Chapter 7: Policing America: Issues and Ethics

Table 7.1 reveals that, overall, in 2015, 52% of the public had?

"a great deal" (25%) or "quite a lot" (27%) of confidence in the police,

In 2014-2015, only 30% of blacks had?

"a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in the police compared to 42% of nonwhites, 52% of Hispanics, and 57% of whites.

and 2% had?

"no confidence at all."

30% had?

"some" confidence

When asked to rate the honesty and ethical standards of the police, in December 2015, 56% of the general public rated the police as?

"very high" or "high" on this measure, -29% rated them as "average," and 14% rated them as "low" or "very low."

16% had?

"very little,"

The overall average starting salary for entry-level local police officers in 2013 was?

$44,400, approximately the same as in 2003 after controlling for inflation.

This step is frequently the final one in the selection process. Members of the interview team have the results of the previous selection procedures, and they now have an opportunity to clear up inconsistencies and uncertainties that have been identified. The board normally restricts itself to evaluating the following qualities:

-Appearance, poise, and bearing. -Ability to communicate orally and organize thoughts. -Attitude toward law enforcement and the job required of police officers. -Speech and the ability to articulate. -Attitude toward drug, narcotic, and alcohol use. -Sensitivity to racial and ethnic issues.1

Among the advantages of hiring college-educated officers are the following:

-Better written reports -Enhanced communication with the public -More effective job performance -Fewer citizen complaints -Wiser use of discretion -Heightened sensitivity to racial and ethnic issues -Fewer disciplinary actions11

The Berkeley, California, Police Department lists these qualities:

-Initiative. -Ability to carry heavy responsibilities and handle emergencies alone. -Social skills and ability to communicate effectively with persons of various cultural, economic, and ethnic backgrounds. -Mental capacity to learn a wide variety of subjects quickly and correctly. -Ability to adapt thinking to technological and social changes. -Understanding of other human beings and the desire to help those in need. -Emotional maturity to remain calm and objective and provide leadership in emotionally charged situations. -Physical strength and endurance to perform these exacting duties.7

Robert B. Mills, a pioneer in the psychological testing of police officers, believes that police applicants should possess the following psychological qualities:

-Motivation for a police career. -Normal self-assertiveness. -Emotional stability under stress. -Sensitivity toward minority groups and social deviates. -Collaborative leadership skills. -A mature relationship with social authority. -Flexibility. -Integrity and honesty. -An active and outgoing nature

Physical Ability Test:

-Physical ability tests are common in police selection despite having been challenged in the courts as having an adverse effect on the hiring of female applicants. -Physical ability tests were initially a direct response to the elimination of height and weight standards, which were also discriminatory against female applicants. -The first tests required exceptional speed and strength, such as going over walls that were taller than any of the walls in the cities that had such tests. -Those tests were struck down by the courts as not being job related. Today, any physical ability tests must be based on a thorough analysis of the actual work of police officers.

Written Examination:

-Police agencies once used intelligence tests in their selection process. -Most agencies now use some type of aptitude, personality, general knowledge, reading comprehension, writing, or police skill exam. -The courts have held that those tests must be true measures of the knowledge and abilities needed to perform police work successfully. -Pre-employment tests have been the subject of much controversy in the courts.

Detailed Application:

-This document is a major source of information for the department and background investigators. -The applicant is asked for complete education and work histories, military status, medical profile, references, a record of residence over many years, and other detailed information. -Applicants are also asked to submit copies of credentials, military papers, and other certificates

For most violations of the law, but not all felonies, a police officer can usually exercise a number of options:

1) Taking no action at all if the officer deems that appropriate for the situation. 2)Giving a verbal warning to stop the illegal action. 3)Issuing a written warning for the violation. 4)Issuing a citation to the perpetrator to appear in court. 5)Making a physical arrest in serious matters or in situations with repeat offenders.

The highest average maximum salary ($75,100) went to officers serving populations of?

1,000,000 or more

The percentage of departments with active collective bargaining agreements ranged from a high of 71% in departments serving a population of ?

1,000,000 or more to a low of 12% in departments serving a population of fewer than 2,500.

However, as shown in Table 7.6, the percentage of black and Hispanic officers in local departments in 2013 was?

12.2% and 11.6%, respectively—up from 11.9% and 10.3% in 2007, and 9.3% and 4.5% in 1987.

