Chapter 6 Macro quiz

Another exception allows for the enforcement of:

- prohibitions regarding nuclear materials or biological/chemical weapons of mass destruction when it is determined that an emergency poses a serious threat/is beyond the capability of civilian law enforcement

Posse Comitatus , according to Black's law dictionary, is:

-"the power of force of the country" -the entire population of a country above the age of 15, which a sheriff may summon to their assitance in certain cases as to aid them in keeping the peace, in pursuing arresting felons, etc

SWAT deployments have increased more than:

-1,400 percent since the 1980s, with teams raiding organic farms, nightclubs, etc

The SWAT team was first established in:

-1967 by los angeles police inspector Daryl Gates in response to the six-day long 1965 riots that occurred in the Watts neighborhood -since then, SWAT and other paramilitary police teams have proliferated in response to the wars on drugs/terror, so that now 80 percent of tows w/ populations less than 50,000 have some form of paramilitary police team

During the 2014 riots/protests in Ferguso, Missouri, that arose over the shooting of:

-Michael Brown, police were routinely photographed wearing camouflage uniforms , helmets and gas masks, while patrolling the streets in heavily armed vehicles -this is instructive to look at how this police militarization has evolved

Another method of addressing the stress of police work is:

-REDUCING THE PARAMILITARY FOCUS that some departments have adopted

Firearms are a constant feature in the lives of police officers

-about 97 percent of officer suicides involve the officer's own service gun -police officers are trained in the use of guns, carry them on a daily basis, are prepared emotionally to use guns in the pursuit of lawbreakers and have been sufficiently desentisized to the effects of guns

police militarization often has the unintended consequences of:

-alienating people from their own police -in our efforts to fight the war on drugs/terrorism, we have engaged in a war upon ourselves -however, although many citizens object to the presence of heavily armed police officers in public places, other citizens who are fearful of terrorist activities welcome the presence of officers who are equipped to handle situations in which extreme violence can occur

In the 20th century, the act was extended to:

-all domestic services with the enactment of title 10 us code section 375 -the act generally prohibits US military personnel from direct participation in law enforcement

military model:

-an action oriented culture in which all citizens are considered potential drug dealers, violent criminals and terrorists -this military model is MORE PROACTIVE THAN REACTIVE

We call the police in situations that might require:

-an outside party to mediate/use force on our behalf because they have been trained/are armed and authorized to do so

3. an increase in private policing

-another potential effect of police militarization may be the rise of private police forces in affluent communities -much like the rise of private prisons to alleviate the problem of crowing in public facilities, there will likely be an increase in paramilitary security around businesses, neighborhoods and schools

Although these guidelines appear to limit the use of force by police, Bittner said they:

-are essentially meaningless -no one really knows what is meant by the "lawful use of force" because each incident is different/ it is impossible to cover all circumstances in which police may se force

The effect of alcohol on police has not been lost on police administration:

-as with many other agencies and corporations, personnel polices are geared toward ensuring that the police maintain good health/ do not put the force at risk of lawsuits because of unfitness for duty

There is extensive evidence that people who have persistent, stressful traumatic experiences are:

-at increased risk for suicidal ideation

Socialization in the police subculture establishes that drinking alcohol is not deviant:

-because "Everyone drinks after work", alcohol consumption is soon viewed as normal behavior -whereas in other circumstances, consistent/excessive alcohol consumption may be viewed as a problem, in police work it just means that an officer is "one of the guys" -when embarrassing incidents happen, these issues are turned into amusing stories that are told over and over in future drinking bouts as evidence that "civilians don't understand police work"

it is recommended that police officers use only the force required to:

-bring order to a situation and no more -this is highly contingent judgment/one for which considerable variation can be expected -if force is applied appropriately, we expect to see relatively low levels of force used more often than deadly force -most force used by police is relatively minor

According to the sociologist Egon Bittner:

-civilized society has been developing mechanisms to eliminate the legitimacy of all forms of force -from international diplomacy to the internal workings of the criminal justice system, the use of force has been relegated to last-resort status

Prior to the 1990s, police typically wore tactical gear, such as:

-combat boots, helmets and bullet-proof vests, only for particularly dangerous activities, such as controlling riots -occasionally, a SWAT team (special weapons and tactics) was called in to deal w/ threats such as hostage crisis/bank robbery -now, it is quite common to see police dressed in tactical unifroms

Police officers have been recorded engaging in:

-inappropriate/lethal uses of force -sometimes these recordings are misleading because they do not show the full context of the encounter -often recordings show officers who are obviously great exceeding their use-of-force guidelines

The SWAT records provided for the study typically did not include:

