Chapter 7

Research has shown that there is a difference between how readily bad pictures versus good pictures are recognized by people. At about ____, ____ tend to be recognized more quickly

2 1/2 years; bad pictures

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings are "self help" meetings comprised of people who are recovering from alcohol-related problems. These meetings employ a number of practices designed to keep people away from alcohol. Which of the practices listed below is most consistent with the research on cognitive dissonance theory and attitude change? That is, which of the following would a cognitive dissonance theorist be most likely to applaud?

All group members state, publicly, that they have an alcohol problem

Which of the following statements about why humans have attitudes is most accurate?

Attitudes aid humans in making decisions and choices.

Which if the following is a FALSE statement about attitudes?

Attitudes require more than a "gut-level" response.

Which of the following theories suggests that people prefer consistency to inconsistency, and that people attempt to seek out consistency in their relationships?

Balance theory (P-O-X theory)

____ are pieces of information, facts, or opinions; ____ are broad evaluations toward some object or issue.

Beliefs, attitudes

Which scientist proposed the notion of embodied attitudes?

Charles Darwin

In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith conducted a classic experiment in which they asked participants to tell a lie (about how interesting a very boring study was). The researchers paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell this lie. The same participants were then asked how interesting they really thought the study was. What did the researchers find?

Compared to those paid $20, those paid $1 rated the study as much more interesting

How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?

Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance

George is supposed to give a presentation in his History class on Thursday, and has been dreading it intensely all month (his knowledge of the topic is shaky, and so is his presentation style). On Wednesday, the day before the presentation is scheduled, George's teacher, Ms. Torres, tells him that he can present the following week if he likes. Instead of taking Ms. Torres up on this offer, however, George says that he will go ahead and present the next day. Why?

George must have coped with his nervousness and dread by changing some relevant attitudes and beliefs.

Suppose that Hal and Peyton both hate Victor. According to balance theory (P-O-X theory), if the relationship between Hal, Victor, and Peyton is balanced, then ____.

Hal must like Peyton

Suppose that Sam disliked reggaeton the very first time he heard it. How should we expect his attitude to change (if at all) if he hears it several more times?

He will begin to dislike reggaeton more and more

Alex just bought a car last month and it is already having major mechanical problems. In which of the following cases is Alex least likely to experience cognitive dissonance?

His friends supported his car purchase, and it was cheap

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) performed a famous experiment on cognitive dissonance in which subjects were asked to lie to a fellow student (about how fun a psychology experiment was) for either $1 or $20. For subjects in the $1 condition, dissonance was created because these subjects thought to themselves: "I am a nice, ethical person, but I have just been mean and told a lie." It appears that the $1 subjects were ultimately able to reduce this dissonance by thinking to themselves: ____.

I did not really tell a lie because the experiment was not that boring. In fact, the more I think about it, the more I think that it was kind of fun!"

Iris is a vegetarian, but she ate a steak last night. When would she be most likely to try to rationalize her steak-eating?

If she chose to eat the steak and feels guilty or nervous, AND attributes these feelings to the steak-eating

Suppose that Rachel sold one of her stocks last week and that the value of the stock has tripled since then. What a mistake! In which of the following cases is Rachel most likely to experience cognitive dissonance?

If she chose to sell the stock against her stockbroker's advice

Suppose that Janine—who volunteers for a variety of environmental causes and frequently speaks on campus about the importance of recycling—decided to buy a gas-guzzling SUV last week. When is she most likely to try to rationalize her behavior

If she experiences guilt or discomfort surrounding her purchase

Which of the following is the best example of a positive deliberate attitude toward snakes?

John says that he adores snakes.

In the U.S., which of the following would NOT be considered a stigmatized group?

Married people

In one well-known study that was conducted during an era of anti-Chinese prejudice (LaPiere, 1934), a researcher drove across the U.S. with a Chinese couple, stopping at dozens of restaurants, hotels, auto camps, and tourist homes. He was interested in attitude-behavior consistency. Specifically, he was interested in knowing the percentage of establishments that would serve the couple, as well as the percentage of establishments that would say that they would serve the couple when contacted later. What did he find?

Nearly 100% served them; but only about 10% said they would.

Suppose that you show your uncle an abstract painting that you have made, and ask for his immediate, unedited reaction. Your uncle says he has no opinion about it. "I am not familiar with abstract art," he tells you, "therefore I don't know how to evaluate it; and I have no intuitive feeling about it." Could this be possible?

No. Research suggests that he will have made an automatic evaluation of your painting even though he is unfamiliar with abstract art. (He may be out of touch with this automatic evaluation, however.)

Kevin has just moved to a new neighborhood. In his old neighborhood, everyone wore Vans and board shorts, but he notices that the kids on his new block are wearing Nikes and basketball shorts. He also notices that they tease people who are not dressed this way. Kevin immediately asks his mom to take him to the store to buy new clothes. What has taken place here?