Between 2012-2013 and 2014-2015 (for subgroups, 2 years were combined to produce a larger sample), confidence in the police for Democrats declined by what percent?

13 percentage points.

the lowest ($30,900) went to officers in departments serving fewer than?

2,500 residents (see Table 7.4).

the lowest ($34,100) again went to officers in departments serving fewer than?

2,500 residents (see Table 7.4).

Minnesota's Peace Officer Licensing Commission now requires a?

2- or 4-year college degree for licensing.

In 2014, 58% of non-Hispanic whites rated the honesty and ethical standards of the police "very high" or "high," while only what percent of nonwhites did?

23% of nonwhites did.

Just 1% required new officers to have a ?

4-year college degree (the same as in 2007).

A 6-month probation period no longer seems logical, however, because police academy training now often extends?

5 or 6 months.

Over the past 22 years, the percentage of the public with "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in the police has ranged narrowly between?

52% and 64%

The 52% of Americans responding that they had "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in the police in the June 2015 Gallup poll was down from ?

57% in a 2013 poll and ties the lowest previous level measured by Gallup in 1993. -The 1993 poll was conducted during the federal civil rights trial of four white police officers in the 1991 beating of Rodney King.

Under local or state civil service requirements, employers may keep a new police officer on probation for?

6 months to a year.

In 2015, those percentages increased to?

64% and 40%, respectively.

In 2014-2015, only 42% of Democrats had "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in the police compared to?

69% of Republicans and 51% of Independents.

Police cadet programs:

A program that combines a college education with agency work experience and academy training. Upon graduation, a cadet is promoted to police officer. -have been around since the 1960s (Cincinnati Police), and as recently as the 1990s, the New York City Police launched a cadet program combining a college education with academy training and work experience in the police department.

Among subgroups, the biggest change in confidence in the police was recorded by?

Democrats.

Also, the combined 18% of the public that had very little or no confidence in the police in 2015 is the highest level?

Gallup has recorded during the 22-year period it has asked the question.

Deciding whom to employ should be simple:

Hire the type of police officer that the citizens of the community want.

Results of a recent federal study of police and public contacts show that in 2011 the police stopped a slightly higher percentage of black drivers (12.8% of all black drivers) than ?

Hispanic drivers (10.4% of all Hispanic drivers) or white drivers (9.8% of all white drivers).

The 2013 figures closely approximate the percentage of blacks but underrepresent the percentage of?

Hispanics in the general population of the United States (13.2% for blacks and 17.4% for Hispanics).

The amount of evidence—

If officers do not have enough evidence to substantiate an arrest or to gain a conviction in court, they are likely to handle the case in some way other than making an arrest.

Departmental policies—

If the leadership of a police department gives an order or issues a policy demanding that particular incidents be handled in a prescribed way, then an officer is not supposed to exercise discretion but is to do as the order or policy directs. Thus, if a city has had many complaints about dangerous jaywalking in a certain downtown area, the chief of police may insist that citations be issued to those found jaywalking, even though citations were not issued in the past.

Should police chiefs have protection under civil service?

Most commentators say no, arguing that mayors and city managers ought to have the authority to pick the management teams that work immediately under their direction.

The relationship between the victim and the offender—

Particularly for minor offenses, the closer the relationship between the victim of an alleged offense and the suspected perpetrator, the more discretion the officer is able to exercise. For example, police officers are not likely to deal formally with a petty theft between two lovers if they believe that the victim will not prosecute his or her partner.

The legitimacy of the victim—

Patrol officers are bound to pass some kind of judgment on the legitimacy of the victim. An assault victim who is belligerent and intoxicated, for instance, will not be viewed favorably by the investigating officer. Criminals victimized by other criminals are also seen as less than fully authentic victims, no matter what the offense.

Over the same period, little change was recorded for?

Republicans and Independents.

The preference of the victim—

Sometimes the victim of a crime may simply want to talk the matter over with someone, and the police are available on a 24-hour basis. Also, if the officer senses that the victim of a minor assault does not wish to prosecute the perpetrator of the offense, the patrol officer will not make a formal complaint, and the complainant will most likely never know that a report was not made.

The demeanor of the suspect—

Suspects who are disrespectful and uncooperative may very well feel the full brunt of the law. Patrol officers often choose the most severe option possible in dealing with such suspects.

