Chapter 3 Test

endorphins

-"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Karl Wernicke

-"Wernicke's area"; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense -in 1874, German investigator Wernicke discovered that after damage to a specific area of the left temporal lobe, people could speak only meaningless words. Asked to describe a picture that showed two boys stealing cookies behind a women's back, one patient responded: "Mother is away her working her work to get her better, but when she's looking the other part. She's working another time" -damage to this area also disrupts understanding. -wernicke's area is in the cerebrum in the temporal lobe

Robert Plomin

-discovered that heredity and experience jointly influence most aspects of behavior -children reared in the same environment often have different personalities. -an American psychologist and geneticist best known for his work in twin studies and behavior genetics.

Limbic system

-doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. -A loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex & deeper sub cortical areas -Most psychologists agree that it includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala -Helps regulate emotion, memory and motivation

David Buss

-found evidence that women place a higher value on potential partners' status, ambition and financial prospects; men placed a higher value on potential mates' physical attractiveness -David Buss is one of the founders of the field of evolutionary psychology. His primary research focus is on strategies of human mating.

Norepinephrine

-mood, alertness, arousal. Dysregulation (depressive disorders, ADHD). Psychopharmacology (adderall). -Which two neurotransmitters are produced in the brain and by the adrenal glands? Norepinephrine and epinephrine -This neurotransmitter is associated with alertness and arousal. -Which two neurotransmitters are most closely associated with mood? Serotonin and Norepinephrine -alerts the body to danger -Low levels of this neurotransmitter may be associated with ADHD. -Helps control alertness and arousal -Undersupply can depress mood -Involved in mood, alertness and arousal -Dysregulation: Depressive disorders, Attention Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) -Psychopharmacology: Adderall (agonist)

Sensory neurons

-neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord -Nerve cells that carry information (pain, temperature, etc) from the body to the brain -INCOMING INFORMATION -afferent neurons -Carry information from the body's tissues & sensory organs to the brain & spinal cord (INWARD; access) -spinal cord carries information from the body's tissues & sensory organs to the brain (via afferent {sensory} neurons) -Sensory Pathway: All of the nerves that carry messages from the senses to the central nervous system; contain afferent neurons -conserves energy by decreasing your heart, lowering your blood sugar, and so forth.

Medulla

-the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing -Top of the spinal cord; very bottom of the brain -part of the brainstem -Function: Life-supporting functions (Respiration, Digestion, Heartbeat, Blood pressure) -the reticular formation runs through the middle of it

interaction

-the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

corpus callosum

-the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them -connects the two brain hemispheres -to separate the brain, this has to be severed

PARTS OF THE CEREBRUM

Frontal (FREUD) Temporal (TORE HIS...) Parietal (PANTS) Occipital (OFF)

feedback system which is link of nervous and endocrine system

brain -> pituitary -> other glands -> hormones -> brain

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments -part of the cerebrum -Planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision-making and areas devoted to language -where Gage had his damage at -contains the primary motor cortex and broca's area -Jill Bolte Taylor, PhD describes her stroke in her book, My Stroke of Insight. As a neuroantaomist, Dr. Taylor is able to discuss what it felt like to live through a stroke and the experience of being very conscious of what was happening to her body. Dr. Bolte reported losing control over her right arm as it fell limp at her side. She also lost the ability to perceive where her body ended and where the space around her began. She tried to call for help, and after much effort dialed the numbers to both her workplace and her doctor's office only to find that she could not articulate the words she had been practicing in her mind. In addition, Dr. Bolte could no longer distinguish writing as writing but rather viewed printed words as a series of squiggles she could not decipher. Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor had a stroke in her left brain hemisphere, which additionally impacted Broca's area of her frontal lobe -The railroad worker Phineas Gage experienced great trauma to his brain when a tamping iron he was using to move dynamite through bedrock was suddenly sent hurling through his head as a result of an accidental explosion. After the accident, Pineus's changed from being relatively reserved and proper to someone who no longer seemed in control of his emotions. Phineas exhibited some motor difficulties especially with his right side. He had some trouble walking and difficulty with the vision in his left eye near the entry point of the tamping iron. Okay, so he definitely had issues with the frontal cortex because it deals with planning, personality, memory storage, and language areas, most of which Gage had dramatic shifts in. Motor cortex as well on the left side cause he was struggling with his right side.

FOR Heritability & Evolutionary Psychology look at notes 3C.2!!!!!!

yeah look there. that's it

Dopamine

- involved with mood, movement, learning, attention, motivation, and emotion. Too much leads to Parkinson's and Schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology: cocaine (agonist) -Excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia. Starved of dopamine, the brain produces the termos and decreased mobility of Parkinson's disease. -This neurotransmitter activates the reward pathway. -Drugs such as heroin and cocaine increase the release of this neurotransmitter which creates pleasure. -A lack of this neurotransmitter may be associated with Parkinson's disease. -Too much of this neurotransmitter can be associated with Schizophrenia. -This neurotransmitter is associated with voluntary muscle movements. -Lack of this neurotransmitter may be treated with L-DOPA. -This neurotransmitter is most closely associated with feeling of pleasure and is stimulated by the use of addictive drugs

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

-A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins. -found in chromosomes and genes

cognitive neuroscience

-A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity. -the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) -The purpose of it is to determine how the brain functions and achieves performance. -Cognitive neuroscience is a discipline to study cognition from the level of cranial nerve, and is an important field of learning science. It mainly focuses on the neural mechanisms of perception, selective attention, memory, language, emotion and consciousness. Cognitive neuroscience has a history of nearly 20 years.

Myelin sheath

-A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. -COVERS THE AXON -The importance of myelin is evident in M.S. In M.S. the myelin sheath degenerates causing neural communication to slow down. Eventually leads to the loss of muscle control -is similar to the casing on electrical wire - helps speed their impulses -As myelin is laid down up to age 25, neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control grow. -If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis results: communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle contol.

