Chapter 8 Digestive System

cementum

(a thin layer of bone) covers the dentin of the root, providing protection and firmly anchoring the periodontal ligament.

gingivae

(gums) surround the necks of the teeth.

nasopharynx

. The upper portion, is above the soft palate.

identify sturctures

1. right lobe of liver 2. gallbladder 3. appendix 4. parotid gland 5.pharynx 6. esophagus 7. spleen 8. body of stomach 9. pancreas 10. small intestine

hepatitis panel

A blood test used to find markers of hepatitis infection. There are different hepatitis panels. Some tests look for proteins (antibodies) that the body makes to fight the infection. Other tests look for antigens or the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of the viruses that cause hepatitis.

esophageal sphincter

A ring of muscle at the end of the esophagus and opening of the stomach. It regulates the entrance of food into the stomach and prevents acid from entering ensures that the stomach contents stay in the stomach and do not flow backward into the esophagus, where they can burn the esophageal lining.

stomach capacity

An empty stomach has a volume of about 50 mL. Typically after a meal, its capacity can expand to about 1 liter and may expand to hold as much as 4 liters.

Pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels. a large, elongated gland situated behind the stomach and secreting pancreatic juice into the small intestine. contains cells that produce digestive enzymes. Other specialized cells in the pancreas secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream. The beta cells of the islets of Langerhans make and release insulin. The alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans synthesize and secrete glucagon.

gastric acid pump inhibitors (proton-pump inhibitors [PPIs])

Antiulcer agents that suppress gastric acid secretion by specific inhibition of the H + /K + ATPase enzyme at the secretory surface of the gastric parietal cell. Because this enzyme system is regarded as the acid (proton) pump within the gastric mucosa, gastric acid pump inhibitors are so classified because they block the final step of acid production.

What does the liver manufacture?

Bile. Digestive juice important in fat emulsification (the breakdown of large fat globules into smaller particles) \ Fibrinogen and prothrombin. Coagulants essential for blood clotting Heparin. Anticoagulant that helps to prevent the clotting of blood Blood proteins. Albumin, gamma globulin Additionally, the liver stores iron and vitamins B12, A, D, E, and K. It also detoxifies many harmful substances (toxins) such as drugs and alcohol.

liver

Changes glucose to glycogen and stores it until needed; changes glycogen back to glucose; desaturates fats; assists in protein catabolism (the breaking down of molecules to form simpler ones); manufactures bile, fibrinogen, prothrombin, heparin, and blood proteins; stores vitamins; produces heat; and detoxifies toxins

________________is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract but most commonly occurs in the ileum.

Chrohns disease

Pharynx

Common passageway for both respiration and digestion; muscular constrictions move the swallowed bolus into the esophagus

Small intestine digestion

Digested nutrients pass into the villi through diffusion. Complex proteins are broken down into simple amino acids, complicated sugars are reduced to simple sugars (glucose), and large fat molecules (triglycerides) are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. Circulating blood then transmits these nutrients to body cells. Enzymes within the villi capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars, which are taken up by the villi and sent into the bloodstream. Villus lacteals (lymph capillary) collect absorbed lipoproteins and are taken to the rest of the body through the lymph fluid.

Small intestine

Digestion and absorption take place chiefly in the small intestine; nutrients are absorbed and transferred to body cells by the circulatory system

small intestine

Digestive organ where most chemical digestion and absorption of food takes place The small intestine is about 21 feet long and 1 inch in diameter. It extends from the pyloric sphincter at the base of the stomach to the entrance of the large intestine.

colonoscopy

Direct visual examination of the colon via a colonoscope; used to diagnose growths to confirm findings of other tests and to rule out or rule in colon cancer. It can also be used to remove small polyps and to collect tissue samples for analysis. The patient is lightly sedated during the procedure.

upper gastrointestinal (UGI) endoscopy

Direct visual examination of the gastric mucosa via a flexible fiberoptic endoscope when gastric neoplasm is suspected. Colored photographs or motion pictures can be taken during the procedure.

esophagogastroduodenal endoscopy

Endoscopic examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. During the procedure, photographs, biopsy, or brushings may be done.

Esophagus

Esophagus Moves the bolus by peristalsis (wavelike contractions) down the esophagus into the stomach

true or false. The pharynx is another word for "swallowing structure."

