biotite), and garnet

In order to have economic value, an _____________ deposit must be highly concentrated. For example, copper makes up about __________________ of the crust. For a deposit to be considered a copper ______, it must contain a concentration of copper that is about _____________- times this amount , or 2.35 %.

ore 0.0135 percent ore 100

In common usage, the term ____ is also applied to some nonmetallic minerals such as _____________ and ________.

ore fluorite sulfur

An ____ _______ is a naturally occurring concentration of one or more metallic minerals that can be extracted economically.

ore depost

What is the significance of valence electrons?

outermost shell of electrons, which interact with other atoms to form chemical bonds

The oxides contain the negative _______, which are bonded to one or more kinds of positive ions. Thus, the basic structure and type of bonding is similar. As a result, the minerals in each group have similar physical properties that are useful in mineral identification.

oxygen ions (O-2)

Color should not be used to _____________ these groups. The only way to distinguish the feldspars physically is to look for a multitude of fine ______________ lines, called ____________________. Striations are found on some cleavage planes of plagioclase feldspars but are not present on___________________ feldspars

parallel lines striations potassium

Make a simple sketch of an atom and label its three main particles.

picture

metallic bond picture

picture

The other group called the ______________ feldspars, contain both sodium and calcium ions that freely substitute for one another, depending on the environment during crystallization.

plagioclase feldspars

The contribution of one or more valence electrons leaves an array of ___________________ _______________ immersed in a _____ of valence electrons.

positive ions sea

One group of feldspar minerals contain potassium ions in its structure are is therefore referred to as ____________________ ________________.

potassium feldspar example: orthoclase and microcline

Calcite and dolomite are usually found together as the _____________________ constituents in the sedimentary _________________________ and _____________________________.

primary rocks limestone dolostone

Why is calcite important?

primary component of the sedimentary rock limestone and is being used in the production of cement

Concept questions 3.2 List the three main particles of an atom and explain how they differ from one another

proton neutron electron

Some minerals such as ___________ have two or more characteristic crystal shapes.

pyrite

Some metallic minerals, such as pyrite, native copper, and magnetite are more than twice as dense and thus have more than twice the specific gravity of ___________.

quartz

However, some minerals like ______, break into smooth curved surfaces resembling broken glass. Such breaks are called _____ _____.

quartz conchoidal fracture

_____________________, the second-most-abundant mineral in the continental crust, is the only common mineral made completely of ___ and ____.

quartz silicon and oxygen

Slight impurites in the common mineral ______________ for example, give it a variety of tints, including pink, purple, ___, ___,____ and even ____

quartz yellow, white, gray, black the use of color is often ambiguous or even misleading

Nonmetallic minerals, such as _____________ and ___________ tend to be ___________ and fracture or exhibit cleavage when struck

quartz and halite brittle

Resources classified as __________________ can be replenished over short time spans.

renewable 1. corn used for food or for making ethanol 2. natural fibers such as cotton for clothing 3. forest products for lumber and paper 4. energy from flowing water, wind, and the Sun

electron

found circulating around the nucleus in regions called principle shells, each with an associated energy level charge of -1

When minerals ______, most produce uneven surfaces and are described as exhibiting _____ _____________.

fracture irregular fracture

many other atoms ____, ____, or ______ electrons during chemical reactions, ending up with electron arrangements of the _____________ _____________.

gain, lose, share noble gases This observation led to a chemical guideline known as the octet rule.