Hypothalamus

-A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. -an important link in the chain of command governing bodily maintenance -Hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. -McGill university neuropsychologists James Olds and Peter Milner were trying to im[lant an electrode in a rat's reticular formation when they made a magnificent mistake. They incorrectly placed the electrode in what they later discovered was a region of the rat's hypothalamus. Curiously, as if seeking more stimulation, the rat kept returning to the location where it had been stimulated by this misplaced electrode. On discovering their mistake, Olds and Milner alertly realized they had stumbled upon a brain center that proves a pleasurable reward. Similar reward centers in or near the hypothalamus were later discovered in many other species, including goldfish, dolphins, and monkeys. In fact, animal research has revealed both a general reward system that triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine and specific centers associated with the pleasures of eating, drinking, and sex. Animals, it seems, come equipped with built-in systems that reward activity essential to survival. -monitors blood chemistry and some neural clusters influence hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior

Positron emission

-A radioactive decay process in which a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron and a positron and then the positron is emitted from the nucleus

GABA

-Amino acid. Most common/primary inhibitory neurotransmitter,involved in sleep and the inhibition of movement, aids in the regulation of anxiety. -DYSREG( anxiety, seizure, insomnia) -PSYCHPAR: alcohol (agonist) -Malfunctions of this neurotransmitter may result in Huntington's disease -The anti-anxiety drug Valium would impact this neurotransmitter. -Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

-An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. -studying an EEG of the brains activity is like studying a car by engine ny listening to its hum -by presenting a stimulus repeatedly and having a computer filter out brain activity unrelated to the stimulus, one can identify the electrical wave evoked by the stimulus - helpful when investigating disorders -techniques allow for the investigation of an active brain? EEG and PET and fMRI -neuroimaging method helps provide information about brain function by monitoring electrical activity -used to look at a patient's sleep stages (sleep study) -used for patients with seizures to monitor where that electrical impulses are happening in the brain -shows active areas of the brain -used for ADHD to see how much activity is happening in certain places

Broca's area

-Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. -An impairment of this area disrupts and impairs speaking abilities. This area in the left frontal lobe which directs the muscle movements in speech -Devoted to the production of speech; Allows people to speak smoothly and fluently -Directs muscle movements involved in speech -Controls speech muscles via the motor cortex -In 1865, Paul Broca reported that with damage to a specific area of the left frontal lobe, a person would struggle to speak words while still being able to sing songs and understand speech

Charles Darwin

-English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882) -Jared Diamond said "virtually no contemporary scientists believe that Darwin was basically wrong" -the second Darwinian revolution: the application of evolutionary principles to psychology -In concluding "On the Origin of Species" Darwin anticipated that this would happen, "foreseeing "open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation"

Francis Collins

-Famous doctor that said we should identify genome so we can predict (with environmental factors) how you'll be; New head of the FDA -Human genome project -he concluded that darwin's big idea is unquestionably correct -he is a self described evangelical Christian -not the only person of faith to find the scientific idea of human origins congenial with his spirituality.

identical twins (twin studies)

-Identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg, so they share all genetic material and are genetically identical. They have to be the same sex, it is not possible for identical twins to be a boy and a girl. -monozygotic -Used to determine the heritability of a trait -JIM LEWIS INFORMATION: Middle class -men released they were twins, had tons in common Wife: Betty (Second wife) Son: James Alan Dog: Toy Hobby: Woodworking Bad Habits: Chain smoker, fingernail biter... Other: Drove a Chevy, watched stock-car racing & drank Miller... Conditions: High blood pressure (possibly due to chain smoking)& migraines...

Wendy Wood

-Majority cause minority conform using normative influence. may be a case of public compliance without private acceptance. minority rarely influence this way. they exert influence using informational social influence. Introduces new an unexpected information makes group examine issues more carefully. adopt some or all of views. often achieve private compliance via ISI. -whose research addresses the ways that habits guide behavior - and why they are so difficult to break -show her a culture with gender inequality, where men are providers and women are homemakers, and they will show you a culture when men strongly desire youth and domestic skill in their potential mates, and where women seek status and earning potential in their mates -show them a culture with gender inequality, and she will show you a culture with smaller gender differences in mate preferences. -worked with Alice Eagly

Michael Gazzaniga

-So Gazzaniga had patients stare at a dot and then HE appeared in their left visual field/right hemispherical) and ART in the right field/left hemisphere. WHen asked what they saw, they said ART. But when asked to point, they were startled when they pointed to HE. The right hemisphere which could not verbally report its finding had to do it physically. This shows that the different hemispheres of the brain do not communicate with each other, because if they did, they would have seen the word HEART. However, they saw different words "HE" and "ART" -he had divided the brains of cats and monkeys in this manner, with no serious ill effects. Led to further concepts about split brain. -provided keys to understanding the two hemispheres' complementary functions. -helped to also break apart how the eye's field of visions work. -concluded that the conscious left hemisphere is an interpreter or press agent that instantly constructs theories to explain our behavior.

cerebral cortex

-The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. -is like bark on a tree -thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells -brain's "thinking crown", ultimate control and information processing center -Function:Convolutions allow it's large surface area (1.5 feet) to be packed into the limited volume of the skull Contains an estimated 30 billion nerve cells The wrinkles on the brain are made GYRI and SULCI Gyri (gyrus) are the ridges Sulci (sulcus) are the fissures -as we move up the ladder of animal life, the cerebral cortex expands, ight genetic controls relax, and the organism's adaptability increases. - we have complex functions in ours

Glutamate

-The most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Schizophrenia and migraine. Involved in learning, memory formation and the development of the nervous system -This is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter. -This neurotransmitter is generally associated with learning and memory. Acetylcholine/Glutamate -A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. -Oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraine or seizure )which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate in food). -Involved in learning, memory formation and the development of the nervous system -Dysregulation: Schizophrenia, Migraines

Biological psychology

-a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior -some biological psychologists call themselves behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists -the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes -The biological approach believes us to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view. Therefore, all that is psychological is first physiological. -For example, biological psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affected by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter). -by studying the links between biological activity and psychologist events, biological psychologists continue to expand our understanding of sleep and dreams, depression and schizophrenia, hunger and sex, stress and disease

central nervous system

-brain and spinal cord -this communicates with the body's sensory receptors, muscles, and glands via the peripheral nervous system -responsible for transmitting information throughout the body -Noah was in a car accident and received a head injury that resulted in a decreased ability to produce speech. Noah has more than likely damaged his central nervous system. -one of the major divisions of the nervous system -"Interneurons" are neurons that exist solely in the central nervous system. -DEFINITION: The CNS is composed of the brain & the spinal cord, both of which are composed of neurons and glial cells that control the life-sustaining functions of the body as well as all thought, emotion and behavior -The brain is the TRUE CORE of the nervous system

