Chapter 9: Leadership
Terror Management Theory
-Before evaluating these candidates, participants in the mortality-salience condition were reminded of their eventual demise -The task-oriented leader was the most favorably rated in both conditions. But the charismatic leader was rated more positive when mortality was salient
Competencies
-Certain competencies are associated with leadership emergence -Groups prefer leaders who are somewhat more intelligent than the average group member -Emotional intelligence is related to leadership emergence and effectiveness -Sternberg's systems model of leadership stresses the importance of practical and creative intelligence
Shared Leadership
-Co leadership, collective leadership, and peer leadership, encourage member centered leadership methods
Characteristics of the Organization
-Formalized (explicit plans, goals, and areas of responsibility) -Inflexible (rigid, unbending rules and procedures) -Highly specific with active advisory and staff functions WILL NEUTRALIZE TASK LEADERSHIP -Closely knit, cohesive workgroups -Organizational rewards not within the leader's control -Spatial distance between superior and subordinate WILL NEUTRALIZE TASK LEADERSHIP WILL NEUTRALIZE RELATIONSHIP LEADERSHIP
Group Member Characteristics
-Has ability, experience, training knowledge -Has a need for independence -Has "professional orientation" -Is indifferent to group rewards (WILL NEUTRALIZE TASK LEADERSHIP)
Transformational Leadership
-Idealized influence -Inspirational motivation -Intellectual stimulation -Individualized consideration
Task Characteristics
-Is unambiguous and routine -Is methodologically invariant -Provides its own feedback concerning accomplishment WILL NEUTRALIZE TASK LEADERHSIP -Is intrinsically satisfying WILL NEUTRALIZE RELATIONSHIP LEADERSHIP
Leaders are useful in social species
-Leaders help followers survive, thrive -Tribes with leaders are more "fit"
Leadership is associated with demographic variables
-Leaders tend to be older, taller, and heavier than the average group member -Ethnic minorities and women are less likely to be selected as leaders in groups -Glass ceiling: hidden situational and interpersonal factors that prevent women from gaining leadership positions -The bias against women is ironic because, in general, women possess more of the skills needed to be a successful leader
Leadership Myths
-Leadership is power (with people rather than over people) -Leaders are born (but leaders are also "made") -All groups have leaders (shared influence and group size)
Group Climates
-Lewin, Lippitt, and White compared three types of "group climates": autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. Laissez-faire leadership was ineffective compared to democratic and autocratic, with members preferring democratic
Results
-People readily recognize leaders -Leadership is a resilient cultural feature -Leadership has rewards to offset costs
Leadership Myths continued
-People resist their leaders (most groups accept the need for a leader) -Leaders make or break their groups (leaders influence their groups in significant ways) -Leaders make ALL the difference (the "romance of leadership" exaggerates the impact of a leader)
What is Leadership?
-Reciprocal (followership) -Transactional -Transformational -Cooperative -Adaptive, goal seeking
Social Identity Theory
-Social identity theory assumes that leaders must "fit in" with their group and shape the group's identity -Leaders tend to be prototypical: they match the group's identity. effective leaders minimize qualities that set them apart from the group. -Leaders must favor the ingroup over the outgroup -Leaders usually condemn (or at least show distain for) the outgroup -Effective leaders create or strengthen the group's identity
Transformational Leadership Theories
-Transformational theories of leadership examine how charismatic leaders promote change -Burns distinguished between transactional leaders and transformational leaders and suggested that the latter are able to elevate both themselves and their followers
Men: Task Leaders
-assigns tasks to members -makes attitudes clear to the group -critical of poor work -sees to it that the group is working to capacity -coordinates activity
Transactional Leadership
-leaders treat their relationships with followers as a transaction: define expectations and offer rewards, some sort of exchange -contingent rewards: if a follower produces the desired behavior, she will receive the contracted award (positive and negative)
Women: Relationship Leaders
-listens to group members -easy to understand -friendly and approachable -treats group members as equals -willing to make changes
Relationship leadership
-maintaining and enhancing positive interpersonal relations in the group; friendliness, mutual trust, openness, recognizing performance -relationship-oreinted, communal, sociemotional supportive, employee-centered, relations skilled, group maintenance -listens to group members -easy to understand -friendly and approachable -treats group members as equals -willing to make changes
Participation
-people who speak more in groups are likely to emerge as leaders (the babble effect), although work by Jones and Kelly suggests that quality of comments is more influential than sheer quantity *Quality Trumps Quantity*
Basics
-survival of the fittest -sexual selection
Social Role Theory
Agency (and autonomy) "male" -forceful -task-focused -makes decisions easily -dominant -individualistic -ambitious Communal "female" -cheerful -supportive -sympathetic -tender -sensitive to others needs -understanding
Traits + Situations = Leadership
Both Carlyle and Tolstoy were correct, but only when their views are combined: Leadership depends on the qualities of the individual, but also the nature of the situation -The Interactional Model: Behavior is a fiction of the person and the environment (B=f(P, E) -A variety of personality factors are linked to leadership, including assertiveness, dominance, and character strengths -Conscientiousness and Extraversion, in the Five Factor Model, are particularly strong predators of leadership emergence
