Chapter 6: The First Global Civilization: The Rise and Spread of Islam

The caliph is referred to as the political and religious successor to Muhammad. The took the role of spreading the ideas that Muhammad represented and continued further his teachings among the people. Some of the first caliphs were Abu Bakr (one of Muhammad's closest friends and follower), Mu'awiya (new leader of the Umayyads, proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem), and Uthman (the third caliph).

1. What is meant by the term "caliph"?

Religion among Bedouin society was mostly a blend of animism and polytheism. However, this was not the case for all of the nomadic tribes. Some, such as the Quraysh, believed in one supreme god named Allah. Prayer and sacrifice was not commonly associated with Allah. They had gods that were associated with different forms and aspects of nature, like sacred caves, pure springs, and groves of trees.

10. Describe Bedouin religion:

Muhammad was a prophet who introduced the basis of Islam in the 7th century in the Arabian peninsula. He spread his ideas and was significantly influenced by the introduction of monotheistic religions, such as Christianity and Judaism. Muhammad's life experiences played a role in his life as a religious leader. He had a humble beginning and his extended relatives, like his uncle Abu Talib, had the most significant influence on him since both his parents died. He lived in Mecca as an adolescent and pursued traveling and meditation. He believed that Allah spoke to him directly and these revelations that he had were collected in the holy book, the Qur'an. These revelations that were placed in the Qur'an made up the basis of the teachings that Muhammad spread on Allah's behalf.

11. Who was Muhammad?

He was originally a trader for his wife, Khadijah. He spent a lot of his time in Mecca as a merchant that traveled a lot and was exposed to all the new and incoming, different religions. Muhammad was a prophet and believed that it was his duty to spread the teachings of Allah to the rest of the population.

12. What was Muhammad's occupation?

The collection of revelations delivered to Muhammad from Allah. It is a holy book in Islam and it made up the basis of the lessons that Muhammad taught his followers. These revelations by Muhammad were recorded in the book and written in Arabic.

13. Define "Qur'an"—

The Umayyads did not like Islam and Muhammad and even felt greatly threatened by the introduction of this new religion. They saw it as a threat to their wealth and power, and were not very welcoming to the idea of that. Muhammad was aware of this and felt threatened by the Umayyads who greatly disliked him and his religion. They had plans to murder him as a way to ensure that he was no longer a threat.

14. How did the Umayyads perceive Muhammad and his religion?

The hijra was the flight to Medina. It marked the first year of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad made the trip from Mecca to Medina in hopes of maintaining safety for himself from the Umayyads that threatened his life.

15. What was Muhammad's hijra?

The agreement that Muslims could visit the holy shrine of Ka'ba during the season truth. Muhammad viewed this a great feat for his religion and his people. It was even more significant with the increasing amount of followers that Muhammad was gaining for his religion. It also marked the initial drawing in of the Umayyads who once feared and disliked him.

16. What agreement was made in 628 with a treating of the Quraysh?

The two groups that initially adopted Islam were Arab town dwellers and Bedouins whom Muhammad had already known and had grown up with. Not everyone was accepting of the new religion and for that reason it was not quick to gain extensive amounts of followers.

17. What two groups adopted Islam at the beginning?

The belief in those who hold religious importance is the main different between these religions. While both Christianity and Judaism believe in God, Islam believes in Allah as their one supreme god. Also, Christianity does not believe in Muhammad as a holy prophet. The bible is holy book of text in Christianity, while for Islam, their holy book is the Qur'an.

18. How was Islam different from Christianity or Judaism?

The umma is known as the community of the faithful. The umma encouraged a new sense of political unity to an extent that had never been seen before.

19. Describe the term "umma"—

Cordoba was the capital of Islamic Spain from 756 to 1031. During this time period, the world saw the birth of the Great Mosque. It held people of many different religions such as Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. Cordoba was a city of great beauty that drew in people from around the world to witness it in person. It welcomed different forms of commerce, culture, and religion, among many other aspects.

2. Why was Cordoba seen as one of the most celebrated cities in the Mediterranean world?

The zakat was a form a religious payment that was expected in Islam. It is a tax for charity and it expected that everyone pay it. Those that were wealthy were expected to pay all the way down to the lower classes. However, Muhammad did not want to exploit the lower classes by piling extensive taxes on them.

20. Define the term "zakat"—

There are many rules and practices that are expected of the followers of Islam but there are five main ones that are expected to be kept by everyone in the religion. Those five pillars are 1) the confession of faith was simple and powerful, there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet 2) pray five times a day, facing the holy city of Mecca 3) fasting during the month of Ramadan 4) respect and pay the the tithe of charity, zakat 5) participate in the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, the hajj.