Split brain

-a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them -People or Animals have split brain surgery for issues like epileptic seizures. These were caused by amplification of abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres. Having split brain surgery eliminates this "biological tennis game." There were no ill effects on cats and monkeys, and in humans seizures were eliminated. However, because the hemispheres of the brain were more or less split, the lack of communication meant they were essentially on their own. -So Gazzaniga had patients stare at a dot and then HE appeared in their left visual field/right hemispherical) and ART in the right field/left hemisphere. WHen asked what they saw, they said ART. But when asked to point, they were startled when they pointed to HE. The right hemisphere which could not verbally report its finding had to do it physically. This shows that the different hemispheres of the brain do not communicate with each other, because if they did, they would have seen the word HEART. However, they saw different words "HE" and "ART"

Neuron

-a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system -(Look at neuron assignment for diagram and more) -Parts of a neuron -Axon - tube like structure that carries the neural message away from the soma and to other cells (neurons) -Cell Body - also called "soma." Contains nucleus and chemical "machinery" common to most cells -Dendrites - branchlike structures that receive information other neuron -Myelin Sheath - Fatty substance produced by certain glial cells; encases axon; helps insulate, protect, and speed the neural impulse -Node of ranvier - -Nucleus - Contains the nucleolus and chromosomes necessary for the coded production of proteins within the cell. Found in the cell body of the neuron -Axon Terminal - small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) -Are different from glial cells: "Neurons are what send and receive information from external stimuli and relaying electrical signals, and glial cells provide nutrients and insulate myelin, guide neural connections, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters. Neurons are the 'queen bees' while glial cells are the 'working bees.'" -Broader parts of the neuron: - Semi-Permeable Fluid: Allows ions to travel both in and out of the neuron - Inside the Neuron: Ions are mostly negative - Outside the Neuron: Ions are mostly positive -two types: sensory/afferent neurons and motor/efferent neurons -helps make up the CNS and PNS

Reticular formation

-a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal -runs through the middle of the medulla and pons -in between one's ears -Function: Controls an organism's level of alertness/arousal -In 1949, Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun discovered that electrically stimulating the reticular formation of a sleeping cat almost instantly produced an awake, alert animal. When Magoun severed a cat's reticular formation from higher brain regions, without damaging the nearby sensory pathways, the effect was equally dramatic. The cat lapsed into a coma from which it never awakened. Magoun would clap his hands by the cat's ears, even pinch it, but still no response. The conclusion was that the reticular formation is involved in arousal.

Action potential

-a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon -An action potential occurs when the first part of the axon opens its gates and positively charged ions rush in, causing that part of the neuron to be depolarized . -During the resting pause following an action potential, called the {2 words} refractory period, the neuron pumps (positively, negatively) charged ions outside the cell. -it can not fire during an resting period -A very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along the axon; begins at the soma -Like a neuron, a toilet has an action potential. When you flush, an "impulse" is sent down the sewer pipe -Neural messages travel anywhere from 2 mph to 270 mph -neurotransmitters influence whether the second neuron will generate an action potential or not -A neurotransmitter effect that makes it MORE likely the receiving neuron will generate an action potential (excitatory effect) -A neurotransmitter effect that makes it LESS likely the receiving neuron will generate an action potential (inhibitory effect)

reuptake

-a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron -the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters -Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake -This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action

adrenal glands

-a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. -in a moment of danger, the autonomic nervous system orders the adrenal glands on top of the kidneys to release epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing us with a surge of energy. -when the emergency passes, the hormones, and the feelings of excitement, linger a while. -Located at the top of the kidneys -Secretes 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, etc. - produces Adrenaline (Epinephrine): Arouses the body in times of stress, Cortisol: Helps manage stress, releases glucose into your bloodstream & increases blood pressure for increased physical activity

mutation

-a random error in gene replication that leads to a change -nature has indeed selected good variations from among mutations -lik how dogs are more passive now, because some dogs were passive and then we helped perpetuate that idea.

Computed tomography scan (CT scan)

-a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body -CT = computed tomography -examines the brain by taking X-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage - neuroimaging method is similar to an X-ray, but provides a more sensitive picture of possible brain abnormalities -Which techniques allow for the investigation of brain structures? CT and MRI -Brain-imaging method is which a radioactive glucose is injected into the subject A computer compiles color-coded images of brain activity, with lighter colors indicating more activity -indicates activity in certain parts of the brain -CTs are generally less expensive than MRIs -CTs are less sensitive to patient movement -CT scans CAN be performed in the presence of an implanted medical device -Used for Stroke damage, Blood clots, Tumors, Injuries, Abnormal brain structure

reflex

-a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response -governed by the neural pathways -a simple spinal reflex pathway is composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron, which communicate through an interneuron -interneurons make reflexes happen -the spinal cord is responsible for life saving reflexes -LOOK AT THIS DIAGRAM AND THE ONE IN THE POWER POINT

Functional MRI (fMRI)

-a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. -shows brain function -as a person looks at a scene, the fMRI machine detects blood rushing to the back of the brain, which processes visual information. Such snapshots of the brain's changing activity provide new insights into how the brain divides its labor. -In which two techniques do patients with metal implants need to be cautious of because of the use of powerful magnets? MRI and fMRI -Which techniques allow for the investigation of an active brain? EEG and PET and fMRI -Which neuroimaging method helps provide information about brain function by monitoring oxygen levels in the blood flow? fMRI -fMRI allows neuroscientists to study brain ACTIVITY -A new variation on MRI technology that monitors blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

-a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; -shows brain anatomy -"magnetic resonance imaging" -the head is put in a strong magnetic field which aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules; then a radio wave pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. When the atoms return to their normal spin, the release signals that provide a detailed picture of the brain's soft tissues. -have revealed a larger than average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who display perfect pitch -also revealed enlarged fluid filled brain areas in some patients who have schizophrenia, a disabling psychological disorder -In which two techniques do patients with metal implants need to be cautious of because of the use of powerful magnets? MRI and fMRI - neuroimaging method which provides the clearest picture of a tumor -Which techniques allow for the investigation of brain structures? CT and MRI -neuroimaging method which provides an excellent structural picture without the use of radiation, but can be a problem for individuals who experience claustrophobia -A technique that uses magnetic fields and radioactive waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue -Allows us to see smaller details & structures within the brain -MRI contrast materials used for image enhancement have very low incidence of side effects