Some metallic minerals like copper and ____________ develop a dull coating or tarnish when exposed to the atmosphere. Because they are not as shiny as samples with freshly broken surfaces, these samples are often said to exhibit a ______________ __________.

galena submetallic luster

Do not confuse cleavage with crystal shape. When a mineral exhibits cleavage, it will break into pieces that all have the same ______. By contrast, the smooth-sided ________ crystals shown in fig. 3.1 do have ______________. If broken, they fracture into shapes that do _____ resemble one another or the ________________ crystals.

geometry quartz cleavage NOT ORIGINAL

A deposit containing the average concentration of an element such as ________________- has no economic value because the cost of extracting it greatly exceeds the value of the gold that could be recovered.

gold

By contrast, native metals, such as ________ and _______are __________________, and can be hammered into different shapes.

gold and copper malleable

A few minerals, such as ____, ____, and _____, are made entirely of metal atoms that are packed tightly together in an orderly way.

gold, silver, and copper

Properties of metals

good conductors of electricity because the valence electrons are free to move from one atom to another malleable = they can be hammered into thin sheets ductile = drawn into thin wires

pyroxene

group of minerals that are important components in dark-colored igneous rocks. The most common member, augite, is a black, opaque mineral with two directions of cleavage that meet at nearly a 90 degree angle. Augite is one of the dominant minerals in basalt, a common igneous rock of the oceanic crust and volcanic areas of the continents

Minerals, including _______ and _____________ that can be cut into thin shavings are described as __________.

gypsum and talc sectile

_________________ is the mineral name for common table salt

halite

Like limestone, both _______________ and _____________ are important nonmetallic resources.

halite gypsum

One of the most useful diagnostic properties is _______________, a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. This property can be determined by rubbing a mineral of unknown hardness against one of _______ hardness or vice versa. A numerical value of hardness can be obtained by using the ___________ scale of harness, which consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest). It should be noted that the Mohs scale is a relative ranking, and it does not imply that mineral 2, gypsum, is twice as hard as mieral 1, talc. In fact, gypsum is only slightly harder than talc.

hardness known Mohs scale

Give some terms mineralogists use to describe mineral strength and how minerals break when stress is applied: 1. 2. 3. 4.

hardness cleavage fracture tenacity

With a little practice, you can estimate the specific gravity of a mineral by ______ it in your hand. does this mineral feel about as _____________ as similar sized rocks you have ______________? If the answer is yes, the specific gravity of the sample will likely be between ___________ and _____________.

hefting heavy handled 2.5 and 3

noble gases except for ____________, have very stable electron arrangements with eight valence electrons and, therefore, tend to lack _______________ reactivity.

helium chemical

This includes the oxides, whose members ________________ and _________________ are important ores of iron.

hematite magnetite

Cooling can occur at great depths 1. ______________________temperature 2. ______________________pressure

high temperature high pressure

amphibole

hornblende is the most common member of a chemically complex group of minerals called ____. hornblende is usually dark green to black in color, and except for its cleavage angles, which are about 60 degrees and 120 degrees, it is very similar in appearance to augite. In a rock, hornblend often forms elongated crystals. This helps distinguish it from pyroxene, which forms rather blocky crystals. Hornblende is found in igneoud rocks, where it makes up the dark portions of an otherwise light-colored rock.

cleavage

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double refraction

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fibrous fracture

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fluorite

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habit of minerals

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halite

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irregular fracture

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loadstone

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magnetite

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micas

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microcline

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nonsilicates

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orthoclase

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plagioclase feldspars

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quartz

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quartz minerals

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silicates

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silicon - oxygen tetrahedron

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splintery fracture

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Gypsum is calcium sulfate with water bound into the structure, is the mineral of which plaster and other similar building materials are composed

image (CaSO4-2H20)

crystal shapes or habits

image example

Bingham Canyon

image of the copper mine

garnet another common silicate, is composed of ________________ _____________ ionically bonded by positive ions. Both olivine and garnet form dense, hard, _____________________________ crystals that lack ____________________.

independent tetrahedra ionically dense, hard, equidimensional crystals cleavage

generally inorganic

inorganic crystalline solids, such as ordinary table salt (halite), that are found naturally in the ground are considered minerals. versus organic compounds are not considered minerals ex: sugar

Perhaps the easiest type of bond to visualize is the ____________ bond, in which one atom gives up one or more of its valence electrons to another atom to form __________--positively and negatively charge atoms.