____________ , in contrast, is the process of interacting -- usually in a positive, cooperative way -- with a leader
Followership
Fiedler's Contingency Theory
High LPC leaders most effective in "moderately" favorable situations > In moderate situations, the correlation between LPC and Effectiveness if POSITIVE Low LPC leaders most effective in very favorable or very unfavorable situations > In highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations,the correlation between LPC and Effectiveness is NEGATIVE
Kelly's Followership Theory
Kelly identifies five types of followers: conformist, passive, pragmatic, alienated, and exemplary
_________ _________ theory suggests that certain features of the members and the situation can fulfill critical interpersonal and task functions and so reduce the need for a leader (substitutes). Other factors (neutralizers) interfere with leadership
Leadership substitutes theory
______ tend to be more agentic and task-oriented in groups, whereas _____ are more communal and relationship-oritented
Men, women
Terror Management Theory
Mortality salience triggers a need for charismatic leaders AWARENESS OF MORALITY -Humans are are of their mortality EXISTENTIAL ANXIETY -Morality Salience (MS) MS leads to -self esteem bolstering -protection of worldview -need for a group-centered leader
The Future of Leadership
Women tend to adopt participative and transformational styles of leadership, whereas men are more likely to enact autocratic, laissez-faire, and transactional styles. Women's skills are particularly well suited for organizations of the future, which the be less hierarchical and require a collaborative, shared approach to leadership
5.5 Management (moderate concern for production - moderate concern for people)
adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level
Contingency theory
any theory that suggests a leader's effectiveness is contingent on situational factors; usually used in reference to Fred Fiedler's conceptual analysis of leadership, which posits that a leader's success is determined by his or her leadership style and the favorability of the group situation; more generally, any analysis of leadership that suggests that the effectiveness of leaders depends on the interaction of their personal characteristics and the group situation
Implicit leadership theory
cognitive explanation for leadership emergence that assumes members' implicit expectations and assumptions about leaders influence their appraisals of the leadership potential of other group members
Emotional intelligence
component of social intelligence that relates to one's capacity to accurately perceive emotions, to use information about emotions when making decisions, and to monitor and control one's own and other's emotional reactions
Social role theory
conceptual analysis of sex differences that recognizes men and women take on different types of roles in many societies and that these role expectations generate gender stereotypes and differences in the behavior of women and men
Leadership substitutes theory
conceptual analysis of the factors that reduce or eliminate the need for a leader (substitutes) or prevent the leader from dispatching his or her responsibilities (neutralizers)
Terror management theory (TMT)
conceptual analysis of the implicit psychological processes thought to defend individuals from the emotionally terrifying knowledge that they are mortal and will someday die
Leadership Effectiveness
depends on (is "contingent on") both the person and the situation
Task-relationship model
descriptive model of leadership, which maintains that most leadership behavior can be classified as either performance maintenance or relationship maintenance
Leader-member exchange theory
dyadic, relational approach to leadership assuming that leaders develop exchange relationships with each other subordinates and that the quality of these leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships influence subordinates' responsibility, decision influence, access to resources, and performance
9.1 Management (high concern for production - low concern for people)
efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of wrk in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree
___________ __________ is related to leadership emergence and effectiveness
emotional intelligence
1.1 Management (low concern for production-low concern for people)
exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership
LMX: Leader Member Exchange Theory
focuses on the dyadic relationship linking the leader to each member of the group and notes that, in many cases, two subgroups of linkages exist (the inner group and the outer group). Groups with more inner group members are more productive
Lord's Implicit Leadership Theory (ILTs)
followers' beliefs about what qualities they expect in a leader-their implicit leadership theories-influence their perceptual and cognitive reactions to leaders and potential leaders
Paralleling Carlyle's ______ ____ theory and Tolstoy's __________ theory, early analyses of leadership emergence adopted either a trait model or a situational model
great leader, Zeitgeist
Implicit leadership theories
group members' taken-for-granted assumptions about the traits, characteristics, and qualities that distinguish leaders from the people they lead; also known as leader prototypes
Leadership defined
guidance of others in their pursuits, often by organizing, directing, coordinating, supporting, and motivating their efforts
Leadership
guidance of others in their pursuits, often by unifying, directing, coordinating, supporting, and motivating their efforts; also the ability to lead others