Discretion:

The exercise of individual judgment, instead of formal rules, in making decisions.

Socioeconomic status—

The more affluent the complainant, the more likely a patrol officer is to use formal procedures to report and investigate a crime.

The nature of the crime—

The more serious the crime, the more likely it is that police officers will formally report it. In cases involving lesser felonies, misdemeanors, and petty offenses, police officers are more likely to handle the offenses informally. A minor squabble between over-the-fence neighbors is an example of a matter that would probably be handled informally.

What is referred to as selective enforcement?

The practice of relying on the judgment of the police leadership and rank-and-file officers to decide which laws to enforce -The practice allows street police officers to decide important matters about peacekeeping and enforcement of the law.

racial profiling:

The stopping and/or detaining of individuals by law enforcement officers based solely on race.

Short Application:

This brief form registers the interest of the applicant and allows the agency to screen for such things as minimum age, level of education, residency, and other easily discernible qualifications.

Medical Examination:

This exam determines if applicants are free of disease, abnormalities, and any other medical problems that would disqualify them for police work. -This information is critical because retiring a young officer on a medical disability shortly after employment could cost the public hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Which of these ways is the most effective?

This question was put to the test in a 3-year study in the city of Minneapolis. -In minor domestic dispute cases, Minneapolis police officers gave up their discretion in handling domestic violence calls. -Instead of deciding for themselves the appropriate disposition for each call, they randomly chose arrest, separation, or mediation. -The results of the study showed that the arrested perpetrators were about half as likely to repeat their violence against the original victim. -This study may have been the impetus for many states to implement a mandatory arrest domestic violence law. -Subsequent studies, however, have not been able to clearly support the mandatory arrest disposition as the most effective way to handle the problem of domestic violence. -Yet today nearly half of the states have a mandatory arrest law requiring the arrest of any suspect that has battered a spouse or domestic partner. -While victim safety and welfare are indeed the major reasons for police intervention, more research is clearly needed to determine the best approaches to handling domestic violence calls.

They often have a much better idea of?

a community's priorities and wield more influence with prosecutors and in the legislature than chiefs of police. -Sheriffs who do not exhibit this political acumen are not likely to be reelected.

Many people the police meet on a daily basis simply need help, sometimes required by law; but more often, these officers are spurred by?

a compassion for helping people no matter what their need.

The business card may reduce race-based stops because it would allow an officer to be easily identified at?

a later time. -But city leaders throughout the United States are in a quandary as to precisely what to do to stop racial profiling.

The overall average starting salary for entry-level local officers in 2013 ranged from?

a minimum of $38,200 to a maximum of $47,000 (see Table 7.4).

One method is close supervision by?

a police agency's management. -For example, a department may require that officers consult a sergeant before engaging in a particular kind of action.

No less important than the selection of operations-level officers is the choice of the chief executive of?

a police agency. -This executive might be a chief of police, a sheriff, or the head of a state law enforcement organization.

Selection decisions have momentous long-term implications for?

a police department.

-Of course, that approach assumes that the citizens of a community have some idea of what it takes to be?

a police officer.

In sum, these data clearly show that the public as a whole has more respect for the police and their honesty and ethical standards than it does for?

a variety of other occupations.

The probation period gives the new police officer a chance to learn policing under the guidance of ?

a well-qualified field training officer.

Given the amount of discretion that law enforcement officers have and the kinds of sociological problems they deal with, selecting reasonably intelligent, educated officers seems?

a wise practice.

Some believe that the discretion of police officers should be reduced. The movement to limit the discretion of police officers is the result of?

abuses of that discretion, such as physical abuse of citizens or unequal application of the law in making arrests.

Students undergo from nearly 700 to nearly 1,800 hours of?

academic, skill, and physical training and are tested virtually every week of the process.

Apparently, recent events have not fundamentally changed the?

already negative opinion of many blacks (and nonwhites) toward the police.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP):

also has a national project to eliminate racial profiling and has recently released a groundbreaking report on the subject entitled Born Suspect: Stop-and-Frisk Abuses and the Continued Fight to End Racial Profiling in America.

