Chapter 7: Persuasion
The Communicator- attractiveness and liking: six persuasion principles
#1: authority→ people defer to credible expertise #2: liking → people respond more affirmatively to those they like #3: Social proof→ people allow the example of others to validate how to think, act, and feel #4: reciprocity→ people feel obligated to repay in kind what they've received #5: consistency→ people tend to honor their public commitments #6: scarcity→ people prize what's scarce
what are the four elements of persuasion?
#1: the communicator #2: the message #3: how is message is communicated #4: audience
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Implications of Attitude Inoculation: Does challenging one's views strengthen or weaken their position?
A challenge to one's views, if refuted, is more likely to solidify one's position than to undermine it Particularly if the threatening materials can be examined with like-minded others Ex: Cults -Apply this principle by forewarning members of how families and friends will attack the cult's beliefs -When the expected challenge comes, the member is armed with counterarguments
The Message Content: One-sided vs. Two-sided Appeals
A message might seem fairer and more disarming if it recognizes the opposition's arguments (two-sided appeal) Ex: Aluminum can-recycling study -Signs were added to to waste bins in a college classroom building saying "No Aluminum cans please! Use the recycler located on the first floor" -Signs were then added that acknowledged and responded to the main counterarguments→ "It may be inconvenient. But it is Important!!!!" **Recycling then reached 80%-- double the rate before any message
The Audience-How Old Are They?: what time period is most formative for attitudes and values?
Adolescence and early adult experiences are most formative Is a critical time for the formation of attitudes and values Deep and lasting impressions are made -Ex: when people were asked to name one or two of the most important national or world events of the previous half century, most recalled events from their teens or early twenties NOT saying that older adults are inflexible -Few people are completely uninfluenced by changing cultural norms -Near the end of our lives, older adults may again become more susceptible to attitude change
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: is there a positive side to children watching ads
Allow parents to teach their kids consumer skills Research has found that inner-city 7th graders who are able to think critically about ads (who have media resistance skills) better resist peer pressure
which route to persuasion leads to more enduring change?
Central route processing can lead to more enduring change than the peripheral route Central route gets people to think deeply and form their own thoughts in response -More durable and more likely to influence behavior
The Channel of Communication- Comparing Media: when are easy messages most persuasive?
Easy messages are most persuasive when VIDEOTAPED TV draws attention to the communicator and away from the message itself TV encourages people to focus on peripheral cues -Ex: communicator's attractiveness
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: gain messages vs. loss messages
Gain messages→ focus on the advantages of healthy behavior (not smoking, wearing sunscreen, etc.) -more effective than those framed in terms of loss ex: "If you wear sunscreen, you'll have attractive skin" is more effective than "if you don't wear sunscreen you'll have unattractive skin"
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: Inoculating Children Against Peer Pressure to Smoke
High school students were told to "inoculate" 7th graders against peer pressures to smoke How the 7th graders were inoculated: -7th graders were taught to respond to advertisements with counterarguments -Acted in role plays in which after being called a "chicken" for not taking a cigarette, they answered with "I'd be a real chicken if I smoked just to impress you" Results: -After several of these sessions, inoculated students were half as likely to begin smoking as were uninoculated students at another middle school
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: inoculation + life-skills training
Inoculation procedures supplemented by other life-skills training reduces teen smoking Ex: role play vs. anti-smoking films -6-8th graders were exposed to either anti smoking films/ information about smoking **One group also role played refusing smoking -Results: A year and a half later... **31% of those who watched anti smoking films had taken up smoking **Among those who role-played refusing, only 19% had begun smoking
The Channel of Communication- Comparing Media: when are messages best comprehended and recalled?