21. What are the Five Pillars of Islam?

After Muhammad's death, there was disagreements on who his successor should be. These disputes were never officially solved, they eventually appointed new leaders to continue the teachings that Muhammad established and the lessons found in the Qur'an.

22. What happened to the religion after Muhammad's death?

There were two men who had hopes to be the successor of Muhammad the prophet, after his death. Those two men were Ali and Abu Bakr. Both men had a pre-existing connection to Muhammad and felt that they were fit for the position, though one more than the other. Ali was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law but was not chosen due to his young age and lack of experience. Abu Bakr was an early follower and close friend to Muhammad. Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph and maintained this title from 632 to 634.

23. Which two men fought to be the new leader of Islam?

A jihad is a holy war launched to forcibly spread the Muslim faith. These are a huge misrepresentation of Muslims and Islam itself, for early Arab expansion was much more peaceful than jihads imply. For example, non Muslim groups simply paid taxes once their land was taken over by Muslim warriors.

24. Describe the term "jihad" (137)

The emperor of the time believed in Zoroastrianism which was not very likeable by the people. Also, Sasanian leaders didn't believe the Muslim warriors were a serious threat until it was too late.

25. How did Islam spread to the Sasanian Empire of Persia?(137)

Syria, Western Iraq, and Palestine

26. What three areas of the Middle East were taken by Arab invaders in 640? (137)

The third caliph and member of the Umayyad clan-- something that upset followers of Ali-- was murdered by warriors returning from Egypt. His assassination triggered a civil war in Islam between followers of Ali and the Umayyad clan. This later turned into the separation of Islam.

27. Who was Uthman? (138)

The Sunnis and the Shi'a or Shi'ite were the separate branches that were split of islam following the deaths of Uthman and Ali.

28. What two groups did the Islamic religion split into? (138)

They supported the Umayyads

29. Who did the Sunnis back as the successor to Muhammad? (138)

The prophet Muhammad is responsible for founding Islam and spreading his beliefs and teachings. In the 7th century, the prophet Muhammad provided the basis of the emerging new religion. The beliefs of Muhammad responded to new influences and social dislocations in Arabia. Muhammad represented the importance of clan ties in Arabian culture. He had a very humbling life and lost his father before he was born so he had to be raised by family relatives. Muhammad had early interactions with Christianity and Judaism and it had a great influence on his future teachings.

3. Who was the founder of Islam?

They supported Ali

30. Who did the Shi'ite back as the successor to Muhammad? (138)

The Muslims had a rivalry with Buddhists when they entered central Asia which has lasted to the present day.

31. What religion did Muslims have a rivalry with upon entering central Asia? (138)

Mecca was the holy city of Islam. This was the place founded by Umayyads and made popular by Muhammad and the Ka'ba.

32. What city was considered the holy city of Islam? (138)

The political city in Syria under the Umayyads was Damascus which was where the Umayyads lived following Uthman's death. Damascus bred a succession of Umayyad caliphs that enforced a unifying bureaucracy over their plentiful land.

33. What city became the main political city in Syria under the Umayyads? (138)

The Umayyads treated the Muslim warrior elite class very well but distant. For instance, they received a portion of booty from conquests, but they were forced to live in outside towns with one another. This way, Muslims and foreigners wouldn't get married and have conversions to the Islamic faith.

34. How did the Umayyads treat the Muslim warrior elites? (139)

Mawali were non Arab converts to Islam. These people were forced to pay property taxes, got no booty, did not fill positions of bureaucracy, and were clients of Arab clans.

35. Define the term "mawali"-- (139)

They treated them very well. Dhimmi or "people of the book" were allowed to worship as they please, keep their communities and legal systems, and even build places of worship such as synagogues for Jews. Although, these people did have to pay commercial and property taxes and jizya.

36. How did the Umayyads treat people who were not Muslim? (139)

Muhammad thought that marriage was a replacement for the widespread sexual liaisons that were present and pre-Islamic Arabia. He forbade adultery on both husbands and wives and female infant to city. Men were allowed to be polygamist, if they could provide it, but women were not. He strengthened women's rights by allowing his daughters to marry whoever they wanted and insisting that the bride price was paid to the bride herself, not the father as traditionally practiced. Muhammad believed that women and men were also equal in the eyes of God. This equality was displayed by his wife Khadijah and Zainab's niece.

37. How did Muhammad feel about marriage and women? (139-140)

The Umayyads showed their weakness by abandoning a simple lifestyle and also by retreating from dirty affairs such as war. Instead, Umayyads began to prefer their luxurious ways and were weak enough that other Muslim factions could interrupt their rule.