ionic ions

Some atoms bond to form _____, some form ____, and still others form ____.

ionic compounds molecules metallic substances

To become chemically balanced, these complex _____ bond to positively charged _____ions. Specifically, each O-2 has one of its valence electrons bonding with the Si+4 located at the ____ of the tetrahedron. the remaining 1- charge on each _____ is available to bond with another positive ______ or with the ___________ ion in an adjacent _________________.

ions metal ions center oxygen ion silicon tetrahedon

magnetite have a high ________ content and can be picked up with a ____________________

iron magnet

biotite

is a dark, iron - rich member of the mica family. Like other micas, biotite possesses a sheet structure that gives it excellent cleavage in one direction. Biotite also has a shiny black appearance that helps distinguish it from the other dark ferromagnesian minerals. Like hornblende, biotite is a common constituent of igneous rocks, including the rock granite.

olivine

is a family of high-temperature silicate minerals that are black to olive green in color and have a glassy luster and a conchoidal fracture. transparent olivine is used as a gemstone called peridot. common in igneous rock basalt and thought to constitute up to 50 % of Earth's upper mantle

clay minerals

is a term used to describe a category of complex minerals that, like the micas, have a sheet sturcture. unlike other common silicates, most clay minerals originate as products of the chemical breakdown of other silicate minerals

amethyst

is another variety of quartz, owes its violet color to the presence of trace amounts of iron

rock

is any solid mass of mineral, or mineral like , matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet.

garnet

is similar to olivine in that its structure is composed of individual tetrahedra linked by metallic ions. Also like olivine, garnet has a glassy luster, lacks cleavage, and exhibits conchoidal fracture. Although the colors of garnet are varied, this mineral is most often brown to deep red. Well-developed garnet crystals have 12 diamond - shaped faces and are most commonly found in metamorphic rocks. When transparent, garnets are prized as semiprecious gemstones.

Quartz

is the only silicate mineral that consists entirely of silicon and oxygen. The term silica is applied to quartz. Quartz is hard, resistant to weathering, and does not have cleavage. Like most clear minerals, quartz is colored by inclusions of various ions (impurities) and forms without developing good crystal faces. The most common varieties are milky (white), smoky (gray), rose(pink), amethyst (purple), and rock crystal (clear)

What is the most common clay mineral?

kaolinite

Another optical property used in the identification of minerals is the ability to transmit _____.

light

Minerals with a nonmetallic luster typically have a _____ _______ streak

light colored

What color is the potassium feldspar usually?

light cream salmon pink or occasionally blue-green in color

When calcite is the dominant mineral, the rock is called _________________, whereas ______________________ results from a predominance of dolomite

limestone dolostone

Some varieties of magnetite, such as _____________________ are natural _______________ and will pick up small iron - based objects such as _______________- and __________ __________.

loadstone magnets pins paper clips

neutron

located in central nucleus has no charge

proton

located in the nucleus charge +1

olivine has the formula (MgFe)2SiO4 In olivine, _________________ and or iron pack between comparatively large independent __________ tetrahedra forming a dense e dimensional structure.

magnesium or ion SiO4

Streak can also help distinguish between minerals with ____________luster and those with _________________- luster.

metallic nonmetallic

The simplest type of cleavage is exhibited by the ____________. Because these minerals have very weak bonds in one direction, they cleave to form _____, flat sheets.

micas thin

atoms of the naturally occurring elements are the basic build blocks of Earth's _________.

mineral

octet rule

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence electrons.

How many different groups of feldspar minerals are there?

2

Mineral gypsum, which has a hardness of _____ can be easily scratched with a fingernail.

2

Silicate minerals are divided into _____ most common major groups based on their chemical makeup: 1. 2.

2 light silicates dark silicates

Most common minerals have a specific gravity between ____ & ______. for example: quartz has a specific gravity of _________.

2 & 3 2.65

Human fingernail has a hardness of ____.

