Chapter 6 psychology

CURVE OF ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION &SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

-The rising curve shows the conditioned response quickly getting stronger through the repeated pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (acquisition) -Then the curve decreases, which shows how the conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned stimulus is presented (extinction) -After a break or pause from conditioning, the conditioned response reappears (spontaneous recovery).

Higher-order conditioning

-an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (the second-order stimulus), so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented

reflexes

-are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. -simpler than instincts - involve the activity of specific body parts and systems - Involve primitive centers of the CNS (e.g., spinal cord and medulla). - E.g. Human babies are born with a sucking reflex.

Extinction

-decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS -gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response -If food stops being presented with the sound of the bell then eventually the dog will stop responding to the bell.

what does the pupil do

allows light to enter the eye

learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not a familiar one is called

discrimination

What did John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrate with their studies of Little Albert?

emotion can be a conditioned response

in continuous reinforcement, the response is rewarded for the desired behavior...

every behavior -best way to establish behavior

type of consequence: you are ticketed for speeding so your car is taken away

negative punishment

Partial reinforcement

the organism does not get reinforced every time they display the desired behavior (they are reinforced intermittently).

variable interval reinforcement schedule

the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded -reinforcement is given after a number of correct responses

Jeong observes his sister Bronwyn getting spanked for spitting out her carrots. Because he does not like getting spanked, he chews and swallows the carrots even though he hates them is an example of

vicarious punishment

Associative learning

when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. -central to all three basic learning processes

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time -reinforcing an action after a certain amount of time

In classical conditioning, the association that is learned is between a ________.

neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

All punishers (positive or negative)....

decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response

fixed ratio

description: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses) results: High response rate with pauses after reinforcement examples: Piecework—factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured

classical conditioning

process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.

in Pavlov's experiment, what is the dog drooling to the food called

Unconditioned response

Babs saw Martin receive a candy bar for completing his reading list. She is careful to complete her reading list because she saw Martin get a reward for doing it. this is an example of

vicarious reinforcement

learning

-helps organisms adapt to their environment but learned behaviors involve change and experience -acquiring knowledge and skills through experience. -involves conscious and unconscious processes

who conducted experiments (mainly with rats and pigeons) to determine how learning occurs through operant conditioning.

skinner

An important part of shaping is

stimulus discrimination

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

the number of responses needed for a reward varies. This is the most powerful partial reinforcement schedule -reinforcement after varying number of correct responses

ratio

means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.

interval

means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements

positive

means you are adding something

punishment

means you are decreasing a behavior

Reinforcement

means you are increasing a behavior

negative

means you are taking something away

Dymesha watches her older sister do headstands. Dymesha falls over when she attempts to do a headstand herself. She watches her older sister more carefully, and she notices that her sister leans backward slightly to complete her headstand. Dymesha is then able to do headstands herself. Which type of learning is this?

observational

rewarding a child for finishing his oatmeal mush and counting how many times the child needs to be rewarded before he finishes his oatmeal voluntarily, involves

operant conditioning

in ________ reinforcement, the person or animal is not reinforced every time a desired behavior is performed.

parital

The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with

positive reinforcement.

variable

refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes

classical conditioning (conditioned approach and stimulus timing)

conditioned approach- An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation). Stimulus timing-The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.

Dave's boss told him that he doesn't have to attend the company picnic (which everybody dislikes) if Dave meets his sales quota this month. Dave's boss is using ________.

negative reinforcement

acquisition

-The initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus - Usually this requires there to be a very short time interval between the NS and the UCS and for the pairing to repeated multiple times. - Sometimes conditioning can occur when the interval is up to several hours and the pairing occurs only once (e.g. taste aversion).

According to psychologist ________ classical conditioning is effective because of the ability of a person or animal to predict the relationship between the UCS and the CS.

Rescorla

the skinner box

To study operant conditioning, Skinner placed animals inside an operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) containing a lever that when pressed causes food to be dispensed as a reward.