Epinephrine

-adrenaline, Adrenaline is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata, where it acts as a neurotransmitter involved in regulating visceral functions. -Which two neurotransmitters are produced in the brain and by the adrenal glands? Norepinephrine and epinephrine -it can also be a hormone! -This is produced when experiencing the "fight or flight" response.

motor cortex

-an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements -Dr. Ramachandran in his book Phantoms of the Brain described patients who had lost a limb yet experienced feelings in the missing appendage. In a talk for the American Psychological Association in 2011 titled The Human Brain, Illusion and Delusions, Ramachandran described a patient with a missing hand who felt sensations in his missing hand when he was touched on the face. In addition, when water was dribbled onto his face, he felt as if it were running down his arm. The patient also felt as if the water were running towards the ceiling when he lifted his arm. Sensory cortex is right by the motor cortex, and if a given area is not needed because there is no corresponding body part, that area will eventually stop having that phantom limb. However, your brain will still try to make sense of sensory information that isn't there. In this case, the area devoted to the hand is now devoted to the face. Technically not brain damage, just deals with brain plasticity. -The railroad worker Phineas Gage experienced great trauma to his brain when a tamping iron he was using to move dynamite through bedrock was suddenly sent hurling through his head as a result of an accidental explosion. After the accident, Pineus's changed from being relatively reserved and proper to someone who no longer seemed in control of his emotions. Phineas exhibited some motor difficulties especially with his right side. He had some trouble walking and difficulty with the vision in his left eye near the entry point of the tamping iron. Okay, so he definitely had issues with the frontal cortex because it deals with planning, personality, memory storage, and language areas, most of which Gage had dramatic shifts in. Motor cortex as well on the left side cause he was struggling with his right side. -An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. Controls the movement of the body's voluntary muscles by sending commands to the somatic division of the PNS -Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig applied mild electrical stimulation to parts of a dog's cortex, and made a discovery that they could make selective parts of the body use by applying stimulation to an arch shaped region of the brain. Fritsch and Hitzig had discovered the motor cortex.

sensory cortex

-area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations -stimulate a point at the top of his band of tissue and a person may report being touched on the shoulder; stimulate some point on the side and the person may feel something on the face -Dr. Ramachandran in his book Phantoms of the Brain described patients who had lost a limb yet experienced feelings in the missing appendage. In a talk for the American Psychological Association in 2011 titled The Human Brain, Illusion and Delusions, Ramachandran described a patient with a missing hand who felt sensations in his missing hand when he was touched on the face. In addition, when water was dribbled onto his face, he felt as if it were running down his arm. The patient also felt as if the water were running towards the ceiling when he lifted his arm. Sensory cortex is right by the motor cortex, and if a given area is not needed because there is no corresponding body part, that area will eventually stop having that phantom limb. However, your brain will still try to make sense of sensory information that isn't there. In this case, the area devoted to the hand is now devoted to the face. Technically not brain damage, just deals with brain plasticity. -INPUT - Registers & processes senses (e.g. touch, pain, skin temperature, body position in space). Processes body touch and registers body touch and movement sensations. -So the more sensitive a body region, the larger the sensory cortex area devoted to it. Your super sensitive lips project to a larger brain area than your toes. People who are blind from a young age often have better senses from their brains rewiring due to the absence of a sense. Rats have a large area of the brain devoted to their whisker sensations, and owls to their hearing sensations. -Sensory cortex in the left hemisphere receives input from the right side of the body & vice versa

Association areas

-areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking -neurons in these areas integrate information - they link sensory inputs with stored memories - very important for thinking -Location:All over the brain -Function: Not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. Involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking -So animals which are considered to be more intelligent have larger association areas, as seen above. For example, the rat has a very small association area as opposed to a human, which has the largest of all. This is likely because humans have the most need for uncommitted areas of the cortex, so evolutionary, they have developed to compensate. -

nerves

-bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs -the building blocks of the nervous system -the optic nerve for example, bundles a million axon fibers into a single cable carrying the messages each eye sends to the brain -Nerve cells that direct muscles and glands are known as motor/efferent neurons. Nerve cells that carry information (pain, temperature, etc) from the body to the brain are called sensory/afferent neurons.

David Lykken

-case studies on twins and lie detection. -Set-point theory of happiness, which argues that one's sense of well-being is half determined by genetics and by circumstances -a behavioral geneticist and Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Psychiatry at the University of Minnesota. -Lykken was the proponent of a set-point theory of happiness, which argues that one's sense of well-being is half determined by genetics and half determined by circumstances, and has been the subject of international media attention.His research findings suggest that a person's baseline levels of cheerfulness, contentment, and psychological satisfaction are largely a matter of heredity -Throughout his career, he consulted with government and industry. He frequently testified as an expert witness on polygraph testing and personality assessment in the wake of Daubert standard requirements.

glial cells

-cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons -support billions of nerve cells -certain ones produce myelin -Deliver nutrients, produce myelin, flush waste & dead neurons and influence information processing -Influence the generation of new neurons during prenatal development -Outnumber neurons 10 to 1; account for 50% of the brain's total volume

hormones

-chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues -Chemical substances (similar in function to neurotransmitters) that help regulate bodily functions; released directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands -hormones fit into receptor sites on their target organs; affect behavior PITUITARY GLAND HORMONES: -Oxycontin: Stimulates contractions of the uterus, production of milk, sexual behavior and pair bonding -Growth Hormone Promotes growth from infancy to adulthood PINEAL GLAND HORMONES: -Melatonin: Tracks day length & influences sleep patterns; Disturbances in melatonin are responsible for "jet lag" THYROID HORMONES: -Thyroxine: Alertness & energy levels; Weight PANCREAS HORMONES: -Insulin: Regulates carbohydrate & fat metabolism; lowers blood-sugar levels -Glucagon: Raises blood-sugar levels ADRENAL GLANDS HORMONES: -Adrenaline (Epinephrine): Arouses the body in times of stress -Cortisol: Helps manage stress, releases glucose into your bloodstream & increases blood pressure for increased physical activity OVARIES HORMONE (gonads): -Estrogen: Responsible for the development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics TESTES (gonads): -Testosterone: Principle male sex hormone