2.5

Calcite has a hardness of _____, will scratch a ______ but will not scratch ___.

3 fingernail glass

Copper penny has a hardness of _____.

3.5

Piece of glass has a hardness of

5.5

galena, an ore of lead has a specific gravity of roughly _____, wheras 24 - karat gold has a specific gravity of approximately ______.

7.5 20

When an atom's outer shell does not contain _______ electrons, it is likely to chemically bond to other atoms to fill its shell.

8

Silicate versus Nonsilicate Minerals How many elements make up the vast majority of the rock-forming minerals and represent 98 % of the continental crust?

8 oxygen (O) 46.6% silicon (Si) 27.7% aluminum (Al) 8.1% iron (Fe) 5.0% calcium (Ca) 3.6% sodium (Na) 2.8% potassium (K) 2.6% magnesium (Mg) 2.1%

Althought the nonsilicates make up only ______% of Earth's crust, some minerals, such as gypsum, calcite, and halite, occur as constituents in _______________ rocks in significant amounts. Many others are important economically.

8% significant

Recall that more than _____ percent of Earth's crust is composed of only eight elements, and except for oxygen and silicon, all other elements make up a relatively small fraction of common crustal rocks.

98 %

Economic minerals

Although less abundant, many other minerals are called ___ ___, and are used in the manufacture of products.

smoky quartz

When small amounts of aluminum are incorporated into its atomic structure , quartz appears quite dark, in a variety called _____ _____

Classifying Minerals mineral species

Mineralogists use the term __ __ for a collection of specimens that exhibit similar internal structures and chemical compositions. examples: quartz, calcite, galena, and pyrite

atomic number

Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines its chemical nature all atoms with the same number of protons have the same chemical and physical properties

Review Question: What differences in their silicate structures account for the different properties of quartz and talc?

Quartz (SiO2) which has only silicon -oxygen bonds, has great hardness and lacks cleavage, mainly because it has equally strong bonds in all directions. By contrast, the mineral talc( the source of talcum powder) has a sheet structure. Magnesium ions occur between the sheets and weekly join them together. The slippery feel of talcum powder is due to the silicate sheets sliding relative to one another, is much the same way that sheets of carbon atom slide in graphite, giving it is lubricating properties.

metallic bond

When the valence electrons are shared among all the atoms in a substance.

covalent bond

When the valence electrons are shared between the atoms, the bond is a ____ ____.

ionic bond

When the valence electrons are transferred between the elements to form ions, the bond is an _____ ____.

What happens to produce a positive ion? A negative ion?

The atom that loses electrons becomes a positive ion. The atom that gains an electron becomes a negative ion.

Rock forming minerals

The few dozen that make up most of the rocks in the Earth's crust

Review question: Explain the following: Silicate minerals with three-dimensional structures have the highest silicon content, while those composed of independent tetrahedra have the lowest

The ratio of oxygen ions to silicon ions differs in each type of silicate structure. In independent tetrahedra, SiO4, there are 4 oxygen ions for every silicon ion. In the three-dimensional frameworks, as found in quartz, the ratio is 2:1 (SiO2)

What color are the plagioclase feldspars?

They range in color from white to medium gray

Conversely, changing economic factors can turn what was once a profitable ore deposit into an unprofitable mineral deposit.

This situation was illustrated at the copper mining operation located at Bingham Canyon, Utah, one of the largest open-pit mines on Earth. Mining was halted there in 1985 because outmoded equipment had driven the cost of extracting the copper beyond the current selling price. The mine owners responded by replacing an antiquated 1,000 car railroad with more modern conveyor belts and dump trucks for efficiently transporting the ore and waste. The advanced equipment reduced extraction costs by nearly 30 percent, ultimately returning the copper mine operation to profitability. Today, the Bingham Canyon mine produces 25 percent of the refined copper in the United States.

element

a group of the same kinds of atoms is called an __. 90 naturally occurring elements

Minerals that belong to the carbonate class react chemically with _______.--albeit to varying degrees--and many exhibit similar ______________________.

acid cleavage

_____________________on the other hand represents ________________ of the crust and can be extracted profitably when it is found in concentrations about ___________ that amount.

aluminum 8.13 % 4 times

what is the difference between an atom and an ion?

an atom is neutral an ion is a positively charged or negatived atom

double refraction image

another image

mineral

any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition that allows for some variation.