Gambling at a slot machine is an example of which reinforcement schedule?

variable ratio

spontaneous recovery

- the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

Cognitive map

a mental picture of the layout an environment.

retrieval is best when the present context recreates the context in which info was initially encoded

encoding specificity

What do psychologists call a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience?

learning

Bandura identified three kinds of models:

live, verbal, symbolic

what type of operant conditioning (consequence) is a sticker chart

positive reinforcement

Vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior.

Vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior.

fixed

refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging.

Classical conditioning can also lead to habituation.

- learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. -As a stimulus is repeated, we learn not to focus our attention on it

Latent learning

- learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it

classical conditioning after conditioning

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR) - the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus. Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)

fixed interval

Description: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). result: Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement examples: Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief

What is the main idea of social learning theory?

One can learn new behaviors by observing others.

postive punishment

Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

postive reinforcement

Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

taste aversion suggests that this response may be

an evolutionary adaptation designed to help organisms quickly learn to avoid harmful foods

nonassociative learning involves a change in the ______ of and response to a _______

magnitude, repeated

shaping occurs when

rewards are given to behaviors that approximate the correct response

most valid criticism of Watson and Rayner's work with "little Albert"

It would be unethical by today's research standards

in classical conditioning the neutral stimulus becomes the ______after conditioning

conditioned stimulus

albert bandura's bobo doll experiment showed that kids used

observational learning

Tolman's experiments with rats demonstrated that

organisms can learn even if they do not receive immediate reinforcement

negative reinforcement involves

removal of an unpleasant stimulus

radical behaviorism

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

Stimulus discrimination

- when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar - The dog can discriminate between the specific bell sound that signals food and a similar bell sound that does not signal food

classical conditioning during conditioning

Neutral stimulus (NS) - stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell - does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning). - The NS and UCS are paired repeatedly. Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

negative punishment

Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior

negative reinforcement

Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

operant conditioning

organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence

Which of the following is an example of a reflex?

the pupil of your eye contracting in the presence of bright light

models

The individuals performing the imitated behavior

According to Lefrançois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur:

1. You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won't be late. 2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get burned on a stove. 3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.

reinforcement schedules

fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio

Bandura

-He believed that observational learning involved more than just imitation and that internal mental states must be involved. -brand of behaviorism called social learning theory, which took cognitive processes into account. According to Bandura, pure behaviorism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. reinforcement. -He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation.

Tabetha has a mental picture of the layout of her house, also called a ________, so when she comes home late at night she can navigate through the rooms without turning on a light.

cognitive map

knowing you will get to play miniature golf as soon as you collect 10 gold stars for your reward chart is an example of

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

Habituation

when a animal decreases its response to a repetitive stimulus -perceptual level

What is the main idea of operant conditioning

Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments.

Shaping

(skinner) In shaping, instead of rewarding only the target behavior, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior. - Behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. - Useful when teaching a complex chain of events. - Commonly used by animal trainers.

John B. Watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion.

- Believed that all behavior could be studied as a stimulus-response reaction. - Believed the principles of classical conditioning could be used to condition human emotions. - Conducted a famous study with "Little Albert".

Continuous reinforcement

- when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior. - Quickest way to teach a behavior. -E.g. a dog receives a treat every time it sits when told to. - Timing is important - the treat must be presented immediately after sitting in order for the dog to associate the target behavior with the consequence.

Observational learning

-extends the effective range of both classical and operant conditioning -is the process of watching others and then imitating what they do

Secondary reinforcers

-those that have no inherent value. There value is learnt and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer. - Praise, a secondary reinforcer is linked with affection, a primary reinforcer. - Money is only reinforcing when it can be used to buy other things such as things that satisfy basic needs (food) or other secondary reinforcers. - Tokens are a secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for other things.

Stimulus generalization

-when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus -If an individual learns to dislike a specific spider, they will usually then dislike all spiders.

Steps in the Modeling Process

1. Attention - focus on the behavior. 2. Retention - remember what you observed. 3. Reproduction - be able to perform the behavior. 4. Motivation - must want to copy the behavior.