neurotransmitter

-chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse -is triggered when an action potential reacher the knoblike terminals at an axon's end. Within 1/10,000th of a second, the neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron - as precisely as a key fits a lock -for an instant, the neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the receiving site, and electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron's readiness to fire. -then in reuptake, the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters -types of neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, dopamine, endorphins, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA -The chemical messengers that convey information across the gaps between neurons are called neurotransmitters -Compared to agonists and antagonists, fits perfectly like a lock and key -Terminal Branches/Buttons: Small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) -Influences whether the second neuron will generate an action potential or not -Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neurons in a lock & key mechanism -hormones are similar

Thomas Bouchard

-conducted study on identical twins that found a correlation of 0.69 on IQ, criticized because their similar appearances may have led to their being treated similarly -studied identical twins separated at birth -Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. is an American psychologist and geneticist. He is professor emeritus of psychology and director of the Minnesota Center for Twin and Adoption Research at the University of Minnesota. Bouchard received his PhD from the University of California, Berkeley in 1966. -His research was centered around Jim Lewis and Jim Springer, who were separated after birth and raised in different homes without awareness of each other. -His research has contributed to the the ideas that genes influence personality.

Wernicke's area

-controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe -An impairment in this area disrupts understanding. An area of the left temporal lobe which helps to interpret auditory code. -Devoted to language comprehension and expression -In 1874, Carl Wernicke discovered that with damage to a specific area of the left temporal lobe, people could speak only meaningless words...

Alice Eagly

-found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed -worked with Wendy Wood -Majority cause minority conform using normative influence. may be a case of public compliance without private acceptance. minority rarely influence this way. they exert influence using informational social influence. Introduces new an unexpected information makes group examine issues more carefully. adopt some or all of views. often achieve private compliance via ISI. -whose research addresses the ways that habits guide behavior - and why they are so difficult to break -show her a culture with gender inequality, where men are providers and women are homemakers, and they will show you a culture when men strongly desire youth and domestic skill in their potential mates, and where women seek status and earning potential in their mates -show them a culture with gender inequality, and she will show you a culture with smaller gender differences in mate preferences.

evolutionary psychology

-founded primarily by Darwin and Bass -the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection -darwin's ideas for evolution: ---organisms varied offspring compete for survival ---some increase productivity and survival chances in certain area ---offspring that survive are more likely to pass on genes -this over time, population characteristics change

aphasia

-impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). -some people with this can speak fluently but not read, or comprehend by cannot speak. -Describe the results of an aphasia on each of these centers of language in the brain: Broca's Area: An impairment of this area disrupts and impairs speaking abilities. This area in the left frontal lobe which directs the muscle movements in speech Wernicke's Area An impairment in this area disrupts understanding. An area of the left temporal lobe which helps to interpret auditory code. Angular Gyrus This would disrupt your brain's ability to read and then speak what you have written. It is unable to be transformed into that auditory code.

Endorphins

-inhibitory neural regulators/neural peptides; controls the release of other neurotransmitters. Involved in pain relief and response to stress. Also helps runners. Those who are anxious or depressive period are told to start exercising. -generally associated with pain relief -This neurotransmitter is most closely associated with the experience of a "runner's high". -This neurotransmitter has a morphine-like effect on the body. -This neurotransmitter blocks substance P receptors, which carry messages for pain. -So morphine, heroin, and opiates produce the same effect as endorphins, but are just artificial. However, you can not overflow the brain with them because in doing so, the brain will stop producing its own natural opiates. This leads to intense discomfort and to addiction/withdrawal symptoms as the body struggles to make its own natural opiates again after being dependent. -Inhibitory neural regulators/neural peptides; controls the release of other neurotransmitters -Involved in pain relief and response to stress

Serotonin

-involved in sleep, wakefulness, mood, appetite, and arousal. Appears to set an emotional tone. -Dysregulation (depression, OCD, eating disorders). -PSYPHAR: antidepressants. -SSRI's are anti-depression medications that generally interact with this neurotransmitter. -Antidepressant medications such as Zoloft and Paxil would be associated with this neurotransmitter. -Too much of this neurotransmitter may be associated with mania -This two neurotransmitters are most closely associated with mood? Serotonin and Norepinephrine -This neurotransmitter is most closely associated with appetite -Low levels of this neurotransmitter may be associated with aggressive behavior -Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal -Undersupply linked to depression, OCD, eating disorders. Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels. -Involved in sleep, wakefulness, mood, appetite & arousal; Appears to set an "emotional tone" -Psychopharmacology: Antidepressants (agonists)

Acetylcholine

-learning, attention, memory, Alzheimer's (loss of ACh disease). Psychopharmacology (curare, botulism, spider venom). -A lack of this neurotransmitter may be linked to the memory loss associated with Alzheimer's disease. - Venom of the black widow spider interferes with this neurotransmitter. -This neurotransmitter is generally associated with learning and memory (also includes Glutamate) -enables muscle action, learning and memory -Malfunction includes: with Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate -Located at neuromuscular junctions -Psychopharmacology: Curare (antagonist), Botulism (antagonist), Spider venom (agonist)