Observational learning

Fritz Heider's balance theory is also known as the ____.

P-O-X theory

People often have inconsistent automatic and deliberate attitudes but do not realize it. How is this possible?

People are consciously aware only of their deliberate attitudes.

Which one of the following statements best describes cognitive dissonance theory?

People don't like to be hypocrites."

Which of the following statements is MOST accurate regarding how people form evaluations of other people and of other stimuli?

People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli, regardless of their familiarity with those stimuli.

According to research studies, people who hold strong attitudes toward an issue are least likely to do which of the following?

Seek out relevant information from outgroup members

According to cognitive dissonance theory, if Selena has just volunteered to give a presentation to her classmates about the importance of practicing safe sex at all times, then—at least in the immediate future—what best describes her likely behavior?

She will be more likely to practice safe sex herself AND more likely to believe that practicing safe sex is important

Dr. Cross conducts a study in which she repeatedly exposes Lucy to a neutral object (a small painting). The study is neither enjoyable nor painful for Lucy. Assuming that Lucy had a neutral attitude toward the painting at the beginning of the study, how should we expect her to feel about the painting by the end of the study?

She will probably like it a little.

One variant of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures attitudes toward a single group (e.g., just the elderly). This variant of the IAT is known as the ____.

Single Category IAT

In light of the research on cognitive dissonance theory, what is the best explanation for the role of large, expensive marriage ceremonies?

Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners' commitment due to effort justification AND probably discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family

Last summer, Fabia applied for three jobs. The first required a resume, but nothing else. The second required both a resume and a long personal statement. The third required a resume and indicated that a long personal statement was optional (recommended but not required; Fabia went ahead and wrote one anyway). Suppose that Fabia was turned down by all three jobs. Which rejection was she probably MOST upset about

The rejection by the third job

According to cognitive dissonance theory, "we come to love the things we suffer for." For example, we tend to be especially loyal to groups that require severe or painful initiations. Why does this happen?

This happens because we are motivated to justify the time and effort we've spent on our choices.

Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?

You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.

Which of the following is the best example of social learning?

You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too

In 1968, social psychologist Robert Zajonc proposed that "____ of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it."

a. mere repeated exposure

According to the principles of _____ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.

a. operant conditioning

In P-O-X theory, the "P" stands for person, the "O" for another person, and the "X" for _____.

an attitude object

In terms of how it is experienced, cognitive dissonance most closely resembles ____.

an emotion or feeling of arousal

Classical conditioning can be thought of as a type of ____.

associative learning

Beth and Jean are talking about welfare reform in America. Beth is very passionate about the issue, and makes strong statements about her views. Jean later e-mails Beth an article which contains some information that is consistent with Beth's views, as well as some information that is inconsistent with Beth's views. Beth chooses to believe the consistent information but discounts the inconsistent information. As a matter of fact, after reading the article and thinking about the data it contained—even though these data were mixed—Beth actually feels even more passionate and more strongly about her position. This is an example of ____.

attitude polarization

Research suggests that the more people think about their attitudes, the stronger their attitudes tend to become. For example, the more a Lakers fan thinks about how much she likes the Lakers, the more of a die-hard fan she is likely to become. This effect is called ____.

attitude polarization

Zelda says that she likes dogs and that she is not afraid of them. But she gets visibly tense whenever a dog approaches, and refuses to visit any of her dog-owning friends at their homes. It appears that even though she says she likes dogs, Zelda has a negative ____ toward them.

automatic attitude

The Implicit Association Test ("IAT") is primarily a measure of

automatic attitudes

As defined in the text, dual attitudes consist of ____.

automatic attitudes and deliberate attitudes

Comer and Laird's (1975) study told some participants that they would be doing a worm-eating task. After a short period during which the participants could contemplate worm eating, the experimenter told them there was a mistake, and that they could choose between worm-eating and weight discrimination tasks. What percent of the participants chose to stay with the worm-eating task when given a more emotionally neutral (weight discrimination) alternative?

b. 80%

Which of the following is the best example of the mere exposure effect?

b. Keisha starts to like a girl at school simply because she has seen her, semester after semester, in so many of her classes.

The mere exposure effect refers to the tendency for people to ____.

b. come to like something simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly

Jerome thinks that it is going to be crowded at the gym today. This is an example of a(n) ____.

belief

As discussed in the text, ____ serve interpersonal functions

both attitudes and beliefs

As discussed in the textbook, people's deliberate attitudes are not always consistent with their automatic attitudes. This can occur as a result of

both self-presentation and lack of awareness

Research using the Implicit Association Test ("IAT") to investigate automatic anti-elderly (pro-younger-people) biases has found that

both younger people and older people are (about equally strongly) biased against the elderly.