The Peace Officer Council in Ohio now has more than five dozen college academies, where students pursue a program that integrates?

an associate's degree curriculum in law enforcement or criminal justice with the state's required peace officer training. -On receipt of the associate's degree, students sit for the peace officer certification exam. -If they receive a passing score on the exam, they are eligible to be hired by any police agency and to go to work without any additional academy training.

The major goal of the recruiting effort is to cast police work as?

an attractive and sustaining career, even to those who might initially be turned off by it.

They should be honest enough to resist—

and have a lifestyle that allows them to resist—the temptation of corrupting influences in law enforcement.

Indeed, police officers require a combination of qualities and abilities that is rare in?

any pool of applicants.

Formal field training is a wise investment, and it ensures that new officers get?

as much knowledge and experience as possible before an agency commits to them for their careers.

Demystifying the nature of police work and the selection process and shortening the time from application to final selection have also helped to ?

attract and retain qualified candidates.

As a result, people from various occupations often succeed in?

being elected sheriff.

A police department will never reach its full potential without selecting the?

best available personnel.

One way to improve the police is to employ?

better police officers.

The reason that black confidence in the police did not decline as much as the confidence level of Democrats, for example, is that?

black confidence in the police already was low.

The subgroup with the least amount of confidence in the police was?

blacks.

In some police agencies in the United States, civil service regulations prohibit the selection of outside?

candidates.

In addition, it is discouraging to hard-working and talented police administrators to be denied a ?

chance to lead the agency they have spent many years serving

Many chiefs discover that they cannot please everybody, particularly if they are trying to do what?

change the department.

A typical police chief rarely serves longer than 10 years, and life in the chief's seat may not be very comfortable, particularly if a new chief intends to?

change things.

Patrol officers decide for themselves which traffic violators are worth?

chasing through busy traffic and which ones are not.

Few occupations have selection processes as elaborate as the ones used in?

choosing police officers in most departments of the nation.

Police departments, often working with city personnel agencies, are generally guided in their selection decisions by?

civil service regulations. -Those regulations are developed either locally or at the state level. -They guarantee a merit employment system with equal opportunity for all.

They should also be able to communicate?

clearly and get along with people of diverse backgrounds.

Starting salaries for local officers were nearly 19% higher in departments with a?

collective bargaining agreement for sworn personnel than for departments without a collective bargaining agreement.

Overall, about 35% of local police departments in 2013 had active ?

collective bargaining agreements.

Thus, to survive academy training, students must be ?

committed to the process.

Nearly as important as the three I's, however, are ?

common sense and compassion.

Police agencies also seek to employ officers with the core value of?

compassion.

The pursuit of a police chief's job is very?

competitive.

In another 2015 Gallup poll, the police was ranked third among 15 other institutions with regard to?

confidence in the institution. -Only the military and small business ranked higher.

Then, there is the matter of which people to?

consult. Who should decide? The wealthy? The middle class? The poor? The politically conservative? The politically liberal? The young? The old? The business community? Community leaders? Crime victims? Those people most likely to be policed?

The issue of police discretion is very?

controversial.

For the longest period of time, these interventions were viewed as peacekeeping activities when, in fact, they should have been treated as?

criminal matters.

The police in general do not relish the task of responding to domestic violence calls for several reasons. First, the calls can be?

dangerous, although generally no more dangerous than other disturbance calls. -Nevertheless, officers are hurt each year by responding to domestic violence complaints.

The police do not have the resources to enforce the law fully, nor can they be everywhere at once. And even if full enforcement was possible, it may not be?

desirable.

The investigator relies heavily on the ?

detailed application, verifies its contents, explores any discrepancies, and develops additional leads to follow.

Finally, the threat of civil liability suits has reduced the?

discretion an officer has, for example, in the use of deadly force or in the pursuit of fleeing suspects in an automobile.

Several methods are employed to control the amount of?

discretion exercised by police officers.

Even the police officer writing a ticket for a parking meter violation exercises a considerable amount of?

discretion in deciding precisely what to do.

Many citizens have been inconvenienced and some have been abused because of a police officer's poor use of?

discretion in those areas.

At first, the typical approach was to have the psychological evaluators look for?

disqualifying factors.

Certainly, the availability of 24-hour service has always made the police the major responder to?

domestic violence calls.

Approximately one million women are victims of?

domestic violence each year.

Third, the police know that they have often conducted investigations, even arrested the suspected batterer, and the victim has later chosen to do what?

drop charges.