False. The pharynx is the term for "throat."

fiberoptic colonoscopy

Fiberoptic colonoscopy, a direct visual examination of the colon via a flexible colonoscope; used as a diagnostic aid for removal of foreign bodies, polyps, and tissue. The patient is lightly sedated during the procedure.

gastrointestinal (GI) series

Fluoroscopic examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine in which barium is given orally and is observed as it flows through the GI system. Abnormal results can indicate esophageal varices, ulcers, gastric polyps, malabsorption syndrome, hiatal hernias, diverticula, pyloric stenosis, and foreign bodies.

salivary glands

Glands of the mouth that produce saliva, a digestive secretion Located in or near the mouth, the salivary glands secrete saliva in response to the sight, smell, taste, or mental image of food. Human saliva is composed of 98% water, while the other 2% consists of other compounds such as electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds, and various enzymes that help start the process of digestion. The various salivary glands are the parotid, located on either side of the face slightly below the ear; the submandibular, located in the floor of the mouth; and the sublingual, located below the tongue All salivary glands secrete through openings (salivary ducts) into the mouth to lubricate food and begin the digestion of carbohydrates.

comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP)

Includes 14 tests that provide information about the current status of a patient's metabolism, including the health of the kidneys and liver, electrolyte and acid-base balance, and levels of blood glucose and blood proteins.

histamine H2-receptor antagonists

Inhibit both daytime and nocturnal basal gastric acid secretion and inhibit gastric acid stimulated by food, histamines, caffeine, and insulin used in the treatment of active duodenal ulcer.

mouth

Mechanically breaks food apart by the action of the teeth; moistens and lubricates food with saliva; food formed into a bolus, a soft mass of chewed food ready to be swallowed

mucosal protective medications

Medicines that protect the stomach's mucosal lining from acids but do not inhibit the release of acid.

liver biopsy

Microscopic examination of liver tissue. Abnormal results can indicate cirrhosis, hepatitis, and tumors.

antacids

Neutralize hydrochloric acid in the stomach nonsystemic and systemic.

antiemetics

Prevent or arrest vomiting; also used in the treatment of vertigo, motion sickness, and nausea

antacid mixtures

Products that combine aluminum and/or calcium compounds with magnesium salts,

Large intestine

Reabsorbs water from the fecal material, stores, and then eliminates waste from the body via the rectum and anus

Salivary glands

Secrete saliva to moisten and lubricate food

Pancreas

Secretes pancreatic juice into the small intestine, contains cells that produce digestive enzymes, produces the hormones insulin and glucagon

agents used for inflammatory bowel disease

Step I - Aminosalicylates (oral, enema, suppository formulations): For treating flare-ups and maintaining remission; more effective in ulcerative colitis (UC) than in Crohn disease (CD) Step IA - Antibiotics: Used sparingly in UC (limited efficacy, increased risk for antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis); in CD, most commonly used for perianal disease, fistulas, intra-abdominal inflammatory masses Step II - Corticosteroids (intravenous, oral, topical, rectal): For acute disease flare-ups only Step III - Immunomodulators: Effective for steroid-sparing action in refractory disease; primary treatment for fistulas and maintenance of remission in patients intolerant of or not responsive to aminosalicylates

stomach

Stomach Reduces food to a digestible state; converts the food to a semiliquid state called chyme (mixture of partly digested food and digestive secretions

Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates bile that has been produced by the liver

alcohol toxicology

Test performed on blood serum or plasma to determine levels of alcohol. it as a crime to drive with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at or above 0.08%.

gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)

Test performed on blood serum to determine the level of GGT (enzyme found in the liver, kidney, prostate, heart, and spleen). Increased values can indicate cirrhosis, liver necrosis, hepatitis, alcoholism, neoplasms, acute pancreatitis, acute myocardial infarction, nephrosis, and acute cholecystitis.

occult blood

Test performed on feces to determine gastrointestinal bleeding that is not visible. Positive results can indicate gastritis, stomach cancer, peptic ulcer, ulcerative colitis, bowel cancer, bleeding esophageal varices, portal hypertension, pancreatitis, and diverticulitis.

stool culture

Test performed on stool to identify the presence of organisms

carcinoembryonic antigen

Test performed on whole blood or plasma to determine the presence of CEA (antigens originally isolated from colon tumors). Increased values can indicate stomach, intestinal, rectal, and various other cancers and conditions. This test is nonspecific and must be combined with other tests for a final diagnosis. It is being used to monitor the course of cancer therapy.