According to the text, what might best explain the development of prejudice against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media, such as Muslims being associated with terrorism

classical conditioning

One technique that advertisers often use to influence consumers is celebrity endorsement. The logic works like this: If people like Catherine Zeta-Jones and repeatedly see T-Mobile products together with Catherine Zeta-Jones, then people will learn to associate T-Mobile with her and will in turn like T-Mobile more. That is, celebrity endorsement is expected to lead to ____.

classical conditioning

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. This most clearly illustrates ____.

classical conditioning

With ____, people rationalize their behavior so as to bring their attitudes into line with their actions.

cognitive dissonance

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. What is the best term for the role of the Justin Timberlake song?

conditioned stimulus

In Fritz Heider's balance theory, balance is synonymous with

consistency

Deliberate attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses.

controlled, conscious

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the dogs' salivation was ____.

d. both an unconditioned response and a conditioned response

Research suggests that the idea that "familiarity breeds contempt" ____.

d. is almost always false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude

In general, people do not like to suffer, work hard, or make sacrifices. If and when they do these things, they want to feel that their efforts were worthwhile. Thus, even when people's efforts do not actually seem to have paid off, people will nonetheless try to convince themselves that they suffered for a good reason. This tendency is known as ____.

effort justification

In distinguishing between beliefs and attitudes, it is useful to recognize that beliefs help people ____ while attitudes help people ____.

explain things; make choices

Automatic attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses

fast, unconscious

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory most directly suggests that ____.

fraternity "hazing" is an effective way to promote group loyalty.

The results of Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) study of cognitive dissonance suggests that ____.

if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more

Operant conditioning is also sometimes referred to as ____.

instrumental learning

Research suggests that the mere exposure effect ____.

is NOT unique to humans and does NOT occur via the conscious system

Research suggests that the idea that "familiarity breeds liking" ____.

is generally true

According to the text, the drive for consistency is ___

likely to be rooted in our biological nature

The Implicit Association Test ("IAT") measures automatic attitudes by

measuring the speed with which people associate different concepts to positive or negative stimuli.

In the process of classical conditioning, a(n) ____.

neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the bell served as a(n) ____.

neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory might suggest that we will be more attracted to potential dating partners who ____ than potential dating partners who ____.

play "hard to get", don't

Deepa has finally decided where to attend graduate school—University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. After she has informed all the schools of her final decision, she begins to question her choice. However, she immediately focuses on all the reasons Illinois was the best choice for her, and better than her other options by far. This reassures her and makes her happy again. Deepa's feeling of uncertainty and subsequent motivation to justify her choice is an example of ____.

post-decision dissonance

The need to feel that one is thinking and behaving in consistent ways is ____.

probably innate—rooted in our biological nature

According to cognitive dissonance theory, discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors produce ____.

psychological discomfort

Research on embodied attitudes suggests that ____.

randomly assigned body movements can shape attitudes toward what we hear

In a classic study, the word Dutch was systematically paired with positive words (e.g., vacation, gift), whereas the word Swedish was paired with negative words (e.g., bitter, failure). When tested afterward, participants ____.

rated the word Dutch more positively than the word Swedish

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____.

social learning

Social psychologist John Bargh has stated that "we have yet to find something the mind regards with complete impartiality, without at least a mild judgment of liking or disliking." He was referring to ____.

the fact that people make unconscious, immediate evaluations of virtually everything they encounter

In one well-known study that was conducted during an era of anti-Chinese prejudice (LaPiere, 1934), a researcher drove across the U.S. with a Chinese couple, stopping at dozens of restaurants, hotels, auto camps, and tourist homes. He was interested in knowing the percentage of establishments that would serve the couple, as well as the percentage of establishments that would SAY that they would serve the couple when contacted later. The results from this research provided some of the first evidence of ____.

the fact that people's stated attitudes are not always consistent with their actual behaviors

The Implicit Association Test ("IAT") works by measuring the speed with which people are able to associate different pairs of concepts. According to the logic of the test,

the faster the associations, the stronger the attitudes.

According to the text, possessing an attitude about something increases ____ of decision-making.

the speed and the quality

Research indicates that people will sometimes choose to suffer as a result of simply expecting to suffer—but only if ____.

they have coped with the expectation of suffering by thinking about it and changed relevant beliefs and attitudes

Much research has demonstrated a weak link between (a) what people say their attitudes are, and (b) how they actually behave. According to the text, one of the key reasons that this relationship is so weak, however, is the fact that researchers have often ____.

tried to relate very general attitudes to very specific behaviors

In Aldous Huxley's book Brave New World, infants develop a fear of books after books are repeatedly presented with a scary loud noise. In this fictional example, the loud noise is a(n) ____.

unconditioned stimulus

Research suggests that the abstract categories "good" and "bad" are ____.

understood by children as early as age 2 1/2, if not earlier

Social learning is also sometimes referred to as observational learning or ____.

vicarious conditioning

Attitude polarization refers to the finding that ____.

when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme.

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory could be most easily used to explain ____.

why people stay in long-term relationships when they are dissatisfied