There are many approaches to learning. We will look at approaches that are part of behaviorism:

1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Observational learning

steps to shaping

1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior (no longer reinforce previously reinforced response). 3. Then begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. 4. Continue to do this until only the desired behavior is reinforced.

Although B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson refused to believe that thoughts and expectations play a role in learning, ________ suggested a cognitive aspect to learning.

Edward C. Tolman

B. F. Skinner

He is famous for demonstrating the principles of operant conditioning: The motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated.

what is amplitude

Height of a wave

If the principles of social learning theory are true, then children may model aggressive behavior ________.

after seeing a television character receive a reward for taking violent action against another character

instincts

are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as maturation and the change of seasons. - More complex. - Involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity, migration). - Involve higher brain centers.

Classical and operant conditioning are forms of ________ learning.

associative

Thorndike's law of effect

behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

operant conditioning (conditioned approach and stimulus timing)

conditioned approach- The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future stimulus timing- The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.

Jemma wants to teach her son to say thank you. Every time he says thank you, Jemma praises him and gives him a hug. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

continuous

Results showed that all rats exposed to flavor-illness pairings learned to avoid the flavor, but none of the rats exposed to lights and sounds with illness learned to avoid lights or sounds. This added evidence to the idea that classical conditioning....

could contribute to species survival by helping organisms learn to avoid stimuli that posed real dangers to health and welfare.

baby turning its head to suckle when its cheek is stroked is an example of

instinct

________ reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.

primary

variable ratio

description: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses) results: High and steady response rate example: gabling

variable interval

description: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). results: Moderate yet steady response rate examples: checking facebook

Gus receives a paycheck at the end of every week. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

fixed interval

Ivan Pavlov's

-research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning -realized that organisms have 2 types of responses to its environment; unconditioned (unlearned) responses and conditioned (learned) responses

Primary reinforcers

hose that have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g. food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure). The value of these reinforcers does not need to be learned.

All reinforcers (positive or negative)....

increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Instincts and reflexes

innate behaviors that organisms are born with that help organisms adapt to their environment -do not have to be learned

classical conditioning before conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food). Unconditioned response -UCR) - a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food). Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

Little albert

Watson exposed Little Albert to certain stimuli and conditioned to fear them. 1. Presented with neutral stimuli (rabbit, dog, cotton wool, a white rat etc). 2. Watson then paired these with a loud sound every time Little Albert touched the stimulus that caused him to feel fear. 3. After repeated pairings, Little Albert became fearful of the stimulus alone, such as the white rabbit. Although initially conditioned to fear specific stimuli, they were all furry and therefore through stimulus generalization, Little Albert came to fear furry things, including Watson in a Santa Claus mask.

Molly attempts to condition her puppy to greet her when she enters the house. She repeatedly pairs her entry to the house with a treat for the puppy. The puppy eventually acquires this ability, and Molly realizes how irritating it is for the puppy to run up to her every time she enters the house. She attempts to make the puppy stop, and eventually the puppy no longer feels motivated to greet her when she enters the house. The puppy no longer greeting her when she enters the house is an example of ________.

extinction

After a hurricane warning came across the television, young Eli became terrified of the alarm sound that signaled a severe weather warning. Over the next few months he heard it several times when the "required monthly tests" came on the television, and his fear faded away. One day the alarm sounded and Eli jumped up and ran out of the room. This return of a previously extinguished response is called ________.

spontaneous recovery

You are a big fan of your grandmother's chocolate chip cookies. Just the smell of them causes you to feel hungry. One night she is making chocolate chip oatmeal almond cookies, a variation of her usual recipe. You smell the baking cookies and even though it is different than her usual cookie scent, you still suddenly feel hungry for a treat. This demonstrates the classical conditioning principle of ________.

stimulus generalization

the evolutionary theory explains

that the immediate associations involved in a conditioned taste aversion are a result of adaptation that helps us learn to avoid foods that are potentially harmful