Given the complexity of the role of the police officer, it comes as no surprise that deciding what qualities the successful police officer needs is not?

easy.

Accurate law enforcement career information can be passed on to high school students through a tech prep program because the teachers are required to?

either currently work in law enforcement or have police experience in their backgrounds.

Area community colleges and high schools team up to offer 6 to 9 hours of college law enforcement courses in the? as well as?

eleventh and twelfth grades, as well as one or two training certifications, such as police dispatcher or local corrections officer.

In all but a few of the nation's counties, sheriffs are elected by the county's?

eligible voters.

Officers employed under such a system are hired and tenured, in theory, only if they meet and maintain the?

employment qualifications and performance standards set by the civil service commission. -Officers in such a system cannot be fired without cause.

A merit system of employment is established when an independent civil service commission, in cooperation with the city personnel section and the police department, sets?

employment qualifications, performance standards, and discipline procedures.

Before choices are made, a wide net must be cast in the recruiting effort to come up with?

enough potential applicants to fill the vacancies for an academy class.

Failure to seriously pursue equitable representation has led to?

expensive lawsuits, consent decrees, and court-ordered quotas to achieve the desired diversity.

Of 21 different professions surveyed, the police ranked?

fifth, behind only nurses, pharmacists, medical doctors, and high school teachers, and just ahead of clergy

Research supports the allure of policing for many people who view a career in law enforcement as?

financially rewarding and status enhancing. -In addition, the work itself is intrinsically satisfying because it is nonroutine, exciting, generally outdoors, and people oriented.

Common sense is a key quality, for example, in locating a suspect who has just?

fled a crime scene on foot or in deciding when to call off a high-speed vehicle pursuit that suddenly endangers innocent citizens and other police officers.

is the exercise of individual judgment, instead of ?

formal rules, in making decisions.

Police officers cannot make an arrest for every violation of law that comes to their attention—that is, they cannot provide ?

full enforcement.

For example, persons intoxicated in front of their own homes may not need to be arrested but only to be told to?

go inside. -Motorists slightly exceeding the speed limit need not be arrested if they are moving with the flow of traffic.

Where do you find the best-qualified police applicants? Some of the more successful recruiting practices have included:

going to colleges, neighborhood centers, and schools in minority communities; using television, radio, and newspaper advertisements; and working with local employment offices.

Citizens who trust and respect the police are much more likely to?citizens who lack that trust and respect may do what?

help them carry out their duties; citizens who lack that trust and respect may rebel against the police in particular and government in general.

However, 84% of departments required only a ?

high school diploma.

Students who graduate are eligible for employment at age 18. They become interested in law enforcement work early and are?

ideal police applicants when they become old enough to apply.

Although most of the public believes that the police do a pretty good job, it also believed that there is much room for?

improvement.

Systematic psychological testing of police officers began?

in the 1950s.

It is important to remember that understanding and predicting human behavior is an?

inexact art. -So, it is easy to appreciate the reluctance of psychologists to be more specific.

Three qualities seem to be of paramount importance. One commentator refers to them as the three I's of police selection:

intelligence, integrity, and interaction skills.

The rationale for this rule is that there must be qualified?

internal candidates. .

Even today, with every state requiring the police to have domestic violence intervention training, some commentators believe that the police are not the best qualified of available community helpers to do what?

intervene.

Racial Profiling

is of growing concern to law enforcement officials and the public.

Finally, the police know that responding to the minor assault cases in domestic violence calls is not always the best thing for the family because the arrest creates?

its own complications that may, in fact, exacerbate the family crisis to a state of irreparable harm.

Advocates of this view believe that better education and training would help officers exercise their?

judgment more wisely.

Candidates considered "unacceptable" are sometimes classified as "uncertain" to avoid?

lawsuits.

Now, affirmative action programs are being questioned on several?

legal grounds. -That questioning may lead to more difficulty in trying to achieve race and gender balance in police departments.

However, only 67.5% of black drivers felt they were stopped for a?

legitimate reason compared to 73.6% of Hispanic drivers and 83.6% of white drivers.

Other qualities, such as physical strength, endurance, and appearance, seem?

less important.