Roger Sperry

-like Gazzaniga, studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions -won a nobel prize. -worked with Gazzaniga in his split brain research (Look at gazzaniga for info on this) -Sperry said "it was as if each hemisphere was thinking "I've had half a mind to wear my green/blue shirt today." -said that split brain surgery leaves people with "two separate minds," and that both hemispheres can comprehend and follow an instruction to copy - simultaneously - different figures with the left and right hands

pituitary glands

-most influential endocrine gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands -pea sized structure located in the core of the brain, where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area, the hypothalamus. -releases hormones that influence growth, and its secretions also influence the release of hormones by other endocrine glands. -it is then, in a way, a sort of master gland whose master is the hypothalamus, as under the brains influence, the pituitary triggers your sex glands to release sex hormones, which in turn influence brain and behavior -Pituitary Gland: the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. -McGill university neuropsychologists James Olds and Peter Milner were trying to im[lant an electrode in a rat's reticular formation when they made a magnificent mistake. They incorrectly placed the electrode in what they later discovered was a region of the rat's hypothalamus. Curiously, as if seeking more stimulation, the rat kept returning to the location where it had been stimulated by this misplaced electrode. On discovering their mistake, Olds and Milner alertly realized they had stumbled upon a brain center that proves a pleasurable reward. Similar reward centers in or near the hypothalamus were later discovered in many other species, including goldfish, dolphins, and monkeys. In fact, animal research has revealed both a general reward system that triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine and specific centers associated with the pleasures of eating, drinking, and sex. Animals, it seems, come equipped with built-in systems that reward activity essential to survival. -labeled on diagram on note guide 3B.1 -Located just below the hypothalamus -Considered the "master" gland -Controls or influences ALL of the other endocrine glands -Hormones: Oxytocin: Stimulates contractions of the uterus, production of milk, sexual behavior and pair bonding; Growth Hormone: Promotes growth from infancy to adulthood

Motor neurons

-neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands -is used to send information from the brain and spinal cord to the body's tissues -OUTGOING INFORMATION -Nerve cells that direct muscles and glands are known as motor/efferent neurons. -Carry information from the brain & spinal cord to the body's tissues & sensory organs (OUTWARD; exit) -Motor pathway: All of the nerves that carry messages from the central nervous system to the voluntary muscles of the body; contain efferent neurons -spinal cord Carries motor impulses from the brain to the body's muscles and glands (via efferent {motor} neurons) -info out to the body's tissues

Interneurons

-neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs -CNS neurons that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs (make reflexes happen) -between the sensory input and motor output, information is processed in the brain's internal communication system through interneurons -our complexity resides mostly in our interneuron systems -billions and billions of interneurons -"Interneurons" are neurons that exist solely in the central nervous system.

consciousness

-our awareness of ourselves and our environment -evolutionary scientists speculate that it offers a reproductive advantage and makes us act for the long term effects -In 2006, a vegetative patient who had been in a car crash and was noncommunicative plus showed no outward signs of conscious awareness, researchers asked her to imagine playing tennis or moving around her house. Then, fMRI scans revealed that her brain activity when thinking about these activities were very similar to those of healthy volunteers. Researchers then concluded that the brain and the mind may still be active when a person is unconscious.

occipital lobes

-portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields -Visual information processing -contains the visual cortex -LOOK AND UNDERSTAND DIAGRAM VISUAL CORTEX -This deals with how a person interprets written words. A study that could be done would be seeing the results of people with different ranges of occipital lobe damage on reading tests and more. There would likely be lower scores as the damage went up.

parietal lobes

-portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position -Touch & sensory information processing -(**Also general processing, such as mathematical reasoning) -Contains: Sensory Cortex -Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in what is called "Gerstmann's Syndrome." It includes right-left confusion, difficulty with writing (agraphia) and difficulty with mathematics (acalculia). It can also produce disorders of language (aphasia) and the inability to perceive objects normally (agnosia).

temporal lobes

-portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear -Primary Function: Sound information processing -Contains: Auditory Cortex, Wernicke's Area, and hippocampus -Right temporal damage can cause a loss of inhibition of talking. The temporal lobes are highly associated with memory skills. Left temporal lesions result in impaired memory for verbal material. Right side lesions result in recall of non-verbal material, such as music and drawings.

Tomography scan (PET)

-positron emission tomography scan -a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task -depicts brain activity by showing each brains area consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar glucose. -after a person received temporarily radioactive glucose, the pet scan detects where this "food for thought" goes by locating the radioactivity. -they show "hot spots" which brain areas are most active as the person performs mathematical calculations, looks at images of faces, day daydreams -involves the use of a small amount of a harmless radioactive substance -Which techniques allow for the investigation of an active brain? EEG and PET and fMRI -Allows us to see smaller details & structures within the brain -Brain-imaging method is which a radioactive glucose is injected into the subject; A computer compiles color-coded images of brain activity, with lighter colors indicating more activity

Phineas Gage

-railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function -In 1848, Phineas Gage was packing gun powder into a rock with a tamping iron when a spark ignited the gunpowder, shooting the rod up his left cheek and out the top of his skull. This left his frontal lobe massively damaged. He was able to sit up and speak, and after the wound healed he was normal in the biological sense and was able to work. Disposition wise however, he turned from being affable and soft spoken to irritable, profane, and dishonest. His memory was fine, yet his personality changed, and after losing his friends and jobs, he worked as a fairground exhibit. -Despite the exaggerated stories and fabrications, Gage taught us that complex functions such as decision-making and social cognition are largely dependent upon the frontal lobes. What does seem well established is that he managed to hold down several jobs in the years following his injury.

Cerebellum

-the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance -extending from the rear of the brainstem is the baseball sized cerebellum -enables one type of nonverbal learning and memory -. It helps us judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and textures. -If you injured your cerebellum, you would have difficulty walking, keeping your balance, or shaking hands. Your movements would be jerky and exaggerated . Under alcohol's influence on the cerebellum, walking may lack coordination, as many a driver has learned after being pulled over and given a roadside test. -Helps coordinate voluntary movements, as well as balance & sense of equilibrium

genes

-the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein -DNA segments; key functional units in hereditary transmission -Can be active (expressed) or inactive -Genotype A person's genetic makeup; determined at conception and fixed forever -Phenotype The ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics; may change over time (Think punnet squares and eye color) **Different genotypes can yield the same phenotype **Genes are pliable -Polygenic Inheritance Characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes -Genetic problems: Cystic Fibrosis Two recessive genes; respiratory & digestive tract Sickle Cell Anemia Two recessive genes; blood disorder Tay-Sachs Disorder Two recessive genes; fatal neurological disorder Phenylketonuria Two recessive genes; difficulty digesting a certain amino acid - phenylalanine

endocrine system

-the body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream -interconnected with the nervous system -secrete hormones, which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, including the brain. -Hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. -Pituitary Gland: the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. -USE DIAGRAM (pg. 63 too): -DEFINITION: A system that helps coordinate & integrate complex psychological reactions -the body's secondary communication -contains the pituitary glands, pineal gland, thyroid, pancreas, ovaries/testes (gonads), and adrenal glands