Messages are best COMPREHENDED and RECALLED when WRITTEN Important because comprehension is the first step in the persuasion process If a message is difficult to comprehend, persuasion should be greatest when it is written
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: The effect of good feelings
Messages are more persuasive through association with good feelings Ex: products associated with humor are better liked why? -They enhance positive thinking -They link good feelings with the message
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: the effect of arousing fear
Messages can be effective by evoking negative emotions -Applied in ads discouraging smoking, risky sexual behaviors, drinking and driving, and encouraging mammograms -ex: mammograms **Researcher had women (who did not get mammograms) view an educational video on mammography **Results: #1: positively framed message→ only half got a mammogram within 12 months #2: Fear framed message→ ⅔ got a mammogram within 12 months The more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond -BUT there are exceptions -ex: people who read apocalyptic warnings about global warming reacted defensively by denying the existence of global warming
The Audience-How Old Are They?: how does a generational gap develop between ages?
Older people largely hold onto attitudes they adopted when they were young Because these attitudes are different than the ones being adopted by young people today, a generational gap develops
How can Persuasion be Resisted: what effect does personal commitment have on persuasion?
One way to resist conformity is to make a public commitment to your position before encountering others' judgements Standing up for your convictions makes you less susceptible/open to what others have to say
The Audience-How Old Are They?: what correlates with people age?
People's social and political attitudes Political attitudes formed at age 18 tend to last
what does the peripheral route to persuasion rely on?
Peripheral route relies on simple heuristics Relies on snap judgements Ex: You have to vote for the student government president but you do not have time to research the candidates -You notice that people supporting candidate A are all either your friends or people you regard as experts -You rely on a simple heuristic (friends and experts can be trusted) and vote for candidate A
The Audience- What are They Thinking?: what is a factor that enhances persuasion by inhibiting counterarguing?
Persuasion is enhanced by a DISTRACTION that inhibits counterarguing Distraction = any form of multitasking Distraction is especially effective when the message is simple Ex: participants who read a message while also watching a video were less likely to counter argue Ex: political campaigns -The words promote the candidate and the visual keeps us occupied so we don't analyze the words
The Communicator: what are the forms of attractiveness?
Physical attractiveness Similarity: -We tend to like those who are like us -People who act as we do, subtly mimicking our postures, are more influential -Consumer-generated ads are more effective when the ad creator was seen as similar to the participant
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what is the best way to use fear when persuading people?
Playing on fear works BEST if a message leads people not only to FEAR THE SEVERITY of the threatened event, but also to perceive a SOLUTION and feel CAPABLE of implementing it Tell people not just to be scared, but to do something about it -Increases their self efficacy
The Channel of Communication- Personal vs. Media influence: heart disease field study example (impact of contact with people vs. media)
Purpose: researchers want to reduce the frequency of heart disease among middle-aged adults -To check the effectiveness of the personal and media influence, they interviewed and medically examined 1,200 participants before the project and at the end of each of the 3 years Three groups: #1: Control (Tracey)→ received no persuasive appeals other than those in regular media #2Mass Media (Gilroy)→ exposed to/received TV, radio, newspapers, and direct mail Taught people about coronary risk and what they could do to reduce it #3: Mass media and face-to-face (Watsonville)→ media campaign was supplemented by personal contacts -Using behavior modification principles, the researchers helped Watsonville participants set specific goals and reinforced their successes -Had personal contacts + media exposure used in group 2 Results: High risk participants in control group were in as much risk as before High risk participants in the mass media group improved their health habits and decreased risk somewhat High risk participants in the face-to-face group changed the most
The Channel of Communication- Active Experience or Passive Reception: what effect does repetition have on persuasion?
Repetition of a statement serves to increase its fluency, which increases believability
The Audience- What are They Thinking?: what effect does stimulating thinking have on persuasion?
Stimulating thinking makes strong message persuasive (because of counterarguing) and weak messages less persuasive
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: Inoculating Children Against the Influence of Advertising
The average child sees more than 10,000 commercials a year Research on children (especially those under 8 years): #1: Have trouble distinguishing commercials from programs and fail to grasp their persuasive intent #2: trust television advertising rather indiscriminately #3: desire and badger their parents for advertised products Children are an advertiser's dream -They are gullible, vulnerable, and an easy sell -Very easy to exploit
The Channel of Communication- Active Experience or Passive Reception: what effect does familiarity have on persuasion?
