CHEMISTRY COMBINE VOCAB
Arrhenius plot
A plot of the natural log of the rate constant (ln k) versus the inverse of the temperature in kelvins (1/T) that yields a straight line with a slope of -Ea/R and a y-intercept of ln A. (15.6)
Arrhenius plot
A plot of the natural log of the rate constant (ln k) versus the inverse of the temperature in kelvins (1/T) that yields a straight line with a slope of -Ea/R and a y-intercept of ln A. - experimental measurements of the frequency factor and the activation energy
node
A point where the wave function (c), and therefore the probability density (c2) and radial distribution function, all go through zero (3.6)
node
A point where the wave function, and therefore the probability density and radial distribution function, all go through zero (3.6)
vertex
A point where two or more straight lines meet.
condensation polymer
A polymer formed by elimination of an atom or small group of atoms (usually water) between pairs of monomers during polymerization. (22.14)
addition polymer
A polymer in which the monomers simply link together without the elimination of any atoms. (22.14)
proton
A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. (1.7)
Replenishable
A potentially renewable product that is aboitic in nature. Example groundwater, or ozone in our stratosphere.
amino acid sequencing
A precise research method scientists use to determine the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
Boyle's law
A principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature
Charles's law
A principle that describes the relationship between the temperature and volume of a gas at constant pressure
orbital
A probability distribution map, based on the quantum-mechanical model of the atom, used to describe the likely position of an electron in an atom; also an allowed energy state for an electron. (3.5)
chemical reaction
A process by which one or more substances are converted to one or more different substances; see also chemical change. (1.5, 8.3)
excitation
A process in which an electron is moved to a higher energy level within the atom - the absorbed energy caused electronic or mechanical "motion" in the molecule.
Distillation
A process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points
periodic property
A property of an element that is predictable based on an element's position in the periodic table. (4.1)
Electron spin
A property of the electron that makes it behave as though it were a tiny magnet. The electron behaves as if it were spinning on its axis; electron spin is quantized.
intensive property
A property such as density that is independent of the amount of a given substance. (2.3)
extensive property
A property that depends on the amount of a given substance, such as mass. (2.3)
theory
A proposed explanation for observations and laws, based on well established and tested hypotheses; a -----presents a model of the way nature works and predicts behavior beyond the observations and laws on which it was based. (1.3)
Appendix
A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity.
flask
A small, flat container for liquor
Ammonia
A small, very toxic molecule (NH3) produced by nitrogen fixation or as a metabolic waste product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism.
unit
A standard quantity used to specify measurements. (1.3)
solid
A state of matter in which atoms or molecules are packed close to one another in fixed locations with definite volume. (1.2)
starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.
compound
A substance composed of two or more elements in fixed, definite proportions. (1.2)
element
A substance that cannot be chemically broken down into simpler substances. (1.2)
catalyst
A substance that is not consumed in a chemical reaction but increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternate mechanism in which the rate-determining step has a smaller activation energy. (15.8)
Antioxidant
A substance that slows down oxidation, foods include blueberries and green vegetables.
Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution
A substitution reaction in which an aromatic ring is attacked by a nucleophile, which replaces a leaving group.
Anomer
A sugar diastereomer differing only in the position of the hydroxyl at the anomeric carbon - a designated alpha and beta
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
A technique that measures the alignment of magnetic moments from certain molecular nuclei with an external magnetic field; can be used to determine the connectivity and functional groups in a molecule.
hypothesis
A tentative interpretation or explanation of an observation. A good hypothesis is falsifiable. (1.3)
Schrodinger equation
An equation that describes how the electron matter-wave changes in space around the nucleus. Solutions of the equation provide allowable energy levels of the atom.
Arrhenius equation
An equation that relates the rate constant of a reaction to the temperature, the activation energy, and the frequency factor; k = Ae^(-Ea/RT ). (15.6)
racemic mixture
An equimolar mixture of two optical isomers that does not rotate the plane of polarization of light at all. (22.3)
even number
An even number can be shown as 2 equal parts. An even number has 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 in the ones place.
mass spectrometry
An experimental method of determining the precise mass and relative abundance of isotopes in a given sample using an instrument called a mass spectrometer. (1.9)
elementary step
An individual step in a reaction mechanism. (15.7)
spectrometer
An instrument that separates light into a spectrum. - map the absorption of quanta of radiation by a molecule brings about transition from its (normal) ground state to (a variety of) excited state through the procedure of spectroscopy
manometer
An instrument used to determine the pressure of a gaseous sample, consisting of a liquid-filled U-shaped tube with one end exposed to the ambient pressure and the other end connected to the sample. (5.2)
angular momentum quantum number (l)
An integer that determines the shape of an orbital. (3.5)
magnetic quantum number (ml)
An integer that specifies the orientation of an orbital. (3.5)
principal quantum number (n)
An integer that specifies the overall size and energy of an orbital. The higher the quantum number n, the greater the average distance between the electron and the nucleus and the higher its energy. (3.5)
tetramethylsilane
An internal standard for all NMR data
rendition
An interpretation or translation; a performance
hydrate
An ionic compound that contains a specific number of water molecules associated with each formula unit. (5.6)
Electrolyte
An ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current
Hemoglobin
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. -polypeptide
Satellite
An object that revolves around another object in space
position
An objects location
systematic name
An official name based on well-established rules for a compound, which can be determined by examining its chemical structure. (5.6)
carboxylic acid
An organic acid containing the functional group ¬COOH. (17.2, 22.11)
aliphatic hydrocarbon
An organic compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms and containing no benzene rings; alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are aliphatic hydrocarbons. (22.3)
hydrocarbon
An organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen. (5.12)
Carbocation
An organic ion in which a carbon atom has a positive charge
Myoglobin
An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells. - polypeptide
petroleum
Another name for oil
rehybridization
Any change in the hybridization of an atom during the course of a reaction.
