Chapter 7 Thinking Intelligence and Language

Measuring Intelligence

The criteria of a good intelligence test consists of Validity, Reliability, and Standardization

Normal Curve and Standard-Binet IQ Scores

The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve.REMEBER THE NUMBER UNDER THE CURVE REPRESENTS THE PEOPLE WHO OBTAIN A GIVEN SCORE

Thinking

The process oaf manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

Mindfulness

The state of being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities. the mindful individual jas/maintains an active awareness of the circumstances in his/hers life. Mindfulness is a key to critical thinking. Langer distinguishes mindful behavior from mindless behavior such as automatic activities we perform without thought/thinking of actions

Base Rate Neglect

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information. e.g. if you are asked to guess the value percentage of a variable (tickets given to 10 out of 60 drivers during morning work hours your decision will be based on previous information you were given and your answer would more than like be 10 or close to 10 based on what you know... If more info such as the cars given tickets drove red cars your answer may be loss in having been given more specific information.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to report falsely "after the fact" that one has accurately predicted an outcome. e.g. you have an idea about a particular person ( yet can't confirm your instinctive feelings or idea) than it's made known that your idea, judgement, or intuition was accurate. Yet, you didn't know for sure until the knowledge is made clear/confirmed

FYI- Reliability and Validity

These are related. Of an test is valid than it must be reliable whereas, a reliable test need not be valid.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that produces any solutions to the same problem(s). Divergent thinking occurs during brainstorming which occurs when a group of people openly throw out a range of possible solutions to problem, some may seem crazy (thinking outside the box) However the goal is to reach the the best plausible solution

1. Representative Heuristic

This is the tendency to make judgment about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information. e.g. when a select group of people are put together and you a re e told that there's are bikers and teachers in the group. so you pick out the well shaven man in a suit, and are told that your decision is wrong because it was based the appearance (personal peecetion) not actual knowledge . The representative Heuristic can be particularly damaging in the context of social judgement. e.g. for instance woman based group is looking for a promotional representative individual and a quy applies for the position He maybe overlooked do to his gender and without really following up with his experience this marketing arena they will never know he was an apprentice at one of their competitors

IQ calculation

To calculate IQ = IQ=MA/CA×100

Functional Fixation

Usually occurs when an individual fails to solve a problem because of being fixated on the usual functions of the problem solving scenario. Swaying away from trying something new that has never been attempted before.

Fixation

an obsessive interest in or feeling about someone or something. This can become a obstacle in problem-solving reemploying (using) a propr strategy while failing to look at the problem from a fresh perspective

Flynn effect

demonstrates how educationcma have a positive effect on Intelligence testing. People who tested at the turn of the 20th century who were regarded as having average Intelligence today woild6be considered below average Intelligence.

Normal Distribution

describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

Standardization

involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms, or performance standards, for the test

Cognitive Psychology

is the study of mental processes of the basic cognitive processes of thinking, problem solving, reasoning and decision making.

Open-mindedness

means being receptive to other ways of looking at things. Many people often don't realize there is different perspective or viewpoint besides theirs and what they believe.

Problem Solving

requires mean, motivation, and the ability to solve all the little problems that come with transforming a great idea into reality.

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, with reproducible measures of performance. It produces the same score over time with repeated testing.

Reasoning

the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

Intelligence

the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations Intelligence can apply to a behavior or person e.g. the young lady (person)had a IQ compared to the boy (took the longest route to the store) to see the layout of the Historical buildings

Concept

A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

prototype model

A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties.

2. Availability heuristic

A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar. e.g. example you are thinking about buying a particular car and than have a friend tell you of a (-) experience about the same car you are less likely to purchase that particular car

Heuristic

A shortcut (rule of thumb or informal guideline) which suggest a solution to a problem but does not guarantee a answer. There are 2 types of heuristic

Intelligence

All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. countries vary on how they view "Intelligence " European Americans view Intelligence on terms of reasoning/thinking skills. Whereas in Kenya responsible participation in family and social gloried an integral part of intelligence. Different culture have their own unique manner of defining intelligence.

FYI-Cultural Biases in Testing Many early intelligence test were bias in that they favored individuals from urban rather than rural environment.

Also early testing were bias toward people middle financial income to low socioeconomic status and white Americans rather ccx than African American

David Wechsler (1896-1981)

American psychologist who developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the most widely used intelligence test. There a three versions of the scale.

MA

An individual's level of mental development relative to that of others of the same age group. His theory being a child of a very low ability would perform like a normal child of a younger age. The comparisons of a person's mental age (MA) to a person's level of Intelligence the comparisons of the (MA-mental age) to his/hers (CA) Chronological age. Determining that a less bright child has a MA consider lower than CA(Chronological Age)

FYI-

Binet came up with the idea of comparing a person's mental ability to the mental ability of an individual's age group.