38. What were two ways that the Umayyads began showing their weakness? (141-142)

Abbasids were a victorious force that challenged the Umayyad rule in 747. They had many allies that too were against the Umayyad including the Shi'ite and malawi. They traced their history back to al- Abbas, the prophet's uncle, and their leader was Abu al-Abbas.

39. Who were the Abbasids? (142)

Muslims were very tolerant of people of other religions. In fact, they preferred, in some cases, to have non converts in order to keep the booty for themselves. The Muslims did tax non converts for owning property, however. This is very acceptable, however, compared to other harsher rulers. This is part of the reason Muslim expansion was so smooth, for they were very tolerant and in some cases better than old leaders.

4. How did Muslims treat those who practiced other religions?

The Battle of River Zab was where the Abbasid and Umayyad forces came to fight. In the end, the Abbasid won which opened up the conquest of Syria and capture of the Umayyad capital. This therefore signaled the end of the Umayyad dynasty. To ensure the Umayyads were gone forever, Abbasids killed all remaining family members with the exception of a grandson who went on to found Cordoba.

40. What happened at the Battle of the River Zab?

The Abbasids built their new city in Baghdad, Iraq. This was a signal of the greatness to follow during their rule.

41. In what city did the Abbasids build their new capital? (143)

The wazir is the chief administrator and head of the caliphs in our councils. They oversaw the building of an administrative infrastructure that allowed the Abbasids to project their demands for tribute even in the most distant provinces of the empire.

42. Define the term "wazir"—(143)

Two examples of power are seen within the wazir overseeing the building of an administrative infrastructure and their demands of tribute from far lands.

43. What were two examples of the power the wazir had? (143)

Converts were more accepted during the Abbasid period because they no longer divided booty amongst followers, everyone was encouraged to join the religion, and converts became equal with all other followers of the Islamic faith.

44. How did converts become more accepted during the Umayyad (I think it is supposed to be Abbasid) period? (143)

Arab sailing vessels with lateen sails that were to be influencers of European design. These ships carried goods that would be with goods of another civilized core.

45. Define the term "dhows"—(144)

Artisans produced necessary and luxurious items for trade. For example, they produced furniture and jewelry. Artisans were not paid well but still were not complete slaves.

46. What were the types of goods that were produced by artisans during this time period? (144)

Slaves in the caliphate were mostly non-Muslims from east Africa. They were forced to serve as domestic servants for caliphs, powerful families, and high advisors. Also, they carried through government projects and worked rural estates. Unlucky slaves would work the salt mines of southern Iraq but lucky slaves could buy or earn their freedom and could even rise to power.

47. What was the role of slaves in the caliphate? (144-145)

Ayans were a wealthy and deeply entrenched elite based in the countryside during early Abbasid rule. The ayan included established landlords and retired Arab soldiers that invested their earned booty.

48. Define the term "ayan"— (145)

Bedouin people was another term for nomadic people. They resided in scrub zones on the edge of empty land. They benefitted from the use of camel and goat herding and it made up a significant portion of their everyday life. It was thanks to groups of people such as these that led to the founding of the holy city of Mecca. They lived in kin-related clan groups in tent encampments that moved around a lot.

5. Who were the Bedouin people?

Mecca and Medina were two very important towns to Islamic culture because of their cultural and economic influence that they had over the people. Mecca was founded by the Quraysh bedouin tribe and it has significant importance because it attracts thousands of merchants and religious followers to the city. Mecca also houses the religious shrine, the Ka'ba. Medina was originally known as Yathrib. It is known as the city of the Prophet Muhammad because of his origins being in this specific city.

6. What two towns were important to Islamic culture?

The shaykhs were the leaders of tribes and clans. Those that were shaykhs were men of a higher status with large herds, several wives, and many children. They had the support of free warriors to enforce their rule. It was normal for these shaykhs to be elected by elder advisors but they almost always had these qualities in common.

7. Define the term "shaykhs"—

The basic clans made up the more complex tribal groups that formed in times of crisis or turmoil. The survival of the clans depended on their ability to find support from each other. Being cut off from your clan or banish often led to fatal outcomes such as death. People in Bedouin society greatly depended on their clan and the people that made up their clan.

8. What was the importance of clans in Bedouin society?

It is believed that women in pre-Islamic bedouin culture had more freedom and higher, more respected status in society compared to other regions. Women had their share of a role in the economy and were able to contribute some effort to tasks that needed to be done in their society, such as milking camels and weaving cloth. Women were not secluded and were not required to wear veils to hide their faces. Their advice was highly regarded and they wrote poems that affected the cultural life in Arabia. However, they still were not viewed as equals to their male counterparts. They couldn't gain glory as warriors and their specific status depended on the varying tribes.

9. How were women treated in pre-Islamic Arabia?