gastric analysis (găs´ trĭk ă-năl´ ĭ-sĭs)

Test performed to determine quality of secretion, amount of free and combined hydrochloric acid (HCI), and absence or presence of blood, bacteria, bile, and fatty acids. Increased level of HCl can indicate peptic ulcer disease, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (a condition caused by non-insulinsecreting pancreatic tumors, which secrete excess amounts of gastrin), and hypergastrinemia. Decreased level of HCl can indicate stomach cancer, pernicious anemia, and atrophic gastritis.

ultrasonography, gallbladder

Test to visualize the gallbladder by using high-frequency sound waves. The echoes are recorded on an oscilloscope and film. Abnormal results can indicate biliary obstruction, cholelithiasis, and acute cholecystitis.

deciduous teeth

The 20 temporary teeth of the primary dentition, include eight incisors, four canines (cuspids), and eight molars. Deciduous teeth are also referred to as milk teeth or baby teeth.

colon

The colon makes up the bulk of the large intestine and is divided into the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon

rugae

The lining of the stomach that is in folds of mucous membrane. The folds allow the stomach to expand when a large meal is eaten.

laryngopharynx

The lowest portion, is below the hyoid bone and opens inferiorly to the larynx anteriorly and the esophagus posteriorly.

opopharynx

The middle portion, lies between the palate and the hyoid bone and has an opening to the oral cavity.

Parts of the tongue

The tongue can be divided into a blunt rear portion called the root, a pointed tip, and a central body. Located on the surface of the tongue are papillae (elevations) and taste buds (sweet, salt, sour, and bitter). Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva into the oral cavity. The posterior margin of the soft palate supports the dangling uvula and two pairs of muscular pharyngeal arches. On either side, a palatine tonsil lies between an anterior glossopalatine arch and a posterior pharyngopalatine arch. A curving line that connects the palatine arches and uvula forms the boundaries of the fauces, the passageway between the oral cavity and the pharynx. See Figure 8.2A. Digestion begins as food is broken apart by the action of the teeth, moistened and lubricated by saliva, and formed into a bolus.

tongue

The tongue is made of skeletal muscle and is covered with mucous membrane. It manipulates food during chewing and assists in swallowing.

parts of the stomache

The upper region of the stomach is called the fundus, the main portion is called the body, and the lower region is the antrum. There are folds in the mucous membrane lining the stomach called rugae that stretch when the stomach fills with food and contain glands that produce digestive juices.

other ulcer medications

Treatment regimen for active duodenal ulcers associated with H. pylori can involve a two-, three-, or four-drug program. for the treatment to be effective, the patient must complete the full treatment program, which usually involves taking the drugs for a total of at least 10-14 days for the two- and three-drug program and 10 days for the four-drug program

True or false. The epiglottis closes the larynx when swallowing

True

teeth

Used in mastication (chewing)

emetics

Used to induce vomiting in people who have taken an overdose of oral drugs or who have ingested certain poisons. An emetic agent should not be given to a person who is unconscious, in shock, or in a semicomatose state. Emetics are also contraindicated in individuals who have ingested strongly caustic substances, such as lye or acid, because their use could result in additional injury to the person's esophagus.

laxatives

Used to relieve constipation and to facilitate the passage of feces through the lower gastrointestinal tract.

antidiarrheal agents

Used to treat diarrhea

Aging and Digestion

With aging, the digestive system becomes less motile, as muscle contractions become weaker. Glandular secretions decrease, thus causing a drier mouth and a lower volume of gastric juices. Nutrient absorption is mildly reduced due to atrophy of the mucosal lining. The teeth are mechanically worn down with age, and the gums begin to recede from the teeth. There is a loss of taste buds, and food preferences change. Gastric motor activity slows; as a result, gastric emptying is delayed and hunger contractions diminish.

endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

X-ray examination of the biliary and pancreatic ducts by injecting a contrast medium and then films are taken. Abnormal results can indicate fibrosis, biliary or pancreatic cysts, strictures, stones, and chronic pancreatitis

Cholangiography

X-ray examination of the common bile duct, cystic duct, and hepatic ducts in which radiopaque dye is injected and then films are taken. Abnormal results can indicate obstruction, stones, and tumors.

cholecystography

X-ray examination of the gallbladder in which radiopaque dye is injected and then films are taken.