Lord's _______ ______ theory is based on the idea that individuals' beliefs about what qualities they expect in a leader --- influence their perceptual and cognitive reactions to leaders and potential leaders
implicit leadership
Fred Fiedler's Contingency theory
includes 1 "person" variable (leadership motivation, which is task vs. relational) and 3 situational variables (that combine to determine situational favorability) -measured task motivation with his well-known "Least Preferred Co-worker Scale"
Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC)
indirect measure of the tendency to lead by stressing the task (low LPC) or relationships (high LPC)
Transformational leadership
inspirational method of leading others that involves elevating one's followers' motivation, confidence, and satisfaction, by uniting them in the pursuit of shared, challenging goals, and changing their beliefs, values, and needs
Groups prefer leaders who are somewhat more _______ than the average group members
intelligence
Contrary to common myths, _________ is not power over group members and members do not resist the influence of effective leaders
leadership
_____________ is the process by which an individual guides others in their pursuits, often by organizing, directing, coordinating, supporting, and motivating their efforts
leadership
Style Theories
leadership effectiveness depends on the leader's "style"- some styles are more effective than others - and the match of style to situations is also important
All of the trait clusters in the five-factor model of personality are related to __________ ________ and ________
leadership emergence and effectiveness
E-leadership
leading individuals in multiple locations through the use of such telecommunication technologies as teleconferencing, Internet communication, and file-sharing systems
Leadership emergence
process by which an individual becomes formally or informally, perceptually or behaviorally, and implicitly, or explicitly recognized as the leader of a leaderless group
Task Leadership
promoting task completion; regulating behavior, monitoring communication, and reducing goal ambiguity -task oriented, agentic, goal-oriented, work facilitative, production centered, administratively skilled, goal achievement -assigns tasks to members -makes attitudes clear to the group -critical of poor work -sees to it that the group is working to capacity -coordinates activity
Situational Leadership Theory
proposed by Hersey and Blanchard, suggests the groups benefit from leadership that meshes with the development stage of the group
The LBDQ
researchers at Ohio State built these two dimensions into their Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) -the relationship between task-oriented leadership (structuring), relational leadership (support), and various leadership outcomes
People sometimes assume that leaders are so influential that they, and they alone, determine their group's outcomes. This tendency is termed the __________ of ________
romance of leadership
Hogg's _______ _______ theory predicts that leader endorsement depends on leader prototypically and the members' social identity
social identity
The Prototype Matching Hypothesis
suggest that individuals prefer leaders who match their ILTs. but ILTs can distort members' perceptions of and reactions to their leaders
Van Vugt & Spisak 2008
suggest that the "instinct" to seek a male leader is tuned to the situation -If women are thought to be superior to men at maintaining group harmony -If men are thought to be bette during conflict with other groups Then: 1.Women will be preferred as leaders during times of intragroup competition (and conflict) 2. Men will be preferred if there is trouble with another group (intergroup)
Sternberg's _________ _______ of _______ stresses the importance of practical and creative intelligence
systems model of leadership
The ________-__________ model identifies two basic sets, or clusters, of leadership behavior
task-realtionship
Babble Effect
tendency for group members who talk at a high rate in the group to emerge as leaders in even if information they share with the group is of low quality
Romance of leadership
tendency to overestimate the amount of influence and control leaders exert on their groups and their groups' outcomes
Situational leadership theory
theory of leadership suggesting the groups benefit from leadership that meshes with a group's stage of development
Leadership Grid
theory of management and leadership assuming that people vary in their concern for results and their concern for people and that individuals who are high on both dimensions (9,9) are the best leaders
Men, Women, and Leadership
this difference between men and women is only a tendency; it does manifest itself across all group situations
1.9 Management (low concern for production - high concern for people)
thoughtful attention to needs for people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo
Transactional leadership
traditional form of leadership that involves contributing time, effort, and other resources in the pursuit of collaborative goals in exchange for desired outcomes
Zeitgeist theory
view of leadership, attributed to Leo Tolstoy, which states that history is determined primarily by the "spirit of the times" rather than by the actions and choices of great leaders
Great leader theory
view of leadership, attributed to historian Thomas Carlyle, which states that successful leaders possess certain characteristics that mark them for greatness and that such great leaders shape the course of history
9.9 Management (high concern for production - high concern for people)
work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a "common stake" in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect
Task leadership focuses on the group's ______ and its _____
work and goals
Followership
working effectively with a leader and other group members