-information to explain why a situation was considered "high risk" -most jurisdictions do NOT have policies governing the deployment of SWAT teams, nor do most police departments collect data on SWAT deployments in order to assess their efficacy

An American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) study has revealed that:

-it has become common for SWAT teams to execute search warrants in drug investigations -of all the incidents the ACLU report looked at, 79 percent involved the use of a SWAT team to search a private home -more than 60 percent of the cases involved searches for drugs

Situations in which police use force are highly contextual and:

-it is difficult to determine what pressures police officers were under when they decided that force was necessary -we know that the police use force in making arrests/keeping order

Although police corruption has been a significant problem for some agencies at particular times:

-it is likely not as pervasive as the issues of the policeman's working personality -however, the nature/extent of police corruption are worth our attention because of the constant temptations placed before police officers/because trust in the criminal justice system is one of the cornerstones of democratic society

Given that police are allowed/expected to use force:

-it should be of some comfort to realize that they use extreme force rarely -cases of extreme use of force that are labeled police brutality create a negative perception of contemporary police work

Given the preceding discussion about police stress and its contributions to alcohol abuse/family problems:

-it should not be too surprising to learn that suicide also concerns the police/their families -there is evidence that police officers are at higher risk of committing homicide-suicide killing a family member then themselves-than civilians with domestic violence/divorce or enstrangement being prominent predictors

Erratic work shifts and insufficient sleep have:

-long been identified as risk factors for suicidal ideation among physicians and other emergency personnel

The move toward more community policing activities seems like a promising strategy to:

-make police work less stressful -to the extent that the police become integrated into the community, it can be expected that their work will be not only more affective but also more socially rewarding

Congress has also exacted exceptions to the act that allow:

-military to assist civilian law enforcement agencies, such as enforcing drug laws/suppressing insurrections -the act also allows the president to use federal troops to enforce federal laws when rebellion makes it difficult to enforce the law

1. Self defense

-self defense laws vary from state to state, but the generally accepted principle is that after exhausting all other means of avoiding harm, including retreat, force may be used to protect oneself/others

Suicide is an occupational hazard for police officers

-several studies have shown that law enforcement has one of the highest suicide rates of an occupation -small police departments have higher suicide rates than large departments owing to increased workloads and scarcity of mental health resources

the militarization of the police and the war-on-crime analogy are most apparent in:

-the SWAT divisions of police agencies

The act does now apply to:

-the US Coast Guard during peacetime; to the national guard in title 32 status (when a governor activates the guard of law enforcement activities; or to the guard in state active duty status (when a governor calls in the guard in response to disasters or for homeland defense missions)

Because of the lack of data, rules, regulations or laws concerning the use of SWAT teams:

-the accounts of raids-gone-wrong are often shocking

4. community reaction

-the actions of police can elicit negative reactions from dissatisfied/outraged citizens -communities may engage in public protest and the excessive use of force (especially if there is a record that clearly demonstrates police misconduct) has prompted rioting as a response

Why would police officers resort to suicide at rates higher than those in most other occupations?

-the answer lies in: the types of stress we have already discussed and in the access the police have to handguns

4. Solidarity

-the combination of danger/social isolation creates a sense of solidarity in the police subculture -an "us against them" mentality exists to cope with law violators and the public in general -the police may feel that public takes them for granted/does not take enough responsibility for helping to fight the war against lawbreakers

The police have established a semi-monopoly on:

-the core concerns of their profession -EXAMPLE: USE OF FORCE, which according to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, is "the amount of effort required by police to compel compliance from an unwilling subject

Often, family members experience several stressful concerns:

-the first of these is the change in the personality of the police officer and his or her relationship with a spouse/children -police families experience stress when the police officer brings the job home/treats his or her spouse/children like potential suspects

Not all police officers have equal opportunities to engage in corruption

-the nature of the department, the community and the particular assignment: all influence how much temptation is placed in the officers paths or how fertile the situation is for the meat-eater who aggressively seeks situations to exploit

despite these regulations, there seems to be nothing preventing:

-the police from using military-style tactics/equipment to enforce the law, and the Posse Comitatus Act contains no language addressing this concern

3. ethics education

-the police officers role is complicated -officer must make quick decisions that can have significant consequences not only for the maintenance of public order, but also for the probability of identifying perpetrators of crime/making lawful arrests -many law enforcement administrators believe that ethics education reinforces officers adherence to departmental policy/procedures and their ability to resolve moral dilemmas

The stress of police work might not be the only factor influencing officers to turn to alcohol

-the police subculture also tends to exert a powerful influence on drinking patterns, as it tests trustworthiness, loyalty and masculinity