Describe the digestive or gastrointestinal (GI) system

a continuous tube beginning with the mouth and ending at the anus. This tube is known as the alimentary canal and/or gastrointestinal tract. It measures about 30 feet in adults and contains both primary and accessory organs for the conversion of food and fluids into a semiliquid that can be absorbed for the body to use.

cecum

a pouchlike structure forming the beginning of the large intestine. It is about 3 inches long and has the appendix attached to it.

__________is an enzyme that breaks down starch.

amylase The saliva in your mouth contains amylase, which is a starch digesting enzyme.

Significant accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity is _____________.

ascites

significant accumulation of serous fluid in the peritoneal cavity is known​ as:

ascites

gomphosis

attachment of a tooth to its socket binds the teeth to bony sockets in the maxillary bone and mandible

alveolus

bony socket that each tooth sits in

The large intestine can be divided into four distinct sections called the _________________________, the _________________________, the _________________________, and the _________________________.

cecum colon rectum anal canal

X-ray examination of the common bile duct, cystic duct, and hepatic ducts.

cholangiography

Inflammation of the gallbladder is ________________.

cholecystitis

. Semiliquid food is called ________________________________.

chyme

The ________________________________ transports nutrients to body cells.

circulatory system

A surgical procedure that brings one end of the large intestine out through an opening (stoma) made in the abdominal wall is called a

colostomy

pulp cavity

contains the dental pulp, a loose connective tissue richly supplied with vessels and nerves that enter the cavity through the small aperture at the point of each root. receives blood vessels and nerves from the root canal Blood vessels and nerves enter the root canal through an opening called the apical foramen to supply the pulp cavity.

solid portion of the tooth consists of

dentin, which forms the bulk of the tooth; the enamel, which covers the exposed part of the crown and is the hardest and most compact part of a tooth; and the cementum, which is deposited on the surface of the root.

State the three main functions of the digestive system

digestion absorption elimination

3 main functions of the digestive system

digestion, absorption, and elimination.

The ________________________________ is the first portion of the small intestine.

duodenum

The free portion of the tongue is connected to the underlying _________ by a thin fold of mucous membrane,_______________, which prevents extreme movement of the tongue.

epithelium lingual frenulum

Test performed to determine the presence of the hepatitis B virus.

esophagogastroduodenoscopy

true or false. The entire palate is made of bone.

false

Direct visual examination of the colon via a flexible colonoscope.

fiberoptic colonoscopy

The term that means pertaining to the stomach and esophagus is

gasteosophageal

Fluoroscopic examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine.

gastrointestinal series

To feed liquid or semiliquid food via a tube is

gavage

gastric juices

help convert food to a semiliquid state called chyme, which is passed at intervals through a valve called the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine.

_________is an anticoagulant that helps to prevent the clotting of blood.

heparin

Endoscopic examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine.

hepatitis B surface antigen

_________________________ and _________________________ convert the food into a semiliquid state.

hydrochloric acid and gastric juices

The large intestine extends from the _____________ valve at the small intestine to the ______________________________

ileocecal, anus.

The parotid gland is​ located:

in front of and below the ear.

vestibule

includes the space between the cheeks and the teeth

Digestive enzymes

increase chemical reactions and, in so doing, break down complex nutrients.

Name the two hormones secreted into the bloodstream by the pancreas. _________________________

insulin glucagon

epiglottis

is at the inferior pharynx and closes the windpipe so that food does goes directly into the esophagus rather than the lungs. how the esophagus is closed during breathing.

A surgical incision into the abdomen is called _________

laparotomy

triglycerides

large fat molecules

stomach

large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food The stomach is a muscular, distensible saclike portion of the alimentary canal between the esophagus and duodenum. food is reduced to a digestible state by mechanical churning and the release of chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, digestive hormones, and enzymes.

The ________________________________ is the largest glandular organ in the body.

liver

neck of the tooth

marks the boundary between the root and the crown, A shallow groove called the gingival sulcus surrounds the neck of each tooth, the exposed portion of the tooth that projects above the soft tissue of the gingiva. A shallow groove called the gingival sulcus surrounds the neck of each tooth.