Cognition

Cognitive Psychologist study " Cognition" this is the study of the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, thinking and knowing.

2. Inner Motivation

Creative people are often motivated by the joy creating. They tend to be less inspired by grades money or favorable feedback than others. Their motivations are internal not external payoffs.

3. Willingness to Risk

Creative people make mistakes tjam their less imaginative counterparts because they simply come up with more ideas/possibilities with the idea "win some and loss sometimes.

4. Objective Evaluation of Work

Creative thinkers strive to evaluate tjwor work/decision making/problem solving through an objective process, by using established criteria to make judgments or they re rely on the judgement of their respected trusted counterparts (other individuals) This allows for further creative thinking in terms of improvements. qq

Validity

Does the test measure what it is supposed to measure One of the most important indicators in validity testing is is the degree I'm ccx which it predicts an individual's performance as assessed by other measures or criteria.

FYI- as information (input) comes into the mind mental processes, or operations act on it,, just as the computer software acts on data. The data is retrieved from memory printed out (displayed) so to speak as an verbal observable response.

FYI- Critical thinking is valuable. It allows one to make predictions about the future and to evaluate situations "objectively". In a sense of its purpose "critical thinking requires courage. When we expose ourselves to a broad range of perspective we risk finding out our assumptions may be wrong. This engaging of critical thinking may cause is to doscover problems, allowing one an opportunity to make/seek positive changes.

Creative Thinking

Gives us the opportunity come up with some of our best solutions to a certain problems. It's the ability to think about something in novel/unusual ways and devising unconventional solutions to problems

Genetics/Environmental Influences on Intelligence

Heritability refers to the proportion of the differences on xss IQs in a population that is attributed to genetic differences. The highest degree is 100%. Today researchers are also working to identify sets of genetic differences called "Alleles" that can predict different important outcomes across the life9of humans,which include educational attainment reading ability and even one's individual's retirement plan. It also noted that environments can change OQ scores considerably

IQ Test

In 1904 the French Ministry of Education asked n.v Psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine students didn't learn effectively from regular class room settings. Binet's test is now known as the: Stanford- Binet and is still widely used.2t1q

FYI-

In all Intelligence test the "processing of speed has not been included in either IQ testing Processing of speed "how quocll6a person can find the letter "W" in a matrix of letters.

IQ

Intelligence Quotient

Culturally Fair Testing

Intelligence testing that are designed to be culturally unbiased which is very difficult due to the "reality "Intelligence is viewed differently by different cultures .

Decision Making

Involves all the alternatives and then making an "informed choice".

Inductive Reasoning

Involves reasoning from specifics to the generalization or from the bottom up. Om which drawing conclusions about something very broad based on only a few of characteristics. Tjis is reasoning from the general to the specific nature of decision making.

FYI- B. F. Skinner argued that the human mind is a black box best left to philosophers, and they considered observable behavior to be the psychologist "proper focus". That the behavior perspective had little "use" for the mental processes occurring in that dark place between one's ears (the mind). However, in the 1950's this view began to change among psychology/psychologist. Cognitive psychologist often use the computer as an analogy to help explain the relationship between cognition and the brain; describing the physical brain as the computer "hardware' and cognition as the "software". Herbert Simon was one of the pioneers in using the comparison the human with the computer. AI(Artificial Intelligence)

Is especially helpful tasks requiring speed persistence and a vast memory of data. such as advising students regarding course to take based on supplied personal information, assisting in diagnosing medical illnesses and prescribing treatment, examining equipment failures

Convergent Thinking

Produces a single best solution to a problem. This happens by taking all of those brainstorming possibilities and finding the right one to fit the solution. Convergent thinking is used whenever its best to find "only one right or possible solution/answer to a problem or situation.

FYI- there are two types of Reasoning/Decision Making

Psychologist divide reasoning/decisiom making into two levels: Automatic (System 1) The automatic system is rapid, heuristic and intuitive. (System 2) The controlled system is slower, effortful and analytical "Both Are Important"

Reasoning and Decision Making

Reason includes the capacity for logical inference and the ability to conduct inquiry, solve problems, evaluate, criticize, and deliberate about how we should act and to reach an understanding of other people, the world, and ourselves.

Critical Thinking

Scientists are critical thinkers. They are ble to grasp the deeper meaning of an idea, while questioning assumptions and than deciding what believe or do to get the most accurate information/outcome. Critical thinkers have a sense of humility about what they know/ what they don't know. One must be motivated to see past the obvious. Critical thinking is "vital" to to effective "problem solving".