nervous system

-the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems -includes the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous system, and all that encompesses those. -An extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body; body's information system:Brain to the body, face and internal organs, Senses to the brain -Two Major Types of Cells in the Nervous System: Neurons (the basic building blocks), Glia (a neuron's support system) -neurons are the building block of the nervous system

plasticity

-the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience -Cameron Mott - she suffered from severe seizures from a very young age as a result from her Rassmussen's syndrome. She received a hemispherectomy in which the right half of her brain was removed. Although she was initially paralyzed, through therapy she managed to regain a sense of normality and lives a normal life. -A 6-year-old boy had a benign brain tumor in his right occipital lobe, which processes information related to the left visual field, Behrmann said. The tumor had caused epileptic seizures from age 4, and no medication could control the seizures.To stop the seizures, doctors removed the right occipital lobe, essentially taking away a third of the right hemisphere of his brain. While he permanently lost his ability to see anything within his left visual field, he retained his ability to recognize faces even though surgeons removed the region that normally handles that task. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-07-brain-plasticity-amazes-boy-recovers.html -In 2004, a surgeon who was the victim of a stroke ( he was in his fifties) was put to work cleaning tables with his good arm/hand restrained. Over time, his bad arm regained its skills as the damaged brain functions mitigated to other brain areas. He gradually learned how to write again and even play tennis. -A subject's brain sustained a shock wave injury from an explosive device (IED) blast while serving our country in the Middle East. He later sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) when a car struck him. These traumas caused BL to have severe cognitive and behavioral dysfunction, most notably anger and rage issues. These issues were significantly impairing his ability to re-integrate into society and his professional civilian career. Through a course of Intensive Brain Training, supported with home care and nutritional therapies, Subject's is now gainfully employed as a licensed professional and working his way up the ladder. His rage is in check and no longer gets him into dangerous situations. https://apexbraincenters.com/2014/05/28/3-real-life-examples-of-brain-plasticity/ -Plasticity is the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons. Plasticity is the reorganization of neurons, but neurogenesis, which was long thought to be impossible in humans, is the formation of new neurons.

Thalamus

-the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla -sitting at the top of the brainstem -egg shaped structures joined together -receives information from all senses but smell and routes it to the higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching. -is to sensory input what london is to england's train, a hub through which traddic passes en route to various destinations -receives some of the higher brain's replies, which it then directs to the medulla and to the cerebellum -part of the limbic system -means inner chamber

Dendrite

-the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body -"Axons speak. Dendrites listen" -receive information!

genome

-the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes -human researchers had discovered the common sequence within human DNA

sympathetic nervous system

-the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations -it arouses and expends energy -if something alarms, enrages, or challenges you, your sympathetic nervous system will accelerate your heartbeat, raise your blood pressure, slow your digestion, raise your blood sugar, and cool you with perspiration, making you alert and ready for action -spends reserved energy -The Sympathetic Division triggers the: "Fight or flight" response -part of PNS -Characteristics: Located in the middle of the spinal column Reacts to stressful events & bodily arousal "Fight-or-Flight" System -Specific Reactions: Dilates pupils Increases heart rate & breathing Stops digestion & excretion -The sympathetic division demonstrates sympathy for one's emotions

parasympathetic nervous system

-the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy -Restores and repairs spent energy -Claudia has just come home from a long, difficult day of writing a paper for her class. As she sits down on her sofa, her heart rate and breathing slow down, her muscles relax, and her digestive system starts getting ready for food. It appears as though Claudia's parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system has been activated. -The Parasympathetic Division causes: A return to normality after a period of stress. -Located on either side of the sympathetic division, -Restores the body to normal functioning after arousal -"Rest-and-Digest" System -Specific Reactions: Constricts pupils, Slows heart rate & breathing, Reactivates digestion & excretion, Also responsible for most of the ordinary, day-to-day bodily functioning -part of the autonomic system

somatic nervous system

-the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles -as the bell signals the end of class, your somatic nervous system reports to your brain the current state of your skeletal muscles and carries instructions back, triggering your body to rise. -The somatic nervous system carries signals to: Voluntary muscles -The primary motor cortex is an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. Controls the movement of the body's voluntary muscles by sending commands to the somatic division of the PNS -Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig applied mild electrical stimulation to parts of a dog's cortex, and made a discovery that they could make selective parts of the body use by applying stimulation to an arch shaped region of the brain. Fritsch and Hitzig had discovered the motor cortex. -Basically, somatic is something we control ( like we move our arms) -Sensory Pathway: All of the nerves that carry messages from the senses to the central nervous system; contain afferent neurons -Motor Pathway: All of the nerves that carry messages from the central nervous system to the voluntary muscles of the body; contain efferent neurons -The voluntary command Maya uses to raise her hand in class would travel through the SOMATIC nervous system from the spinal cord to the muscles that control for movement. -Which nervous system is involved in allowing you to shoot a basketball, smell freshly baked bread, and push they keys on a piano? SOMATIC -When you are running to catch a bus, the SOMATIC nervous system is directly responsible for making the muscles in your legs move. -can help control digestion, but is not primary one

Axon

-the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands -tube like structure that carries the neural message away from the soma and to other cells (neurons) -"Axons speak. Dendrites speaks" -The fluid interior of a resting axon carries mostly negatively charged ions, while the fluid outside has mostly positively charged ions. -An action potential occurs when the first part of the axon opens its gates and positively charged ions rush in, causing that part of the neuron to be depolarized . -is encased by the myelin sheath

neurogenesis

-the formation of new neurons -Plasticity is the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons. Plasticity is the reorganization of neurons, but neurogenesis, which was long thought to be impossible in humans, is the formation of new neurons. -monkey brains illustrate this by forming thousands of new neurons each day

synapse

-the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron -the meeting point between neurons -A synapse is: a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron -Neurotransmitters travels across the synapse from one neuron to the next; transmits information -Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake -

Threshold

-the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse -if excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals excess a minimum intensity, or threshold, the combined signals trigger an action potential. -If a sufficiently strong stimulus causes depolarization to reach "threshold potential" it triggers a response called a(n) action potential (always on the AP test!!!) -IN TOILET TERMS: This would be the baseline pressure to apply to the handle. Like, the least amount needed to push the handle.