3. social isolation

-the public treat police officers differently -whereas police officers may perceive an individual as a symbolic assailant, the public sees the police officer as a symbolic authority figure -even when an individual has done nothing wrong, they might be wary of an officer because of the perceived power the officer has to detain, question , search and arrest -social isolation causes many officers to limit their social interactions to situations in which other officers are around

Major distinctions have been made between:

-the roles of the police and those of the military -police officers are tasked with serving citizens and protecting them from each other -the military is responsible for protecting citizens from foreign threats -this distinction is codified by the 1878 Posse Comitatus Act

The impetus for the increased militarization of policing was:

-the terrorist attacks on the US on September 11, 2001.

2. physical injury or death

-the use of excessive force may injure or kill people -from june 2015 through may 2016, about 1,900 arrest-related deaths occurred -although there are some instances in which the use of force is justified, there is a well-established principle that police officers should use just enough force to control situations and not as a form of dominance/intimidation -police officers must decide in a short period of time exactly how much danger exists in a situation/apply reasonable force -this judgement, often made in a split second, can have severe consequences

Most police contacts to not require:

-the use of force and the reality of law enforcement is much more routine

Use of force model

-this figure shows how a police officer may respond to a subject's behavior/the tactics they may use -for example, an officer will take a professional tone/talk to a subject who is cooperative/submissive -a subject who is physically aggressive may require lethal force

3. police force

-this law legitimate use of force is much broader than the previous 2

The general militarization of the police has been under way for a couple of decades:

-this militarization can be observed in much of the equipment that the police use

The expectation fo how much/what type of force an officer will use in a given situation varies according to a number of factors:

-time of day, whether the officer is alone or working with a partner, the size/sex of the suspect, the environment can influence whether/how much force is used

The original intent of the Posse Comitatus Act was:

-to end the use of federal troops to monitor state elections in the former confederate states

In 1972, the Knapp Commission issued:

-ts report on police corruption in NYC -Based on the revelations made by undercover detective Frank Serpico, 19 officers were indicated for accepting payoffs

Law enforcement can be a stressful career

-unlike many occupations, the threat of physical injury or death is a daily possibility -according to the FBI, 41 law enforcement officers were feloniously killed in the line of duty during 2015

Excessive use of force by the police is problematic in several ways:

1. legal liability 2. physical injury or death 3. loss of citizen respect 4. community reaction

The types of situations in which a SWAT team may be used include, but are limited to the following:

1. protecting police officers engaged in crowd control from sniper attack 2. providing high-ground/perimeter security for visiting dignitaries 3. rescuing hostages 4. providing for the nonviolent apprehension of desperate barricaded suspects 5. providing control-assault firepower in certain nonriot situations 6. rescuing officers/citizens endangered by gunfire 7. neutralizing guerilla or terrorist operations against gov. personnel, property or the general populace

Today, physical force is considered legitimate only under the following conditions:

1. self-defense 2. specifically deputized people against some specifically named people 3. police force

research has found that the stress of police work is highly related to:

alcohol abuse -other coping mechanisms, such as emotional distancing (officers learn to objectify their emotions when faced w/ death or injured people, victims, abused children, etc) and cynicism, were found to be related to alcohol use (directly or indirectly)

1. The relationship between police and the community

-contemporary police departments have sought to bridge the gap between police officers/citizens -by adopting community policing strategies, police departments try to integrate officers into the community, enabling them to recognize those who violate the law and enlist the support of law-abiding citizens in making communities safer -in many communities, police militarization has frustrated police officials in their attempts to integrate officers into everyday community life -police militarization has made the police appear to be an invading force, aimed at suppressing everyone in the community, regardless of their orientation to the legal system -in many communities, police do not live in the community, but come from outside the community, as such, they are often viewed as occupying forces

The occupational culture of police fosters certain personality characteristics in its practitioners

-danger, authority, potential symbolic assailants and social isolation are the features of the occupation that encourage the construction of the policeman's working personality -this process may have far-reaching implications for the recruitment, training, and control of police officers

Because the legitimate use of police force is so dependent on the situations context/because police must make decisions in the heat of the moment, under dangerous conditions:

-determining the lawfulness of the use of force is problematic -this puts police in a no-win situation -failure to use appropriate force might risk injury/death to themselves or others -the use of too much force could result in disciplinary action

In the past several years, many public safety organizations have instituted:

-drug and alcohol testing to ensure that police officers are capable of performing their assignments -assistance is offered to those who need help and continued failures to meet departmental standards can be cause for dismissal -this extreme remedy is more likely to be used for those found to be taking illegal drugs than it is for those who abuse alcohol, but the police agencies are more attuned to the effects of intoxication now than they have been in past