Stereoisomer
Any compounds with the same molecular formula and connectivity that differ only in the spatial arrangement of atoms
Nitroarene
Any nitro derivative of an arene.
ACIDIC PROTON
Any proton that can be donated to water
acidic proton
Any proton that can be donated to water
Bromination
Any reaction or process in which bromine (and no other elements) are introduced into a molecule
matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass. (1.1)
Arginine
Arg, R
octet rule
The tendency for most bonded atoms to possess or share eight electrons in their outer shell in order to obtain stable electron configurations and lower their potential energy. (5.4)
quantum number
One of four interrelated numbers that determine the shape and energy of orbitals, as specified by a solution of the Schrödinger equation. (3.5)
family (group)
One of the columns within the main group elements in the periodic table that contain elements that exhibit similar chemical properties. (4.2)
transition element (transition metal)
One of the elements found in the d block of the periodic table whose properties tend to be less predictable based simply on their position in the table. (4.2)
Isomers
One of two or more molecules with the same chemical formula, but with a different structure. (7.3), or dif spatial arrangement of atoms.
alkynyl anions
The carbanionic conjugate base of a terminal alkyne, formed by deprotonation of the sp C-H bond (pKa ~25)
Hund's rule
The principle stating that when electrons fill degenerate orbitals, they first fill them singly with parallel spins. (4.3) - results of an atom's tendency to find the lowest energy state possible
probability density
The probability (per unit volume) of finding the electron at a point in space as expressed by a three-dimensional plot of the wave function squared (psi^2). (3.6)
Recrystallization
The process by which bonds between atoms in minerals break and re-form in new ways during metamorphism.
autoionization
The process by which water acts as an acid and a base with itself. (17.6)
vector summation
The process of combining two or more vectors into a single vector
Deoxygenation
The process of oxygen removal
ideal gas constant
The proportionality constant of the ideal gas law, R, equal to 8.314 J/mol x K or 0.08206 L x atm/mol x K. (5.4)
chemistry
The science that seeks to understand the properties of matter by studying the structure of the particles that compose matter. (1.1)
Stratosphere
The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
Electrocyclic reaction
A pericyclic reaction that forms a sigma bond between the end atoms of a series of conjugated pi bonds within a molecule.
absorption spectrum
A plot of the absorption of light of a sample of matter as a function of wavelength. (3.3)
insect pheromones
insects communicate primarily with chemicals; sex pheromones, trail pheromones, defense pheromones
Hydrogen anion
is a negative ion of hydrogen, that is, a hydrogen atom that has captured an extra electron.
metal-catalyzed stille
is a palladium-catalyzed cross coupling reaction. Heavily used in organic synthesis, it involves the coupling of an organic halide with an organotin compound
organic bases
is an organic compound which acts as a base. - are usually, but not always, proton acceptors. They usually contain nitrogen atoms, which can easily be protonated.
Bond Dissociated Energy
is the energy required—an endothermic process—to break a bond and form two atomic or molecular fragments, each with one electron of the original shared pair.
intermediate electrical conductivity
is the measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry or it's ability to carry a current
sigma bond
a bond formed when two atomic orbitals combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting the two atomic nuclei
sigma bond
a bond formed when two atomic orbitals combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting the two atomic nuclei - All carbon-carbon single bonds have----
ribose
a building block of the ribonucleic acids - an aldopentose
binary ionic compound
a compound composed of the ions of one metal element and ions of on non-metal element, joined by ionic bonds
polyatomic compound
a compound that contains at least three different elements
alkenyl halide
a compound with a halogen atom bonded to an alkene carbon
Conjugated diene
a compound with two conjugated double bonds
eclipsed conformation
a conformation about a carbon-carbon single bond in which the atoms or groups on one carbon are as close as possible to the atoms or groups on an adjacent carbon
staggered conformation
a conformation about a carbon-carbon single bond in which the atoms or groups on one carbon are as far apart as possible from atoms or groups on an adjacent carbon
wave front
a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave at a given time.
