Chapter 6 Psychology

prosocial behavior:

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

spontaneous recovery:

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

modeling:

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

conditioned reinforcer:

(also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior modeled is prosocial (positive, helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule is a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced: In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if reinforcement stops. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses. Variable-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods. Variable-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after unpredictable time periods.

6. "Sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.

A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?

Both types of conditioning are forms of associative learning and involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. In classical conditioning, we associate events we do not control and respond automatically (respondent behaviors). In operant conditioning, we link our behaviors (operant behaviors) with their consequences.

What is classical conditioning, and how does it demonstrate associative learning?

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. The process involves stimuli and responses: A UR (unconditioned response) is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US (unconditioned stimulus) is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS (conditioned stimulus) is originally an NS (neutral stimulus, such as a tone) that, through learning, becomes associated with some unlearned response (salivating). A CR (conditioned response) is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

Why were Skinner's ideas controversial, and how are educators, managers, and parents applying operant principles?

Critics say that Skinner's approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that external forces shape us anyway, so we should direct those forces with reinforcement, which is more humane than punishment. Teachers can control students' behaviors with shaping techniques, and use interactive media to provide immediate feedback. Managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. Parents can reward desirable behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, planning how to work toward these goals, monitoring the frequency of our desired behaviors, reinforcing these behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as our desired behaviors become habitual.

16. Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. This finding supports Pavlov's demonstration of generalization. Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival. Watson's belief that psychologists should study observable behavior, not mentalistic concepts. the early behaviorists' view that any organism can be conditioned to any stimulus.

Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival.

15. Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)? The Little Albert experiment Pavlov's experiments with dogs Watson's behaviorism studies Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies

Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies

What parts do acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the first stage is acquisition, or the association of the NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding, which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the US). Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Responses may be triggered by stimuli similar to the CS (generalization) but not by dissimilar stimuli (discrimination).

Why is Pavlov's work important, and how is it being applied?

Ivan Pavlov taught us how to study a psychological process objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. Classical conditioning is applied to further human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders.

What are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information, such as by observation or language, that guides our behavior.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

More than the behaviorists supposed, expectations influence conditioning. In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research illustrate learning that occurs without immediate consequences. This demonstrates the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can destroy intrinsic motivation for an activity.

How does observational learning differ from associative learning? How may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?

Observational learning, as shown in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, involves learning by watching and imitating, rather than learning associations between different events. We learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. (Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process.) The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words) as when we observe someone else performing those actions.

What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Expanding on Edward Thordike's law of effect, B. F. Skinner and others shaped the behavior of rats and pigeons placed in operant chambers by rewarding the closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any event that strengthens a preceding response.

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Positive reinforcers add a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcers remove or reduce a negative stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry) are naturally satisfying— no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with primary reinforcers. Reinforcers may be immediate or delayed.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdrawing something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy). Negative reinforcement aims to increase frequency of a behavior (such as putting on your seat belt) by taking away something undesirable (the annoying beeping). The aim of punishment is to decrease the frequency of a behavior (such as a child's disobedience). Punishment can have unintended drawbacks: it can (1) suppress rather than change unwanted behaviors; (2) encourage discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is absent); (3) create fear; and (4) increase aggression.

7. Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for ________ work on operant conditioning and behavior control.

Skinner's

law of effect:

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

What limits does biology place on conditioning?

We come prepared to learn tendencies, such as taste aversions, that aid our survival. Learning is adaptive. Despite operant training, animals may revert to biologically predisposed patterns. Learning some associations is easier than learning others due to these biological constraints.

punishment:

an event that decreases the behavior it follows.

primary reinforcer:

an event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

shaping:

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

10. How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage you to pay attention during class?

Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace lecture time with an in-class activity. In both cases, the instructor would remove something aversive in order to negatively reinforce your focused attention.

extrinsic motivation:

a desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment.

intrinsic motivation:

a desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake.

cognitive map:

a mental image of the layout of one's environment.

reinforcement schedule:

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

operant conditioning:

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

classical conditioning:

a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

stimulus:

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior:

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behavior:

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

3. In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) ________ stimulus.

conditioned

17. Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats spontaneously recover previously learned behavior. develop cognitive maps. exhibit respondent behavior. generalize responses.

develop cognitive maps.

4. Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of ________.

discrimination

23. Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence makes all viewers significantly more aggressive. has little effect on viewers. dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence. makes viewers angry and frustrated.

dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence.

biological constraints:

evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned by some animals than others.

12. A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ________ schedule of reinforcement. fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval

fixed-ratio

5. After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates extinction. generalization. spontaneous recovery. discrimination between two stimuli.

generalization

conditioned response (CR):

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

neutral stimulus (NS):

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning.

unconditioned stimulus (US):

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).

conditioned stimulus (CS):

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

acquisition:

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

discrimination:

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

generalization:

in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

extinction:

in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.)

operant chamber:

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

variable-ratio schedule:

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed-ratio schedule:

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

fixed-interval schedule:

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

reinforcement:

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement:

increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement:

increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

1. Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring ________ or ________."

information; behaviors

18. Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated ________ ________.

latent learning

observational learning:

learning by observing others.

associative learning:

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning:

learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

22. Some scientists believe that the brain has ______ neurons that enable observation and imitation.

mirror

9. Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a positive reinforcer. negative reinforcer. positive punishment. negative punishment.

negative reinforcer.

mirror neuron:

neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

19. Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called ________ ________.

observational learning

11. Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ________ reinforcement.

partial

14. An old saying notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a primary reinforcer. negative reinforcer. punisher. positive reinforcer.

punisher.

continuous reinforcement:

reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement:

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

8. One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called ________.

shaping

cognitive learning:

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

learning:

the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

behaviorism:

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

21. Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if their words and actions are consistent. they have outgoing personalities. one parent works and the other stays home to care for the children. they carefully explain why a behavior is acceptable in adults but not in children.

their words and actions are consistent.

2. Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which we associate ________, and operant conditioning, in which we associate ________. two or more responses; a response and consequence two or more stimuli; two or more responses two or more stimuli; a response and consequence two or more responses; two or more stimuli

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

unconditioned response (UR):

unconditioned response (UR): in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

13. The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a ________ schedule.

variable-interval

variable-interval schedule:

variable-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

20. According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ________ reinforcement or ________ punishment.

vicarious; vicarious