The new "war on terror" and the resulting USA PATRIOT act radically changed the:

-environment in which police officers operated -citizens were now willing to cede much more discretion to both national/local governments to prevent terrorism -border security became a priority/the police were enlisted to assist the federal gov/ in fighting terrorism

The history of policing is replete with:

-examples not only of corruption of an individual officers, but also of the widespread, systematic corruption of entire departments/the municipal governments they serve -no official statistics are kept on the prevalence of police corruption, so it is difficult to estimate how much occurs

When situations get out of hand, we "cal the cops" to:

-exercise their professional skills/judgement to maintain order/ensure justice -the alternative would be anarchy in which everyone decided for themselves what constituted reasonable force/appropriate justice

This problem of what constitutes appropriate police use of force has been:

-exposed by the widespread availability of social media -before nearly everyone was carrying a phone w/ a high quality camera, the truth about police-citizen encounters was left t the police to disclose -now, pictures/videos from these encounters routinely appear all over the media/become public knowledge almost instantly

The dangers associated w/ police work can also be a source of stress for officer's families:

-family members pressure on the police officer about the job can create a dilemma. -feeling both loyalty to the job/responsibility to the family can result in the officer internalizing stress and as a result doing a bad job a both family life and policing

One study found that subjects who both experienced symptoms of traumatic stress and used alcohol were:

-four times more likely to think about suicide -however, aspects of police work such as organizational stress/sift work may be more troublesome than is commonly believed

Historically, illegal gambling, prostitution, substance-prohibition and other organized crime activities:

-have been major sources of police corruption -because of the war on drugs, tremendous amounts of money are changing hands, putting narcotics officers in position to engage in corrupt acts

The police often do not want to interact socially with others because:

-heir occupation tags them with a status that causes others to treat them as a "cop" -also, police develop the policeman's working personality, which explains how police officers are drawn into a subculture that emphasize's different set of values from those held by a mainstream society

The study also found that Swat teams forced entry into:

-homes using a battering ram or similar device in 65 percent of drug searches -it is unclear how many of these situations were actually dangerous

subsequent investigations revealed even more violators:

-in examining this systematic corruption, the Knapp Commission distinguished between 2 types of corrupt police officers: "MEAT EATERS" AND "GRASS EATERS" -GRASS EATERS: took bribes but did not solicit them -MEAT EATERS- actively sought situations that they could exploit for financial gain

It is hard to think fo any other occupation, including the military, in which guns are such a constant part of the job:

-in fact, the phrase "he ate his fun" is part of the police lexicon. -it is unfair, however, to argue that the gun is solely responsible for police suicide rates -although firearms are an efficient way to kill oneself, a determined person will find a way regardless of whether there is a convenient fun

How should the police be equipped?

-in the past, the weapons that police departments possessed reflected limited local budgets -now, armored vehicles, large-caliber rifles and a variety of other types of military equipment have found their way into the arsenals of local police departments

2. specifically deputized people against some specifically named people

-in this case, Bittner was referring to agents such as mental hospital attendants or corrections officers -here, the right to use force is given to those whose jobs may require them to deal w/ dangerous people in a special context -the right to use force does NOT extend beyond the confines of the job; their jurisdiction is limited to the hospital/prison

The police subculture might socialize new officers into accepting a pattern of after-shift alcohol consumption:

-new employees are anxious to fit into the group -in police work, in which the officer must depend on their partner, there is pressure to judge each other's reliability quickly -learning "what makes the other person tick" through after-hours socializing is an important part of this judgement process -new officers are judged by their peers to "fit in" to the extent that they can hold their liquor, articulate the occupational worldview of the police subculture and accept/participate in complaining about citizens, politicians and superiors

2. identifying problem-prone officers

-not every police officer is equally equipped to engage in all forms of policing -some officers are effective in dealing with the public, others are better at dealing w/ drug dogs etc -police records can reveal that some officers have repeated experiences in using force (those officers should receive special attention)

The style of policing adopted by an officer is influenced by that:

-officer's personal characteristics in coping with the demands of the job and w/ family members and friends -policing imposes a lifestyle that might set police officers apart from civilians in terms of: sociability, social integration and social acceptance

societal expectations put the police is a precarious position:

-on one hand, we expect them to use reasonable force when our interests are at stake -on the other hand, we decide what reasonable force is only after the fact

this normalization of alcohol consumption may preclude treatment because "all of my friends drink"