Conversion factor
a ratio of equivalent measurements used to convert a quantity from one unit to another
second order reaction
a reaction for which the rate depends on the conc. of 2 molecules
Precipitation reaction
a reaction in which an insoluble substance forms and separates from the solution
Superior
above
Gas-evolution reaction
a reaction in which two aqueous solutions are mixed and a gas forms, resulting in bubbling
Hofmann Elimination
a reaction with an amine creating an alkene; the major product is the least stable alkene called the Hofmann product - reaction of quaternary ammonium salts
rationale
a reason for doing something; explanation
stratosphere
above the troposphere, this extends from roughly 16 to 50 km (10-31 miles). Its density is too low to sustain life, but it is the home of the ozone layer, which is critical to life on Earth
disintegration
a separation into parts or fragments, disunity, decay
Graphite
a shiny, black substance that is used in pencils
sugar
a simple carbohydrate molecule - are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones
Amphoteric
a substance that can act as both an acid and a base
Solvolysis
a substrate undergoes substitution by solvent molecules. When the solvent is water, the term "hydrolysis" is applied.
aldonic acid
a sugar produced by oxidation of an aldose aldehyde group to a carboxylic acid group
Ka
acid dissociation constant - is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction. known as dissociation in the context of acid-base reactions.
unambiguous
clear and precise; exhibiting no uncertainty; categorical
homolytic bond cleavage
cleavage of a bond so that each fragment retains one electron, producing radicals
Ozonolysis
cleaves double bond in half, it only oxidizes the carbon to an aldehyde under reducing conditions. if ozidizing make same product as KMNO4
Pharmaceutical
drug or medicine that is prepared or dispensed in pharmacies and used in medical treatment
Analgesics
drugs that relieve pain without causing loss of consciousness
Analogs
drugs with similar structures
distorted
pulled or twisted out of shape; contorted.
execute
put into effect; carry out
compiled
put together in book or a work
exerts
puts energy or power into doing something
Electronegativity
the ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound
Magnetic Properties
the ability to attract
Catalysis
the acceleration of a reaction rate by a molecule that is unchanged by participating in the reaction
subdivision
the act of dividing land into pieces that are easier to sell or otherwise develop.
extrapolation
the act of estimation by projecting known information
work
the action of a force through a distance
conjunction
the action or an instance of two or more events or things occurring at the same point in time or space
bond energy
the amount of energy that will break a bond between two atoms
enthapy
the amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical process. ΔH is the symbol. endothermic reaction will be positive ΔH. - the changes in bond strengths ( estimted by substracting Bonding dissociation energy DH* value of the bonds formed from those of bonds broken (sum of DH* of bonds broken)-(sum of DH* of bond formed) = delta H*
acetal linkage
the anomeric sugar carbon is condensed with an alcohol, amine or thiol
nucleus
the center of an atom, which contains the protons and neutrons; in cells, structure that contains the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA
Standard free energy change
the change in free energy that will occur for one unit of reaction if the reactants in their standard states are converted to products in their standard states
inversion of sucrose
the change in optical rotation observed in acidic aqueous solutions of sucrose - is due to the equilibrium of staring sugar with various cyclic and anomeric forms of its component monomers
Standard energy of formation
the change of Gibbs free energy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of a substance in its standard state from its constituent elements in their standard states (the most stable form of the element at 1 bar of pressure and the specified temperature, usually 298.15 K or 25 °C).
formal charge
the charge it would have if all bonding electrons were shared equally between the bonded atoms.
Interference
the combination of two or more waves that results in a single wave
eradication
the complete destruction of something
Oxidation state
the condition of an atom expressed by the number of electrons that the atom needs to reach its elemental form
oxidation state
the condition of an atom expressed by the number of electrons that the atom needs to reach its elemental form
Transmutation
the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element
equilibrium constant
the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations at equilibrium, with each concentration raised to a power equal to the number of moles of that substance in the balanced chemical equation
Percent yield
the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent
Substrate (of a chemical reaction)
the reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions
carbocation rearrangement
the rearrangement of a carbocation to a more stable carbocation
Ideal gas law
the relationship PV=nRT, which describes the behavior of an ideal gas
Activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
tetrahedral geometry
the molecular geometry of five atoms with 109.5 degree bond angles
Electrolysis
the process in which an electric current is used to produce a chemical reaction, such as the decomposition of water - driving nonspontaneous chemical reactions with electricity
Electron capture
the process in which an inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus of the atom that contains the electron
Sulfonation
the process of attaching the sulfonic acid group, -SO3H, directly to carbon in an organic compound.
atomic spectroscopy
the process of identifying the elemental makeup of a given sample by analyzing the wavelengths of light it emits or absorbs
Radiometric dating
the process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products
administration
the process or activity of running a business, organization, etc.
PEDAGOGY
the profession or principles of teaching, or instructing
proportionality
the quality of corresponding in size or amount to something else.
abstraction
the quality of dealing with ideas rather than events
Electromagnetic spectrum
the range of wavelengths or frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends.