Ions having unlike charges ____. Thus, an _____ bond is an attraction of oppositely charged ions to one another, and it produces an electrically neutral ionic compound.

attract ionic

Mineral species are assigned to mineral ______________. 1. 2. 3. 4. Minerals within each class tend to have similar internal structures, and hence, similar properties.

classes 1. silicates (SiO4) 2. carbonates CO3 3. halides (Cl-1, F-1, Br-) 4. sulfates (SO4)

Not all minerals have ______, but those that do can be identified by the relatively smooth, flat surfaces that are produced when the mineral is broken.

cleavage

When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, _____ is described by the number of _____________ ___________________ and the _____________ at which they __________.

cleavage cleavage direction and the angle at which they meet

Quartz (SiO2) is ______________ and transparent

colorless

muscovite

common member of the mica family. Light in color and has a glassy or pearly luster -has excellent cleavage in one direction. -in thin sheets, muscovite is clear, a property that accounts for its use as window "glass" during the middle ages

The tetrahedra are not chemical _______ but rather ____ ______ SiO4 -4, having a net charge of ________.

compounds complex ions -4

Each silicate mineral, therefore, has a structure and a chemical composition that indication the ________________________ under which it _________________.

conditions formed

coal is a rock

consists of solid organic debris

Mineralogists use the term __________ _________ or _____________ to refer to the common or characteristic shape of individual crystals or aggregates of crystals.

crystal shape or habit

The environment during ________________________ and the chemical composition of the molten rock determine, to a large degree, which ______________________ are produced.

crystallization minerals example: silicate mineral olivine crystallizes early, whereas quartz forms much later in the crystallization process.

halite and fluorite crystals tend to grow _____________ or near cubes

cubes

Although not as common as silicates, some nonsilicate minerals are very important ___________________. They provide us with _____________ and _____________ to build automobiles, ____________ for plaster and drywall for home construction and _____wire that carries electricity and connects us to the Internet. Some common nonsilicate groups include 1. 2. 3. In addition to their economic importance, these mineral groups include members that are major constituents in sediments and sedimentary rocks.

economically iron (Fe) aluminum (Al) gypsum copper (Cu) 1. carbonates 2. sulfates 3. halides

Micas are ________________ and will bend and ___________________ back to their original shape after stress is released.

elastic bend and snap

periodic table

elements are organized so that those with similar properties line up in columns, called groups. this arrangement, called the periodic table is shown in pic.

Minerals that have chemical bonds that are equally or nearly ______, strong in all directions exhibit a property called ____________.

equal fracture

Some minerals tend to grow _____ in all three dimensions, whereas other tend to be elongated in one direction or ___________________ if growth in one dimension is suppressed.

equally flattened

limestone

example of a sedimentary rock; composed of 1 mineral calcite

How did atoms in the universe form?

except hydrogen and helium, they were created inside massive stars by nuclear fusion and released into interstellar space during hot, fiery supernova explosion

Talc and graphite have distinctive ________________. talc feels _________________ graphite feels _________________

feels soapy greasy

Despite these differences, all _________________ minerals have similar physical properties. They have two planes of cleavage meeting at or near __________ degree angles, are relatively hard (____) on the Mohs scale and have a luster that ranges from ________________ to _________________. As a component in igneous rocks, ___________________ crystals can be identified by their __________________ shape and rather smooth, shiny faces.

feldspar 90 6 glassy to pearly feldspar rectangular

The __________________ minerals, which form the most common mineral group, can form under a wide range of ______________________ and __________________, which partially accounts for their abundance

feldspar minerals temperatures and pressures

The ___________________ are by far the most plentiful silicate group, comprising more than 50 percent of Earth's crust.