-one of the issues that can lead to people to seek treatment for their drug/alcohol addiction is the embarrassment it can cause in the workplace -when a fellow officer is forced to admit that alcohol is a problem, other officers might feel uncomfortable examining their own drinking patterns

FIVE aspects of policing are associated with risk of suicidal ideation (thinking about suicide):

-organizational stress, trauma from critical incidents, shift work, relationships problems and alcohol use and abuse

Clearly, there are legitimate reasons to have SWAT teams

-police agencies are occasionally required to perform dangerous tasks -it makes sense to have specially trained officers to respond to unusual situations -however, some critics are concerned that merely having a SWAT team means that it will be employed in situations that can be handled in more routine ways

to successfully reduce police stress to manageable levels:

-police agencies, city or county administrations and police officers themselves can use several strategies -revisiting the effect of rotating officers shifts is a FIRST STEP IN REFORMING POLICING -making unattractive shifts more desirable for officers can be accomplished by paying more to those who are willing to assume the hardship

1. training

-police departments have constructed training programs that attempt to develop realistic scenarios in which police officers have an opportunity to consider when/how much force should be used in particular situations

1. legal liability

-police departments risk legal liability when their officers use excessive force -officers who severely injure or kill citizens expose the department/the locality to legal proceedings -if a judge or jury decides that the use of force was excessive, the financial compensation to the victims may be substantial -police departments cannot afford to let their officers have unfettered discretion in their use of force

According to Bittner, we ask police to make a decision requiring the exercise of TWO conflicting parts of the nature of police work:

-police must simultaneously balance their physical prowess w/ their professional acumen

1. the symbolic assailant

-police officers must always be on guard -they are systematically trained and culturally reinforced to consider everyone a potential assailant until they can size up the situation/determine that an individual poses no threat -officers cannot assume that they are of no threat until they can independently establish that they are what they seem to be, which is accomplished based on behavioral/contextual clues

3. loss of citizen respect

-police officers must have the cooperation of citizens to do their job effectively/professionally -when they use excessive force, they forfeit that respect -this could have far reaching implications for the enforcement of the law in the community -citizens who would normally cooperate w/ law enforcement by pointing out dangers situations/potential violators may remain silent b/c they object to the unreasonable force that police officers have used -lawbreakers or suspects who fear excessive use of force by police may engage in riskier behaviors

Because the police are the ones called when force must be used, they have the most to fear from violence

-police stress comes in many forms and can exert different types of strain on officers, their families and the police agency -it can be physical, emotional, social, marital, chemical or occupational -at times, several types of stress can be experienced simultaneously -the job of police officer invites stress/ the way police agencies structure assignments, shifts, support and discipline contributes to the anxiety/strain of the job

Police departments human resources division have implemented:

-policies aimed at helping individual officers and community programs that are available to all citizens are also available t the police, the police officers often shun these resources

Although the police do engage in chases, gunfights and careful sleuthing, these are:

-rare events compared to a typical day's proceedings -most police work resembles any other kind of work: it can be boring, tiresome, technically demanding but not always dangerous

2. reorientation of the police identity

-rather than adopting community-oriented policing practices in which officers identify as part of the community, many officers have adopted the military model -some officers consider community policing as being "soft" on crime and terrorism, especially in minority/immigrant neighborhoods -this attitude promotes an atmosphere of fear/intimidation rather than accommodation to community standards

Studies found that alcohol was used as a method to:

-relieve the inherent stress of police work 20 times as often as cynicism of emotional distancing -when those methods failed, alcohol use became more likely

ISOLATION is another issue that police officers and their families face and can take on TWO FORMS:

1. the officer might not express the stress that comes from the job to the family, and he or she could appear withdrawn/uninterested in family's concerns -additionally, the family might be treated with hostility by neighbors who believe that they are being watched by the police officer -on one hand, integrating into the community is desirable -on the other hand, it might become problematic when the members of the community see the police as a threat

Police militarization has affected the nature of law enforcement in the US in several ways:

1. the relationship between the police and community 2. Reorientation of the police identity 3. an increase in private policing

Therefore, it is useful to consider the concept of the policeman's working personality in some detail by examining some of its key elements:

1. the symbolic assailant 2. danger 3. social isolation 4. solidarity

These strategies to evaluate/control police officer's use of force include:

1. training 2. identifying problem-prone officers 3. ethics education

According to Bittner, the formal restrictions of police use of force are as follows:

A. use of force is limited to certain types of situations. For example, in some jurisdictions, police may shoot to kill dangerous feeling felons but not those who have committed misdemeanors B. the police may use force only in the performance of official duties, not to advance their personal interests/ the private interest of others C. the police may not use force maliciously/frivolously