The more familiar people are with an issue, the less persuadable they are On minor issues, like what brand of aspirin to buy, it is easy to demonstrate the media's power
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what kind of audience tends to use the peripheral route?
Uninterested audiences more often travel the peripheral route More affected by their liking of the communicator
The Audience- What are They Thinking?: what do uninvolved audiences use when listening to an argument?
Uninvolved audiences use peripheral clues
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: Social psychological approach on anti smoking and drug education programs
Use attractive peers to communicate information They trigger student's own cognitive processing They get students to make a public commitment -Making a decision about smoking, and announcing it to the class with reasoning 2-6 hours of class
The Communicator- Credibility: Perceived trustworthiness
We are more WILLING TO LISTEN to a communicator we TRUST
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what kind of audience is more responsive to reason/rationale appeals?
Well-educated or analytical people are responsive to rational appeals (central route)
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what happens when people's initial attitudes are formed through the peripheral route?
When people's initial attitudes are formed through the PERIPHERAL route, they are more persuaded by later peripheral, EMOTIONAL appeals new emotions may sway an emotion-based attitude
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what happens when people's initial attitudes are formed through the central route?
When their initial attitudes were formed through the CENTRAL route, they are more persuaded by later INFORMATION-based, central route arguments To change an information-based attitude, more information may be needed
The Audience- How Old Are They?: What persuades people to join cults? and when do most people join them?
Young adulthood is a time when people are more susceptible to joining cults What persuades people to join cults? -Foot-in-the-door technique→ Start with small requests and gradually ask for more -When people are at turning points in their lives, are facing personal crises or vacationing or living away from home -Successful cults have leaders that are charismatic and credible communicators ***Ex: using "psychic readings" to establish credibility
How can Persuasion be Resisted- Strengthening Personal Commitment: Poison parasite defense
a defense against persuasion that combines strong counterarguments (poison) with retrieval clues that bring those arguments to mind when seeing the opponent's ads (parasite) like priming Ex: in a study participants who viewed a familiar political ad were least persuaded by it when they had earlier seen counterarguments overlaid on a replica of the ad Ex: anti smoking ads -Re-creating a "Malboro Man" commercial set in the rugged outdoors but now showing a coughing, decrepit cowboy
The Communicator- Credibility: sleeper effect
a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an INITIALLY DISCOUNTED message BECOMES EFFECTIVE -such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it also happens when we remember the information but not that fact that the source was not credible
The Audience-How Old Are They?: what are the two explanations for age differences and which has more support?
a life cycle explanation a generational explanation -has more support
The Audience-How Old Are They?: a life cycle explanation
attitudes change Ex: becoming more conservative as people grow older
The Message Content: Door-in-the-face technique
a strategy for gaining a concession After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request Ex: Supervising delinquent children study -Experimenters asked students to chaperone delinquent children on a zoo trip→ Only 32% agreed to do so -With other students, the questioner asked if they would commit 2 years as a volunteer counselor for delinquent children → all refused **The questioner then counter offered by asking if they would take the children to the zoo→ 56% agreed
The Message Content: Lowball technique
a tactic for getting people to agree with something People who AGREE to an INITIAL request will often still COMPLY when the requester UPS THE ANTE. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it. ex: you agree to drive someone home. On the way they ask you to stop at two stores before you drop then off and you comply. If they asked you to take them to the drop offs before you agreed to driving them home, you would have said no. Variation of the foot-in-the-door phenomenon Only works if people verbally commit to their choice
The Communicator- Credibility: how to increase credibility
appear KNOWLEDGEABLE on the topic ex: a message about toothbrushing from "Dr. Smith of the Canadian Dental Association" would be more convincing than a message from "Mr. Smith a high school teacher" speak confidently and fluently Ex: people who say "you know" "uh" and "like" in their sentences seem less credible, which then leads people to question their message, which then makes them less likely to accept what the speaker is saying Establish TRUST with the audience and make them believe that the communicator is not trying to persuade them ex: Researchers showed British adults fake newspaper articles #1→ suggested that most scientists just want to inform the public about climate change #2→ suggested that most scientists aim to persuade the public and governments to take action to stop climate change Results: Those who heard that scientists aim to only inform were more likely to report more trust in climate scientists and say they would take action to support the environment eye contact DOES NOT increase credibility
The Channel of Communication- Active Experience or Passive Reception: written and visual appeals