feldspars

The dark silicates are called ____ silicates.

ferromagnesian

First minerals mined were ___ & ____.

flint and chert

_________________ ________________ are occurrences of useful minerals that are formed in such quantities that eventual extraction is reasonable certain. Mineral resources include deposits of ________________ minerals that can be presently extracted profitably, as well as known deposits that are not yet economically or technologically ______________________.

mineral resources metallic recoverable

some mineral species are further subdivided into ___ ____.

mineral varieties

Today, every manufactured product contains materials obtained from ______________.

minerals

Most ________________ are chemical compounds composed of atoms of two or more elements.

minerals ex: quartz = SiO2 ex: halite = NaCl ex: calcite = CaCO3

definite chemical composition that allows for some variation

minerals are chemical compounds having compositions that can be expressed by a chemical formula. ex: Quartz has the formula SiO2, which means that quartz consists of silicon and oxygen atoms in a ratio of one - to - two

orderly crystalline structure

minerals are crystalline substances, which means their atoms (ions) are arranged in an orderly, repetitive manner. This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in regularly shaped objects called crystals. versus volcanic glass (obsidian) lack a repetitive atomic structure and are not considered minerals

naturally occurring

minerals formed by natural geologic processes. versus synthetic, which means produced in a laboratory or by human intervention

metallic luster

minerals that have the appearance of metals, regardless of color are said to have metallic luster

Most silicate minerals form when ____ rock cools and crystallizes.

molten

How many minerals have been named?

more than 4000

Nonsilicate minerals are divided into groups based on the _______________ charged ion or complex ion that the members have in common.

negatively

Section 3.3 Why Atoms Bond begins here: What group of elements never bonds to anything?

noble gases (group VIII) on the periodic table

pumice is a rock

noncrystalline volcanic

obsidian is a rock

noncrystalline, glassy substances

The light silicates are called _____ silicates.

nonferromagnesian

The light or ___________________________ silicates are generally light in color and have a specific gravity of about ___________________, less than that of the dark (____________________________) silicates. These differences are mainly attributable to the presence of _________________ and _________________, which are heavy. The light silicates contain varying amounts of ___________, __________, _____________, and ___________________ rather than __________________ and ______________.

nonferromagnesian silicates 2.7 ferromagnesian silicates iron and magnesium aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium, rather than iron and magnesium

Most minerals have a _________________ ________________ and are described using adjective such as vitreous or glassy.

nonmetallic luster

by contrast, many other basic resources are classified as ________________________________.

nonrenewable 1. iron, 2. aluminum 3. copper 4. fuels: oil, natural gas, and coal

Because other mineral groups are far less abundant in Earth's crust, they are often grouped together under the heading _____________.

nonsilicates.

The streaks of many sulfur-bearing minerals small like _____________ _____________.

rotten eggs

Halite is ordinary _______________, so it can quickly be identified through ________.

salt taste

the attraction between the ___ of negetively charged electrons and the positive ions produces the _________ _____that gives metals their unique properties.

sea metallic bonds

One reason for the great variety of ________________ minerals is the ability of SiO4 to link to one another in a variety of configurations. This phenomenon, called ________________, is achieved by the sharing of one, two, three, or all four of the oxygen atoms with adjacent __________________.

silicate polymerization tetrahedra

All silicate minerals have the same fundamental building block, the ____. This structure consists of four oxygen ions that are covalently bonded to one comparatively small silicon ion, forming a ____--a pyramid shape with four identical faces.

silicon - oxygen tetrahedron tetrahedron

Name the two most common elements in the Earth's crust? These two elements combine to form the basic "_____ ______" for the most common mineral group, the _______. More then ______silicate minerals are known, and they account for more than ______% of the Earth's crust.