Brainstem

-the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions -oldest and innermost region -If this part of the brain is destroyed or injured, a person will be unable to survive because it controls basic automatic functions. For instance, if a brain stem is severed from the rest of the brain above it, the animal will still breathe and live. But with the brainstem cut off from the brain's higher regions, the animal won't purposefully run or climb to get food. -Lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord -Contains the medulla, pons & reticular formation -Automatic survival functions -Sends & receives information -if a cat's brain stem is severed from the rest of the brain above it, the cat will still breath and live/ But with its brainstem cut off from the brain's higher regions, the cat won't purposeful run or climb to get food

autonomic nervous system

-the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. -Like an automatic pilot, this system may be overridden consciously, but usually operates on its own (autonomously) - The autonomic nervous system carries signals to: Involuntary muscles, organs, and glands. -the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions -LOOK AT DIAGRAM FOR PARTS AND FUNCTIONS -More or less automatic -Controls organs, glands & involuntary muscles -Comprised of two systems: Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System -subset of the peripheral nervous system -The digestion of last night's dinner is most directly controlled by the AUTONOMIC system. parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

dual processing

-the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks -perception, memory, thinking, language, and attitudes all operate on two levels - a conscious deliberate high road and an unconscious arithmetic low road -Someone who has experienced brain damage to the area of the brain associated with vision still being able to "see" would be an example of dual processing. While we do only have one visual system, this deals with the notion that there are underlying factors that can occur as a result of our everyday actions. -An example of two track mind would be seeing a hummingbird and thinking "it;s a hummingbird" but not thinking about, yet still taking note of, it's color, distance, etc.

heritability

-the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attributed to genes. -depends on race, rand og populations, and environments studied

peripheral nervous system

-the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body -contains the somatic and autonomic systems -Responsible for all nervous system functions outside the brain and spinal cord -one of the major divisions of the nervous system -The PNS is made up of all the nerves and neurons that lie outside the brain & spinal cord; allows the brain & spinal cord to communicate with the sensory systems of the eyes, ears, skin, and mouth and allows the brain & spinal cord to control the muscles & glands of the body

behavior genetics

-the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior -The study of the relative power & limits of genetics and environmental influences on behavior -nature vs nurture

molecular genetics

-the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes -seeks to identify specific genes influencing behavior -DEFINITION: A branch extension of behavior genetics that asks the question, "Do specific genes influence behavior?" -GOAL: To find some of the many genes that influence normal human traits (e.g. body weight, sexual orientation, extraversion)

environment

-the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates. -every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

chromosomes

-threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes -Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that carry genetic information; located in the nucleus of every human cell -Humans: 46 chromosomes (23/23) -Chromosomal Problems Down Syndrome Extra chromosome (21st pair) Klinefelter's Syndrome Extra X chromosome; reduced masculine characteristics (e.g. enlarged breasts, obesity, etc.) Turner's Syndrome Missing X chromosome (e.g. infertility, sexually underdeveloped, etc.)

Lesion

-tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue -Left temporal lesions result in impaired memory for verbal material. -Right side lesions result in recall of non-verbal material, such as music and drawings. -example study: This case study would center on a person with Parkinson's disease and the results of electrical simulation. By using a leisoning in the sense of electrical impulses, the area of the person's brain affected by parkinson's could be electrically stimulated to see whether this helps or makes worse tremors. Based on what Parkinson's is, stimulating this area of the brain will likely help reduce symptoms. So the case study would center on how the participants' Parkinson's would react to the electrical stimulation in the brain. -The natural or experimental destruction of brain tissue. An electrode passes a high frequency current through the structure. Burns & disables the targeted tissue -used for Researching the brain, treatment for Parkinson's and Schizophrenia to cut out lobes of the brain, but it is very rare for treatment. For research think of Phineas Gage. -In 1939, psychologist Heinrich Kluver and neurosurgeon Paul Bucy surgically lesioned the part of a rhesus monkey's brain that included the amygdala. The result was that the normally ill-tempered monkey turned into the most mellow of creatures. Poke it, pinch it, do virtually anything that normally would trigger a ferocious response, and still the animal remained placid. In later studies with other wild animals, including the lynx, wolverine, and wild rat, researchers noted the same effect. What then might happen if we electrically stimulated the amygdala in a normally placid domestic animal, such as a cat. Do so in one spot and the cat prepares to attack, hissing with its back arched. Move the electrode only slightly within the amygdala, cage the cat with a small mouse, and now it cowers in terror.FEEG

fraternal twins (twin studies)

-twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. Genetical no closer than other siblings. -It can help explain genetic differences because it allows for the idea of Nature vs. nurture to be shown. So it is seen how much of the difference is genetic, cause if twins have differences we know that that is less genetic, or similar, so like someone who was adopted shares traits with their biological family despite being raised with their adoptive family. The same goes for the inverse of all this, like if a person shares traits with their adoptive family despite not being genetically related. -

Amygdala

-two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. -In 1939, psychologist Heinrich Kluver and neurosurgeon Paul Bucy surgically lesioned the part of a rhesus monkey's brain that included the amygdala. The result was that the normally ill-tempered monkey turned into the most mellow of creatures. Poke it, pinch it, do virtually anything that normally would trigger a ferocious response, and still the animal remained placid. In later studies with other wild animals, including the lynx, wolverine, and wild rat, researchers noted the same effect. What then might happen if we electrically stimulated the amygdala in a normally placid domestic animal, such as a cat. Do so in one spot and the cat prepares to attack, hissing with its back arched. Move the electrode only slightly within the amygdala, cage the cat with a small mouse, and now it cowers in terror.

Paul Broca

-was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. -discovered area in the brain (named for him) in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production -Broca's area is a region of the brain with functions linked to speech production. The production of language has been linked to the Broca's area since Paul Pierre Broca reported impairments in two patients. They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain -His work revealed that the brains of patients suffering from aphasia contained lesions in a particular part of the cortex, in the left frontal region. -In 1865, Paul Broca reported that with damage to a specific area of the left frontal lobe, a person would struggle to speak words while still being able to sing songs and understand speech