Gallup attributes the significant decrease in the public's perception of police honesty and ethical standards, which ranged from 54% to 58% between 2010 and 2013, to the aforementioned ?

lethal police-black citizen encounters in 2014

Gallup attributes the decline in public confidence in the police to recent?

lethal police-citizen interactions in places such as Ferguson, Missouri; Staten Island, New York; and North Charleston, South Carolina.

Not all sheriffs have a law enforcement background. In most states, they are not required to be?

licensed or certified peace officers because their deputies or municipal officers are.

Other people argue that we should acknowledge that officers operate with great discretion and not attempt to?

limit it.

The selection committee usually consists of representatives of the?

local government, the police department, the search firm, and the community.

A high school diploma or higher educational achievement was required of new officers by 98% of?

local police departments in the United States in 2013, the same as in 2007.

Recognition that college-educated police officers are generally better performers than officers without that level of education is?

long overdue. -And the idea is catching on.

Many women and some men were hurt, and some killed, as a result of the restrictions on the police in making arrests for assault misdemeanors that were not?

made in their presence, as well as a view among the police that these calls were the private business of the family instead of real police matters.

Consequently, affirmative action has become a ?

major concern in police selection and employment.

Police have responded to domestic violence in three distinct ways:

mediate the dispute, separate domestic partners in minor disputes, and arrest the perpetrator of the assault.

In many communities, selection of police officers takes place through a?

merit system.

Affirmative action has been relatively successful in increasing the percentage of what kind of members in policing?

minority members in policing.

Without a genuine concern for serving one's fellow human beings, a police officer is not likely to sustain a high level of?

motivation over a long period of time.

Current tests include:

multiple versions of both written and clinical evaluations.

They even have the right not to arrest for a minor violation when, for example, they are?

on the way to investigate a more serious matter.

The debate over how much control should be placed on the exercise of police discretion is?

ongoing.

Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court, such as one restricting the use of deadly force to stop a fleeing felon, limit the?

options available to officers on the street.

Yet, despite the recent decline, confidence in the police remains relatively high when compared to ?

other social institutions.

Department directives or policies also limit the options police officers have in?

particular situations.

The process included a?

pencil-and-paper test and a one-on-one interview with a psychologist.

A crucial decision in the selection process is whether to allow?

people from outside the agency to apply.

Investigators in this process look for any factors in the applicants' backgrounds that would prevent them from?

performing successfully as police officers.

This list of advantages should impress?

police administrators and the public.

Satisfied citizens, the savings of substantial amounts of money by avoiding lawsuits, and fewer disciplinary actions against officers are good reasons for law enforcement executives to search for?

police applicants with college backgrounds.

The selection of a sheriff of one of the nation's counties is just as important as choosing a?

police chief.

Some consensus is needed on the type of?

police officer desired. -Seeking that consensus in metropolitan communities is filled with conflict.

However, women, who compose more than 50% of the United States population, represented only 12% of the?

police officers in local police departments in 2013; still, that was a slight increase from 11.9% in 2007, and a much larger increase from the 7.6% in 1987.

Emotional stability and good mental health are critical to the ability to perform?

police work, which can be very stressful.

The manner in which they carry out those functions, especially law enforcement and order maintenance, determines the community's respect for and trust in the?

police.

A small number of cities give their police chiefs civil service protection to insulate them from unnecessary?

political interference. Police chief salaries based on the size of the population served are shown in

Much of the political controversy and many of the social problems in major cities and counties end up at the door of the police department, so police chiefs must be?

politically savvy to survive.

To be elected, sheriffs must be good?

politicians.

The highest average minimum salary ($50,700) went to officers serving ?

populations of 100,000-249,000;

Often, several hundred candidates contend for a?

position even in a small suburban community.

Research shows that citizens who have experienced positive contact with the police generally have?

positive attitudes toward the police.

Today, the testing focus has generally shifted to a search for the?

positive psychological qualities required in police work.

Patrol officers frequently find it necessary to exercise their discretion. Within the geographical limits of their beats, they have the discretion to decide?

precisely where they will patrol when they are not answering radio calls.

It also depends on people's?

previous experience with the police.

Indeed, Gallup reports that the "steep drop in nonwhites' ratings of the police in 2014 was the sole cause of the?

profession's overall ratings dip last year."

Racial profiling to any degree is a blight on the record of?

professional law enforcement and on democracy.

Police officers have intervened in domestic violence cases and other kinds of family disputes, sometimes off duty, since the inception of?

public policing.