are passive Many are ineffective -Ex: 1/1,000 online ads result in someone clicking on the link -But the ads do have an effect→ when a website was advertised, traffic increased 65% over the week Elections -Candidate with more money wins 91% of the time -Advertising exposure helps make an unfamiliar candidate into a familiar one -Mere repetition makes think believable -Why correct information can fail to discount implanted false information
The Audience-How Old Are They?: a generational explanation (Bennington student example)
attitudes DO NOT CHANGE Older people largely HOLD ONTO attitudes they adopted when they were YOUNG -Because these attitudes are different than the ones being adopted by young people today, a generational gap develops Attitudes of OLDER people show LESS CHANGE those younger people Each generation tends to hold on to attitudes formed during the adolescent and early years ex: Bennington students -Faculty tried to make "good little liberals" out of their students -Half a century later, the 70 year old women voted Democratic by a 3 to 1 margin in the presidential election **Other educated women in their 70s were voting Republican by a 3 to 1 margin
The Communicator: credibility
believability a credible communicator is perceived as both EXPERT and TRUSTWORTHY -the effects of source credibility diminish after about a month when we know in advance that the source is credible, we think more favorable thought in response to the message
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: which is more influential reason or emotion?
depends on the audience
How can Persuasion be Resisted- Strengthening Personal Commitment: Attitude inoculation
exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available A mild attack can serve as an inoculation → stimulating one to develop counterarguments that will then be available if a strong attack comes -Ex: when people were "immunized" by writing an essay refuting a mild attack on a belief, they were better able to resist a more powerful attack later Implies that one way to strengthen existing attitudes is to challenge them -Only if the challenge is not strong enough to overwhelm the attitude
The Message Content- Reason vs. Emotion: what effect does being in a good vs. bad mood have on persuasion?
good mood: People who are in a good mood view the world through rosy colored glasses Causes them to make faster, more impulsive decisions→ rely on peripheral cues bad mood: Unhappy people often think deeply before reacting so they are less likely to be persuaded
The Communicator: attractiveness
having qualities that APPEAL to an audience An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference
The Communicator- Credibility: what happens when you learn the source after a message generates favorable thoughts?
high credibility strengthens our confidence in our thinking, which strengthens the persuasive impact of the message aka the message is more persuasive
The Audience- How Old Are They?: when does resistance to attitude change peak?
in midlife Because that is when people tend to occupy higher power social roles
The Message Content: Recency effect
information presented LAST sometimes has the most influence FORGETTING creates the recency effect 1) when enough time separates two messages and 2) when the audience commits itself soon after the second message Occurs when two messages are SEPARATED IN TIME and the audience responds soon after the second message -Causes the second message to have the advantage Ex: testimony study -Students were given a section of testimony to read -A week later, researchers had them read another section and then immediately state their opinions Results: -The second section influenced their opinion more than the first -The first section of arguments largely faded from the memory causing the recency effect to happen
The Channel of Communication- Comparing Media: order of persuasiveness
live (face-to-face), videotaped, audiotaped, written
Central route to persuasion
occurs when INTERESTED people focus on the ARGUMENTS and respond with favorable thoughts Strong and compelling arguments = persuasion is likely Weak arguments = not compelling and are easy to refute = no persuasion Explicit and reflective -changes explicit attitudes
Peripheral route to persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental CUES, such as a speaker's attractiveness IMPLICIT and AUTOMATIC -Slowly builds implicit attitudes through repeated associations between an attitude object and an emotion Strength of argument is NOT considered Focuses on cues that trigger automatic acceptance without much thinking -Much of consumer behavior does not involve much thinking Easily understood familiar statements are more persuasive than novel statements with the same meaning -Ex: "don't put all your eggs in one basket" has more impact than "don't risk everything on a single venture" Route used in billboards and commercials -Since consumers are only looking at it for a brief amount of time -Ex: smoking ads **Do not provide arguments in favor of smoking **Instead, cigs are associated with images of beauty and pleasure
How can Persuasion be Resisted - Real life applications: Advergames
online games used by advertisers to help further persuade their audience ex: "Happy Sounds" on McDonalds website Children don't realize these games have a hidden purpose-- advertising -In an experiment, children who played these games were more likely to choose foods high in sugar and fat than those didn't play games
The Message Content: Primacy effect
other things being equal, information presented FIRS usually has the most influence Information presented EARLY is MOST persuasive more common than recency effect When two messages are back-to-back, followed by a time gap, the primacy effect usually occurs When encountering two people or products, people tend to prefer the first presented option Ex: Students who read positive TripAdvisor.com reviews of a hotel before the negative reviews liked the hotel more than those who read the negative reviews first
The Channel of Communication- Personal vs. Media influence: the major influence on us is NOT the media, but.......