Rubies
the rarest gemstone
first order reaction
the rate depends on the conc. of only one reactantk
Percent ionic character
the ratio of a bond's actual dipole moment to the dipole moment it would have if the electron were transferred completely from one atom to the other, multiplied by 100%
Equilibrium constant
the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations at equilibrium, with each concentration raised to a power equal to the number of moles of that substance in the balanced chemical equation
gases
A state of matter, have no fixed shape and take on the shape of the space they're in
Microstate
A state that encompasses a very small land area.
cathode rays
A stream of electrons produced when a high electrical voltage is applied between two electrodes within a partially evacuated tube. (1.6)
phenol
A strong, high pH disinfectant used in the salon
Lewis structure
A structural formula in which electrons are represented by dots; dot pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols represent pairs in covalent bonds.
blunder
A stupid or careless mistake.
atom
A submicroscopic particle that constitutes the fundamental building block of ordinary matter; the smallest identifiable unit of an element. (1.1)
cellulose
A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms
pure substance
A substance composed of only one type of atom or molecule. (1.3)
mixture
A substance composed of two or more different types of atoms or molecules that can be combined in variable proportions. (1.3)
reducing sugar
A sugar that can reduce other compounds and that readily reduce Tollens's and Fehling's solution - sugars containing hemiacetal function -
Fragrance
A sweet or pleasant odor; a scent
Lewis symbol
A symbol of an element in which dots represent valence electrons. (5.4)
chemical formula
A symbolic representation of a compound that indicates the elements present in the compound and the relative number of atoms of each. (5.3)
economy
A system for producing and distributing goods, and services to fulfill people's wants
periodic table
A table that arranges all known elements in order of increasing atomic number; elements with similar properties generally fall into columns on the periodic table. (1.8)
X-ray crystallography
A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.
chromatography
A technique that is used to separate the components of a mixture based on the tendency of each component to travel or be drawn across the surface of another material.
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
A technique that measures absorbance of ultraviolet light of various wavelengths passing through a sample.
accuracy
A term that refers to how close a measured value is to the actual value. (2.2)
precision
A term that refers to how close a series of measurements are to one another or how reproducible they are. (2.2)
valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
A theory that allows prediction of the shapes of molecules based on the idea that electrons—either as lone pairs or as bonding pairs—repel one another. (6.7)
ozone hole
A thinning of stratospheric ozone that occurs over the poles during the spring
Hydrogen Cyanide
A toxic gas produced by the combustion of materials containing cyanide.
mole (mol)
A unit defined as the amount of material containing 6.0221421 * 1023 (Avogadro's number) particles. (2.8)
calorie (cal)
A unit of energy defined as the amount of energy required to raise one gram of water 1 °C; equal to 4.184 J. (2.4, 10.2)
atomic mass unit (amu)
A unit used to express the masses of atoms and subatomic particles; defined as 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom containing 6 protons and 6 neutrons. (1.8)
reaction order (n)
A value in the rate law that determines how the rate depends on the concentration of the reactants. (15.5)
column
A vertical series of cells in a table.
odd number
A whole number ending with 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9 in the ones place.
Nylon
"miracle fiber" - a tough, lightweight, elastic synthetic polymer with a protein-like chemical structure, able to be produced as filaments, sheets, or molded objects.
Bisphenol A
(BPA) organic compound found in plastics. Linked to disease in infants. Now banned.
aperture
(n.) an opening, gap, hole; orifice
attain
(v.) to achieve, arrive at (The athletes strived to attain their best times in competition.)
invalidate
(v.) to make valueless, take away all force or effect
depict
(v.) to portray; to represent or show in the form of a picture
Devise
(v.) to think out, plan, figure out, invent, create
Deshielding
*Stronger magnetic field -Chemical shift is increased due to removed electron density - chemical shift is highly dependent on the absence of electron density - results in low-field peak - electron-withdrawing substituents -----
Second-period homonuclear diatomic molecules
, are molecules composed of only one type of element. ---------molecules may consist of various numbers of atoms, depending on the element's properties. Some elements form molecules of more than one size. The most familiar -----------molecules are diatomic, meaning they consist of two atoms, though not all diatomic molecules are ---------.
Simple gas law
- Boyle's law - Charles's law - Alvogadro's law
Hydroboration-Oxidation
- a stereospecific anti-Markovnikov hydration - is a two-step hydration reaction that converts an alkene into an alcohol. The process results in the syn addition of a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group where the double bond had been.
benzoquinone
- a yellow crystalline compound related to benzene but having two hydrogen atoms replaced by oxygen. - byproduct of reaction; in plants, acts an antiseptic hat deters pathogens in damaged tissues (protects the plant/fruit); turns brown/orange color
ranitidine
- acid-reducing medications - block histamine from reaching parietal cells, interrupting the signal that would produce stomach acid
Monosaccharides (simple sugar)
- is an aldehyde or ketone containing at least 2 addtional hydroxy groups - are called aldoses if they are aldehydes and ketoses if they are ketones.