Chewing; the physical breaking up of food and mixing with saliva is

mastication

_________ is black stool that contains digested blood.

melena

Name the primary organs commonly associated with digestion.

mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine

esophogus

muscular tube in which food travels from pharynx to the stomach At the junction with the stomach is the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) or cardiac sphincter. This sphincter relaxes to permit passage of food and then contracts to prevent the backup of stomach contents.

three subdivisions of the pharynx

nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

The pharynx

or throat, is a chamber that extends between the internal nares and the entrance to the larynx and esophagus common passageway for both respiration and digestion. Both the larynx, or voice box, and the esophagus begin in the pharynx. The pharynx extends from the nasal cavity down to the larynx and esophagus.

The salivary glands located in and about the mouth are called the _________________________, the _________________________, and the _________________________.

parotid sublingual submandibular

The​ throat, just beyond the​ mouth, is called​ the:

pharynx

Food that is swallowed passes through the __________ into the ___________ reflexively. Muscular contractions move the bolus into the esophagus and the epiglottis (a flap of tissue) blocks the opening of the____________, preventing food from entering the airway leading to the trachea (windpipe).

pharynx esophagus larynx

What role does the liver play?

plays an essential role in the normal metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. In carbohydrate (CHO) metabolism, it changes glucose to glycogen and stores the glycogen until needed by body cells. When required, glycogen is converted back to glucose. In fat metabolism, the liver serves as a storage place and acts to desaturate fats before releasing them into the bloodstream. In protein metabolism, the liver acts as a storage place and assists in both protein catabolism (metabolic breaking down of complex substances into more basic elements) and anabolism (building up of the body substances in the constructive phase of metabolism).

state 3 functions of the liver

plays an important role in metabolism manufactures bile stores iron and vitamins

A physician who specializes in the study of the anus and rectum is a ____________________

proctologist

liver

produces bile

Name an important function of the pancreas. ________________________________

produces digestive enzymes

Name four accessory organs of digestion

salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

premanent teeth

secondary dentition teeth: eight incisors, four canines, eight premolars, and 12 molars.

peristalsis

series of wavelike muscular contractions that carries food along the esophagus

Where does digestion and absorption chiefly take place? ________________________________

small intestine

digestion and absorption take place mainly in the _______________ explain this process

small intestine. Chyme is received from the stomach through the pylorus and is mixed with bile from the liver and gallbladder along with pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Intestinal villi, the tiny, finger-like projections in the wall of the small intestine, increase the surface area and thus the absorptive area of the intestinal wall, providing more places for food to be absorbed. It is important that food is absorbed at a considerably fast rate so as to allow more food to be absorbed.

define bolus

soft mass of chewed food ready to be swallowed

hard vs soft palate

starting just behind your teeth, contains bone and goes halfway back into your mouth. the posterior portion of the roof of your mouth, made of cartilage and soft tissue.

State the function of the gallbladder. ________________________________

stores and concentrates bile

Gallbladder

stores bile, which is produced by the liver, and then concentrates it for future use. Bile leaving the gallbladder is 6-10 times more concentrated as that which comes to it from the liver. Concentration is accomplished by removal of water..

glucose

sugars

ultrasonography, liver

test to visualize the liver by using high-frequency sound waves. The echoes are recorded on an oscilloscope and film. Abnormal results can indicate hepatic tumors, cysts, abscess, and cirrhosis.

The large intestine is divided into the

the cecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anal canal.

portions of tooth

the crown, projecting above the gum; the root, embedded in the alveolus; and the neck, the constricted portion between the crown and root.

parts of small intestine

the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The duodenum is the first 12 inches just beyond the stomach. The jejunum is the next 8 feet or so, and the ileum is the remaining 12 feet of the tube

What is the largest glandular organ in the body and weighs about 3 1/2 pounds?

the liver.

Digestion

the process by which food is changed in the mouth, stomach, and intestines by chemical, mechanical, and physical action, so that the body can absorb it.

Absorption

the process by which nutrient material is taken into the bloodstream or lymph and travels to all cells of the body. Valuable nutrients such as amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and glycerol can then be utilized for energy, growth, and development of the body

Elimnation

the process whereby the solid waste (end) products of digestion are excreted. Each of the various organs commonly associated with digestion is described in this chapter.

Proton pump inhibitors are typically used by patients​ with:

ulcers

Define peristalsis

wavelike movement that propels the food through the digestive system. series of wavelike contractions