Another promising recruitment strategy has been the employment of 18-year-olds as ?

public safety officers (sometimes called community service officers or public service aides), who perform many police service functions but do not have arrest powers. -By the time they are 21, the department has had an excellent opportunity to assess their qualifications and potential to be sworn officers.

Problems with drugs and alcohol, sexually transmitted diseases, personal debt, and dependability have reduced the number of ?

qualified police applicants.

Since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the threat of court challenges to the fairness of the police selection process, police agencies have struggled to find the best-qualified applicants and yet achieve satisfactory?

race and gender representation within the ranks of the department.

In 2014, 30 states had laws prohibiting racial profiling by law enforcement officers, but only 18 of those states required police departments to collect information on the?

race of motorists they stop

Racial profiling is a law enforcement infringement on a citizen's liberty based solely on?

race.

Yet, the level of respect and confidence is not particularly high, nor is it uniform across?

races and ethnicities.

Some of the methods that have been prescribed to stop racial profiling include?

racial and cultural diversity training for police personnel, strong discipline for errant officers, videotaping all traffic stops, collecting data on the race of stopped motorists and pedestrians and the disposition of the encounter, and having police officers distribute business cards to all motorists and pedestrians they stop.

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), for example, has a national project to eliminate?

racial profiling and even provides citizens with a "Bust Card" that tells them how to respectfully interact with the police (acknowledging the difficulty of their job) even when falling victim to racial profiling.

Less clear is whether disparate rates of searching and arresting are a function of?

racial stereotyping and prejudice or legitimate legal factors.

The 56% of the public that rated the honesty and ethical standards of the police "very high" or "high" in 2015 represents a significant increase from the 48% of the public that?

rated the police "very high" or "high" on that question in 2014.

Also, when compared to other professions, the honesty and ethical standards of the police ranked ?

relatively high in 2015.

However, if crimes are committed in the form of physical abuse, the police are not only the best qualified to intervene but are also?

required by law to do so.

In short, police officers need to be bright enough to complete?

rigorous training.

Departments have been held liable for not?

screening their applicants for those psychological traits

The difference in the two processes has to do with who does the?

selecting.

Actual hiring decisions are usually shared by members of a?

selection committee. -Frequently, an executive search firm is also employed.

To find the best possible recruits to fill department vacancies, police agencies use a?

selection process that includes some or all of the following steps.

The discussion of law enforcement thus far has made it clear that not all matters of policing in America are?

settled.

Applicants are put through a rigorous process that includes?

several visits to the city, written exams, interviews, and assessment center testing in which candidates try to resolve real-world management problems.

By contrast, a federal study conducted in 2008 found that black, Hispanic, and white drivers were stopped at?

similar rates (8.8%, 9.1%, and 8.4%, respectively), and that 73.8% of black drivers felt they were pulled over for a legitimate reason compared to 82.5% of Hispanic drivers and 86.3% of white drivers. - Both studies were based on data from the National Crime Victimization Survey.

However, average minimum and maximum starting salaries for entry-level local officers in 2013 varied widely by?

size of population served.

The reasons for the increased difficulty in finding good police candidates involve?

social maturity and lifestyle issues.

Recently, some police agencies have added the examination of ?

social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, as part of their background checks. -According to a September 2010 survey of 728 law enforcement agencies conducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), 37% of the agencies checked social networking sites. -Investigators look for information that might disqualify the applicant. -Agencies are mainly concerned that testimony in a criminal or civil case could be impeached using information from an officer's personal social media page. -Whether the agencies ask for passwords, user names, e-mails, or permission from applicants is unclear. -The Orange County (Florida) Sheriff's Office asks a candidate for a deputy position to log in without giving the investigator his or her password; while the applicant is present, both the investigator and the applicant view the information on the applicant's site.

Four percent of local police departments required new officers to have?

some college courses (down from 16% in 2007), and 10% of the agencies required new officers to have a minimum of 2 years of college (up slightly from 9% in 2007).

Finally, many departments also offer the opportunity to earn?

special pay.

At the end of many academy training programs, students must take a ?

state licensing or certification examination.

They decide whom to ?

stop and question. -For example, they may tell some children playing ball in the street to move, while they ignore others.