Aluminum
- low-density atoms result in low-density metal
pi electrons
-An electron which resides in the pi bond(s) of a double bond or a triple bond
Nucleosides
-a 5 carbon sugar (pentose) linked to a nitrogenous base - formed by covalently linking the base to C-1' of the sugar
SN2 reaction
-bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions - only 1 step (concerted reaction) -nucleophile attacks the compound at the same time as the leaving group leaves -Nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group in a backside attack for this to occur, nucleophile must be strong & substrate can't be sterically hindered -concentrations of substrate & nucleophile have role in determining the rate --> rate = k[Nu][R-L] -Position of the substituents around the substrate carbon is inverted
Protecting groups
-can be used to increase steric hindrance or otherwise decrease the reactivity of a particular portion of a molecule
The Hofmann rearrangement
-converts amides to primary amines with the loss of the carbonyl carbon as a molecule of CO2
absolute configuration
-determined by the 3D arrangement of the groups attached to the chiral carbon
Claisen Rearrangement
-electrophilic reaction - is a powerful carbon-carbon bond-forming chemical reaction discovered by Rainer Ludwig Claisen. The heating of an allyl vinyl ether will initiate a [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement to give a γ, δ-unsaturated carbony
D family
-in which most natural carbohydrates belong to - is the stereocenter farthest from the carbonyl group has the same configuration as that in (R)-(1)-2,3-dihydroxypropanal [d-(1)-glyceraldehyde].
Enolate
-intermediate -stabilized by resonance -enol+base-->enolate
pKa
-logKa
pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)
-oxidizes primary alcohols to aldehydes -lacks the water necessary to hydrate the aldehyde so it cannot oxidize it any further -oxidizes secondary alcohols to ketones
hydride reagents
-reduce aldehydes and ketones to secondary alcohols LiAlH4, NaBH4
Concentration cell
-spontaneous reactions - negative ΔG -positive emf -electrodes chemically identical -current generated by concentration gradient
Acid strength
-tendency of an acid to donate a proton -the more readily a compound donates a proton, the stronger the acid
Hydrogen NMR
-use radio-waves to determine information about H atoms in a molecule -connectivity of H atoms
Pressure units
1 atm= 101 kPa= 101000 Pa= 760 mm Hg= 760 torr
1 watt
1 joule per second
Hydride Reduction
1) NaBH4/EtOH or 2) LiAlH4/ether/H3O+ -aldehyde and ketone reactants yield primary and secondary alcohols -carbonyl reduction cant produce tertiary alcohols
margin
1,3-dihydroxyacetone - one of 2 simplest members of monosaccharides - is a ketotriose
function
1. A relationship from one set (called the domain) to another set (called the range) that assigns to each element of the domain exactly one element of the range. 2. The action or actions that an item is designed to perform.
drill
1. a tool or machine with a pointed end for making holes 2. a way of learning something by means of repeated exercises 3. a practice of what to do in an emergency, for example if there is a fire
Scramble
1. to move quickly, especially with difficulty, using your hands to help you 2. to move or do something quickly because you are in a hurry 3. to push, fight, or compete with others in order to get or to reach something
d electrons
10 electrons
Calorie (kcal)
1000 calories
kilojoule
1000 joules
tetrahedral
109.5 degrees
Trigonal Bipyramidal
120, 90 - AX5 -is a molecular geometry with one atom at the center and 5 more atoms at the corners of a triangular bipyramid.
pka of alcohol
16
Alkali Metal Reactions
2 M + X2 --> 2MX where M is a metal and X is a halogen
Secondary haloalkane
2 carbon atoms attached to the carbon atom with the halogen on it
competitive reaction
2 substrates competing for 1 enzyme
Stratosphere
2nd layer of atmosphere; extends from 10 to 30 miles up; location of ozone layer; absorbs 95% of Ultraviolet radiation; temperature increases with altitude increase.
triose
3 carbon sugar
1 calorie
4.184 joules
The magic number in chemistry is
8 or an octet
phaseout
: the act of stopping something gradually over a period of time in a planned series of steps or phases
pKa
= -log(Ka) - SMALLER pKa, STRONGER acid - is one method used to indicate the strength of an acid. pKa is the negative log of the acid dissociation constant or Ka value. A lower pKa value indicates a stronger acid. That is, the lower value indicates the acid more fully dissociates in water.
E0
= 8.85*10^-12 C^2/Jm
duet
A Lewis structure with two dots, signifying a filled outer electron shell for the elements H and He. (5.4)
octet
A Lewis symbol with eight dots, signifying a filled outer electron shell for s and p block elements. (5.4)
strong base
A base that completely dissociates in solution. (17.3)
weak base
A base that only partially ionizes in water. (17.3)
conjugate acid
A base to which a proton has been added. (17.3)
phenyl group
A benzene ring treated as a substituent. (22.7)
scientific law
A brief statement or equation that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones. (1.3)
overview
A brief summary of a whole work
spectrum
A broad range of nevertheless related qualities or ideas, esp. those that overlap to create a continuous series (as in a color spectrum, where each color blends into the next in a continuous way)
ketose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is a ketone - with a ketone fxn
aldose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is an aldehyde
Hemiacetals
A carbon atom bonded to an alkyl group, an -OR group, an -OH group, and a hydrogen From aldoses Formed from intermolecular reactions from electro- and nucleophiles
alternation
A change or modification
periodic table
A chart of the elements showing the repeating pattern of their properties
covalent bond
A chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons that interact with the nuclei of both atoms, lowering the potential energy of each through electrostatic interactions. (5.2)
ionic bond
A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
molecular formula
A chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound. (5.3)
empirical formula
A chemical formula that shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in the compound. (5.3)
substitution reaction
A chemical reaction in which one atom or group of atoms takes the place of another atom or group of atoms. (22.6)
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
Decomposition
A chemical reaction that breaks down compounds into simpler products.
decomposition
A chemical reaction that breaks down compounds into simpler products.