out contact with people ex: 1998 election -A few months before the election, researchers sent people to knock on doors personally and encourage people to vote -Results: ~60% voted compared to 45% that were not contacted
The Channel of Communication: the effect of Active Experience
strengthens attitudes When we act, we amplify the idea behind what we have done, especially when we feel responsible Attitudes more often endure and influence our behavior when rooted in experience Are more stable, confident and less vulnerable to attack than attitudes formed passively Why interactive websites are more effective
Persuasion
the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes or behavior
The Audience- What are They Thinking?: what else is crucial about the central route of persuasion, besides the message?
the RESPONSES it evokes in the person's mind What we think in response to a message is crucial If a message summons FAVORABLE thoughts, WE ARE persuaded If a message provokes us to think of CONTRARY arguments, WE ARE NOT persuaded
Need for cognition (high vs. low)
the motivation to think and analyze High need for cognition = "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" -prefer the central route of persuasion Low need for cognition = "I only think as hard as I have to" -prefer the peripheral route of persuasion
The Channel of Communication- Personal vs. Media influence: Two-step flow of communication
the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others The flow: Media → opinion leaders→ everyone else Opinion leaders are viewed as experts -Ex: influencers, politicians, doctors, talk show hosts, teachers, etc. Two-step-flow influences the drugs your doctor subscribes -Doctors look to opinion leaders within their social network when deciding what drugs to favor Even if the media had little direct effect on people's attitudes, they could still have a major indirect effect
The Message Content: Fear-then-relief (lost wallet study)
the tendency for people who had experienced FEAR that was quickly followed by RELIEF to be more compliant to the next request they experience ex: "Haven't you lost your wallet" study -On a train a confederate approached a passerby and said "Excuse me, haven't you lost your wallet?"(invoking fear) **Everyone around immediately checked that they had their wallets and were relieved when they found them -The confederate explained that she was selling Christmas cards for a charity **Nearly 40% bought the cards compared to only 10% who had heard the appeal but had felt no relief of having their wallets
The Message Content: Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request Ex: "Drive Carefully" signs -Researchers posing as volunteers asked Californians to permit that installation of huge, poorly lettered "Drive Carefully" signs in their front yards→17% consented -Others were approached with a small request: **Were asked to display a 3 inch "be a safe driver" sign in their window→ Nearly all agreed **Two weeks later when asked to allow the large, ugly sign in their front lawn→ 76% consented. main takeaway: Small requests lead to bigger choices relies on the self perception theory
The Channel of Communication
the way the message is delivered whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, a media advertisement or in some other way
what type of people use the peripheral route to persuasion
uninvolved or distracted people
The Communicator: liking
we are likely to respond to those we like Ex: girl scout cookie sales A lot fewer would buy the cookies if they were sold by middle-aged men instead of cute little girls liking someone causes us to: -Open up to the communicator's arguments (central route persuasion) -Be triggered by positive associations when we see the product later
The Audience: persuasion varies with....
who says what by what medium to whom -audience characteristics: age and thoughtfulness