It is widely believed that on freeways, highways, and streets throughout the nation, blacks and other minorities are?

stopped for traffic violations and field interrogations in numbers disproportionate to their representation in the population. -It is further assumed that many of these stops are pretext stops in which the stop is justified by a minor equipment or moving traffic violation that might otherwise be ignored. -Where the practice is considered widely experienced, it has been called "driving while black or brown" (DWBB). -It is presumed that racial stereotyping and prejudice are at the root of such a practice.

Some of the more critical situations involve decisions about ?

stopping, searching, and arresting criminal suspects.

Prostitution may be widely practiced in large metropolitan areas, but police officers have little to gain by searching hotels and motels to stamp it out, particularly when judges will turn the prostitutes right back out on the street. Generally, only when do police officers decide to take action?

such an activity becomes a clear nuisance, is the subject of a public outcry, or threatens health and safety do the police department and its officers choose to take formal action.

Another program that is proving useful in attracting potentially capable police officers at an even earlier age is known as?

tech prep (technical preparation) for a criminal justice career.

The agency is, in effect, offering the police officer ?

tenure in a matter of weeks after graduation from the academy. -This practice defeats the purpose of probation, which was designed to allow the employer to see whether the newly trained officer can successfully perform the job.

In sum, although these data do not support the contention that minorities, especially blacks, experience traffic stops at rates substantially higher than rates for whites, they do show that when the police stop minorities, they are more likely?

than whites to be searched and arrested. -These data also show that a larger percentage of blacks than whites or Hispanics are more likely to believe the reasons for certain stops are illegitimate.

Racial profiling remains a hot topic in?

the U.S. Congress, state legislatures, county commissions, and city councils, as well as in the meeting rooms of civil rights and professional police organizations.

Past drug use or excessive alcohol use, a poor driving record, employer problems, a bad credit history, criminal activity, and social immaturity are areas of concern in?

the background investigation.

Once the interviews and testing have been completed, applicants are normally ranked, and the list is presented to?

the city manager, the mayor, or others so that a final selection can be made.

Contrary to popular belief, the personal characteristics of an officer (such as race, gender, and education) do not seem to influence?

the exercise of discretion.

To carry out the duties of law enforcement, order maintenance, service, and information gathering successfully, the police must have the trust and cooperation of?

the public.

Most police agencies have finally realized that the kind of officers they desire will not gravitate naturally to the doors of the department. The search for top-notch applicants is very competitive, and many chiefs and sheriffs believe that they have to look at larger pools of applicants than in the past to find ?

the same number of qualified officers.

The police academy is part of?

the selection process.

Just how frequently this illegal practice occurs is difficult to discern, particularly because?

the term racial profiling is seldom defined in the discussions found in the national media.

Traditionally, law enforcement has been less interested in arresting perpetrators of crimes when ?

the victim and the perpetrator have a close relationship.

No list of policies and procedures could possibly guide police officers in all of the situations in which?

they find themselves.

In resolving conflicts and solving problems they encounter, police officers must often choose a course of action without much time to?

think about it.

Because employment qualifications are supposed to be based on perceived needs in policing, law enforcement agencies must be careful not to set?

unnecessary restrictions that have no bearing on an officer's ability to complete training and perform successfully on the job. -The addition of just one seemingly minor qualification, such as requiring four pull-ups instead of three during physical ability testing, or making the eyesight requirement slightly more stringent, may eliminate thousands of men and women from the selection process in a large metropolitan area. -It is difficult enough to find capable police candidates without needlessly eliminating them from the selection process.

Virtually every academy class in any sophisticated police department loses ?

up to 10% of its students.

Police even have the discretion to ignore?

violations of the law when they deem it appropriate in the context of other priorities.

Second, police officers know from experience that many of the tense and hostile dynamics that exist between quarreling spouses, couples, and other family members have a ?

way of dissipating over time or at least subsiding for a while.

What do people think of the police? The answer depends on?

what and whom you ask.

As noted previously, about 73% of the sworn officers in the nation's police departments are what race? and 88% are what gender?

white and about 88% are males.

The validity of psychological tests has been an issue for decades. Psychologists are often reluctant to rate?

with any specificity the police candidates they evaluate.

Police administrators need to be very careful in choosing police officers who may well be?

with the agency for 20 years or more.

It has been less successful in increasing the percentage of?

women.