Sulfonation
A chemical reaction which introduces the sulfonic acid functional group (-SO3H) into a molecule.
urea
A chemical that comes from the breakdown of proteins
Asthma
A chronic allergic disorder characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing.
state
A classification of a form of matter as a solid, liquid, or gas. (1.3)
DDT
A colorless odorless water-insoluble crystalline insecticide that tends to accumulate in ecosystems and has toxic effects on many vertebrates; became the most widely used pesticide from WWII to the 1950's; implicated in illnesses and environmental problem; now banned in the US.
Chemical formula
A combination of chemical symbols and numbers to represent a substance
Arrhenius definition
A definition of acids as producers of excess H+ and bases as producers of excess OH- in aqueous solutions
plaque
A deposit of fatty material on the inner lining of an arterial wall
electrochemical cell
A device in which a chemical reaction either produces or is carried out by an electrical current. (20.3)
aircraft
A device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air.
Manometer
A device used to measure the pressure of a sample of gas in a container. - a way to measure pressure in the lab
orbital diagram
A diagram that gives information similar to an electron configuration but symbolizes an electron as an arrow in a box representing an orbital, with the arrow's direction denoting the electron's spin. (4.3)
Imine
A double bond between a carbon and a nitrogen
Dissacharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed during dehydration synthesis. - complex sugar in nature
Lewis electron-dot structure (Lewis structure)
A drawing of a molecule that represents chemical bonds between atoms as shared or transferred electrons; the valence electrons of atoms are represented as dots. (5.4)
conversion factor
A factor used to convert between two different units; a ------- can be constructed from any two quantities known to be equivalent. (2.5)
furanose
A five-membered ring sugar One of two stable cyclic molecules
nodal plane
A flat (planar) region of space with zero electron density.
Compression
A force that pushes on or squeezes a material.
Electricity
A form of energy caused by the movement of electrons.
electromagnetic radiation
A form of energy embodied in oscillating electric and magnetic fields. (3.2)
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy
A form of spectroscopy that measures the absorption of radio-frequency energy by nuclei in a magnetic field. The energy absorbed causes nuclear spin transitions. - is the most important spectroscopic tool in the elucidation of structures of organic molecules
geometric (cis-trans) isomerism
A form of stereoisomerism involving the orientation of functional groups in a molecule that contains bonds incapable of rotating. (22.5)
natural gas
A fossil fuel in the gaseous state
carbonyl group
A functional group consisting of a carbon atom doublebonded to an oxygen atom (C"O). (22.10)
Anhydride
A functional group containing two carbonyls separated by an oxygen atom (RCOOCOR); often the condensation dimer of a carboxylic acid.
carboxyl group
A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.
hemiacetal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to one -OR group, one -OH group, an alkyl chain, and a hydrogen atom.
Acetal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to two- OR groups, an alkyl chain, a hydrogen atom.
Planck's constant
A fundamental constant, h, that relates the energy of light quanta to their frequency: h = 6.6 X 10^-34 joule·second
electrical charge
A fundamental property of certain particles that causes them to experience a force in the presence of electric fields. (1.6)
electron spin
A fundamental property of electrons; spin can have a value of +/- 1/2. (3.5)
a nonideal gas
A gas described by an equation of state of the form pV = znRT, where z is the gas deviation factor dependent on pressure, temperature and gas composition.
concept
A general idea or thought about something
family
A group of organic compounds with the same functional group. (3.11)
virtue
A habitual and firm disposition to do good
activated complex (transition state)
A high-energy intermediate state between reactant and product. (15.6)
experiment
A highly controlled procedure designed to generate observations that may support a hypothesis or prove it wrong. (1.3)
Benzyne
A highly reactive intermediate that has a benzene ring with a formal triple bond.
aromatic hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon containing an aromatic (or benzene) ring. (22.3)
saturated hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon containing no double bonds in the carbon chain. (22.4)
alkene
A hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. (22.3)
alkyne
A hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. (22.3)
alkane
A hydrocarbon containing only single bonds. (22.3)
unsaturated hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon that includes one or more double or triple bonds. (22.5)
array
A large group of people or things
glacier
A large mass of moving ice and snow on land
periodic law
A law based on the observation that when the elements are arranged in order of increasing mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically. (4.2)
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
Viscosity
A liquid's resistance to flowing
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
semiconductor
A material with intermediate electrical conductivity that can be changed and controlled. (4.5)
atomic orbital (AO)
A mathematical function that represents a state of an electron in an atom. (7.2)
radial distribution function
A mathematical function that represents the total probability of finding the electron within a thin spherical shell at a distance r from the nucleus in an atom. (3.6)
scientific notation
A mathematical method of writing numbers using powers of ten.
Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness.
Solubility
A measure of how much solute can dissolve in a given solvent at a given temperature.
nucleophilicity
A measure of how strong a nucleophile is
fertility
A measure of how well soil supports plant growth.
watt
A measure of power equal to one joule of work per second.
Atom economy
A measure of the amount of starting materials that end up as useful products
Temperature
A measure of the average energy of motion of the particles of a substance.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
mass
A measure of the quantity of matter making up an object. (1.6)
biomass
A measure of the total dry mass of organisms within a particular region
metalloid
A member of a category of elements found on the boundary between the metals and nonmetals of the periodic table, with properties intermediate between those of both groups; ------are also called semimetals. (4.5)
nonmetal
A member of a class of elements that tend to be poor conductors of heat and electricity and usually gain electrons during chemical reactions. (4.5)
metal
A member of a large class of elements that are generally good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable, ductile, and lustrous, and tend to lose electrons during chemical changes. (4.5)
ether
A member of the family of organic compounds of the form R¬O¬R. (22.12)
ketone
A member of the family of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group (C=O) bonded to two R groups, neither of which is a hydrogen atom. (22.10)
aldehyde
A member of the family of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group (C=O) bonded to two R groups, one of which is a hydrogen atom. (22.10)
alcohol
A member of the family of organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl functional group (¬OH). (22.9)
ester
A member of the family of organic compounds with the general structure R¬COO¬R. (22.11)
electrode
A metal part of an electrochemical cell, which gains or loses electrons.
Haworth projection
A method for depicting cyclic sugars as planar rings with -OH groups sticking up or down from the plane of the sugar
Solution Stoichiometry
A method of calculating the concentration of substances in a chemical reaction by measuring the volumes of solutions that react completely; sometimes called volumetric stoichiometry.
Uranium/Lead dating
A method of dating zirconium crystals in igneous rocks that is based on the ratio of uranium to lead.
Fischer projection
A method of drawing organic molecules in which horizontal lines are coming out of the page (wedges) and vertical lines are going into the page (dashes)
combustion analysis
A method of obtaining empirical formulas for unknown compounds, especially those containing carbon and hydrogen, by burning a sample of the compound in pure oxygen and analyzing the products of the combustion reaction. (5.11)
mole concept
A method that allows the relative number of reactant particles involved in a chemical reaction to be known
heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which the composition varies from one region to another. (1.3)
racemic mixture
A mixture that contains equal amounts of the (+) and (-) enantiomers. Racemic mixtures are not optically active.
collision model
A model of chemical reactions in which a reaction occurs after a sufficiently energetic collision between two reactant molecules. (15.6)
achiral reagent
A molecule is achiral if it is superimposable on its mirror image. Most achiral molecules do have a plane of symmetry or a center of symmetry.
Spontaneous process
A process that occurs without an overall input of energy; a process that is energetically favorable.
nonvolatile solute
A solute with no vapor pressure. When added to a liquid, some of these solute molecules will reach the surface of the solution and reduce the amount of surface area available for the liquid molecules. -> The solute molecules don't break free of the solution but do take up surface area. The number of molecules breaking free from the liquid is decreases while the surface area of the solution and the volume of open space above the solution remain the same.
basic solution
A solution containing a base that creates additional OH- ions, causing the [OH-] to increase. (17.6)
acidic solution
A solution containing an acid that creates additional H3O+ ions, causing [H3O+] to increase. (17.6)
substance
A specific instance of matter. (1.2)
Substrate
A specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme
High-resolution NMR
A spectrum which does show the spin-spin splitting pattern. - allows for the differentiation of hydrogen and carbon nuclei in different chemical environments
CHAP 17
ACIDS AND BASES
Octahedral
AX6 - describes the shape of compounds with six atoms or groups of atoms or ligands symmetrically arranged around a central atom, defining the vertices of an octahedron. The ---has eight faces, hence the prefix octa.
Mimicry
Ability of an animal to look like another more harmful animal
amphoteric
Able to act as either an acid or a base. (17.3)
SN2 transition state
According to the SN2 mechanism, there is a single transition state because bond-breaking and bond-making occur simultaneously. Notice that for this to occur, the nucleophile must approach from the backside of the carbon-leaving group bond (so-called backside attack ).
Glycosides
Acetals of carbohydrates
Lewis
Acids are electron pair acceptors Bases are electron pair donors
Conjugate addition
Addition of a nucleophile to the beta carbon of an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound.
redox reaction
Addition of two hydrogen atoms to the double bond of a carbonyl group constitutes reduction to the corresponding alcohol. Aldehydes give primary alcohols; ketones give secondary alcohols. The reverse process, removal of hydrogen to furnish carbonyl compounds, is an example of oxidation.
conform
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
anti-Markovnikov
Alkene to alchol, hydroxy group on least substituted carbon
noncovalent interactions
All forces of attraction other than covalent, ionic, or metallic bonding.