silicon and oxygen building block silicates 800 90%

Example of ionic compound is sodium chloride properties of a chemical compound are dramatically different from the properties of the various elements comprising it. _____ is a soft silvery metal that is extremely reactive and poisonous. _______, a green poisonous gas, is so toxic that it was used as a chemical during WWI. together, these elements make sodium chloride, a harmless flavor enhancer that we call salt.

sodium chlorine

________________ _______________ is the a number representing the ratio of a mineral's weight to the weight of an equal volume of water.

specific gravity

Still other minerals exhibit fractures that produce ________ or fibers that are referred to as ____________________ fracture and ______________ __________, respectively.

splinters splintery fracture fibrous fracture, respectively

Materials used for such purposes as building ______, road ______________, abrasives, _______________, and _________________ are not usually called ___________________ __________________; rather, they are classified as ________________ ___________________ and ________________

stone, road aggregate, abrasives, ceramics, and fertilizers mineral resources industrial rocks and minerals

The color of a mineral in powdered form is called the _____, and is useful in identification in the mineral.

streak

It should be noted that not all minerals produce a _______ when rubbed across a streak plate. The mineral ________ is harder than a porcelain streak plate. Therefore, ____ streak is observed for quartz.

streak quartz NO

A mineral's streak is obtained by rubbing it across a ___ plate (a piece of unglazed procelain) and observing the color of the mark it leaves. although the color of a mineral may vary from sample to sample, its ____ is usually consistent in color.

streak plate streak

Also significant are the _______________, which are basically compounds of ________________________ and one or more metals. example: 1. 2. 3.

sulfides sulfur 1. galena (lead) 2. sphalerite (zinc) 3. chalcopyrite (copper)

In addition, some silicate-minerals form at Earth's __________________ from the weathered products of other silicate minerals

surface.

atoms bond to one another under the conditions _____ and ___) that occur on Earth.

temperatures and pressures

the term _________________ describes a mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, cutting, or other forms of deformation.

tenacity

Properties of ionic and covalent solids

tend to be brittle and fracture when stress is applied

One of the simplest silicate structures consists of independent _________that have their four oxygen ions bonded to positive ions, such as ____, ______, and _____.

tetrahedra Mg +2 Fe +2 Ca +2

Vast numbers of ______________ join to form ______________ chains, _____________ chains, _____________ structures, or _____________ frameworks.

tetrahedra single chains double chains sheet structures 3-dimensional frameworks.

luster

the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral.

mineralogy

the study of minerals mineral= mineral ology = study of

Some minerals have excellent cleavage in One, two, ______, or more directions, whereas others exhibit fair or poor cleavage, and still others have _____ cleavage at all.

three NO

Silicon minerals with ______________ structures have the highest silicon content, while those composed of _________________ tetrahedra have the lowest.

three-dimensional independent tetrahedra

In the most common silicate structure, all four oxygen ions are shared, producing a complex ____ ____ _____.

three-dimensional framework example: quartz and the most common mineral group, the feldspars, have structures in which all of the oxygens are shared.

Hydrogen molecule is an example of forming a covalent bond

two hydrogen atoms are held together tightly, and no ions are present. The strong attractive force that holds two hydrogen atoms together results from a covalent bond, a chemical bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between atoms.

_______________ (outer shell) electrons are involved in chemical bonding.

valence

The bonding that holds these atoms together results from each atom contributing its _____ ______ to a common pool of electrons that are free to move throughout the entire metallic structure.

valence electrons

Most nonsilicate mineral classes contain members that are prized for their economic ____________.

value

In the crystal structure of many minerals, some atomic bonds are _____ than others. It is along these weak bonds that minerals tend to break when they are stressed. _________ is the tendency of a mineral to break or _________ along planes of weak bonding.

weaker cleavage cleave

transparent

when both light and an image are visible through the sample, the mineral is said to be ___.

translucent

when light, but not an image, is transmitted through a mineral sample, the mineral is said to be -____.

opaque

when no light is transmitted, the mineral is described as ____.