Silver oxide (Ag2O)
All oxides and hydroxides of the coinage metals are feebly basic EXCEPT
asymmetric atom/stereocenter
All the chiral examples contain an atom that is connected to four different substitu-ent groups -Centers of this type are sometimes denoted by an asterisk. Molecules with one stereocenter are always chiral
alpha anomer
Alpha axial fishes down in the sea, Birds in the air - the anomeric carbon pointing up downward
volume
Amount of space occupied by an object
cyclic ether
An ether in which one of the atoms in a ring is oxygen
Isotope
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
aryl
Attached to Aromatic Benzene Ring
Nitrobenzene
Benzene NO2
bromobenzene
Benzene derivative having benzene ring with attached Br
Hydrides
Binary compounds with hydrogen can be basic, acidic, or neutral.
Pauling
Bonds are made by the in-phase overlap of atomic orbitals .
Bromine
Br
cracking
Breaking an alkane down into smaller fragments
hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
stomach acid
Breaks down proteins, breaks them down into sugar and acids
acetylene
C2H2
acetate ion
C2H3O2 -1 - is a monocarboxylic acid anion resulting from the removal of a proton from the carboxy group of acetic acid. It has a role as a human metabolite and a Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolite. It is a conjugate base of an acetic acid
acetate ion
C2H3O2- is one of the carboxylate family. It is the conjugate base of acetic acid. Above a pH of 5.5, acetic acid converts to acetate:
benzoic acid
C6H5COOH
aniline
C6H5NH2
acetate anion
CH3CO2- - A monocarboxylic acid anion resulting from the removal of a proton from the carboxy group of acetic acid.
methanol
CH3OH
CHAP 6
CHEMICAL BONDING I: DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES AND DETERMINING MOLECULAAR SHAPES
CHAP 15
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Cyanide
CN charge -1
cyanide ion
CN charge -1
carboxylic acid
COOH
Nitrile Hydrolysis
Can occur in acid or base (carboxolate ion).
reproducible
Capable of being recreated and repeated.
dextrorotatory
Capable of rotating the plane of polarization of light clockwise. (22.3)
levorotatory
Capable of rotating the polarization of light counterclockwise. (22.3)
acid halide
Carbonyl bound to halogen
Peptides
Chains of amino acids that can function as neurotransmitters or hormones.
Exothermic
Chemical Reaction in which energy is primarily given off in the form of heat
Ionic bonding
Chemical bonding that results from the electrical attraction between cations and anions
ENERGY CONTENT
Chemical energy of a substance
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Chemicals containing hydrogen, fluorine, and carbons, produced as potential substitutes for CFCs
Bronsted-Lowry definition
Common definition of acids as proton (H+) donors and bases as proton acceptors
dextrorotatory
Compound that rotates the plane of polarized light to the right, or clockwise (labeled '+')
BASES
Compounds that reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
Bases
Compounds that reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
bases
Compounds that reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
Structural Isomerism
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
Linus Pauling
Conducted research into the nature of the chemical bond
inner electron configuration
Configuration of the noble gas that precedes it
Conformational isomer.
Conformational isomers (conformers): Isomers having the same bond connectivity sequence and can be interconverted by rotation around one or more single (σ) bonds. Eclipsed.
amidate
Converted into, or reacted with an amide.
Wittig Reaction
Converts a ketone (C=O) to and alkene (C=C).
Hydrogen abstraction
Converts compounds into free radicals by stealing hydrogens; Amino acids and protein
Covalent atomic solids
Covalent atomic solids, such as Diamond are held together by COVALENT BONDS.
Chromium (IV)
Cr +4
Fusion
Creation of energy by joining the nuclei of two hydrogen atoms to form helium.
Fullerenes
Dark-colored solids made of spherically networked carbon-atom cages
chiral
Describes a molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image. (22.3)
endothermic
Describes a process that absorbs heat from its surroundings. (2.4)
exothermic
Describes a process that releases heat to its surroundings. (2.4)
unimolecular
Describes a reaction that involves only one particle that goes on to form products. (15.7)
termolecular
Describes an elementary step of a reaction in which three particles collide and go on to form products. (15.7)
Electron-donating
Describes groups that push additional electron density toward another atom; stabilizes positive charges and destabilizes negative charges while decreasing acidity.
neutral
Describes the state of a solution in which the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are equal. (17.6)
degenerate
Describes two or more electron orbitals with the same value of n that have the same energy. (4.3)
Constitutional isomers
Different connectivity (1-9)
discrete
Distinct, separate
electron delocalization
Distribution of electron density beyond a fixed place such as a single atom, lone pair, or covalent bond via resonance or inductive effects.
Polarized
Divided into sharply opposed groups
Activating groups
Donate electrons to the ring, stabilizing the carbonation intermediate
7.5
EFFECT OF THE ALKYL GROUP ON THE SN1 REACTION: CARBOCATION STABILITY
infrared (IR) radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted from warm objects, with wavelengths slightly larger than those of visible light. (3.2)
visible light
Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies that can be detected by the human eye. (3.2)
ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Electromagnetic radiation with slightly smaller wavelengths than visible light. (3.2)
X-rays
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths slightly longer than those of gamma rays; used to image bones and internal organs. (3.2)
lone pair electrons
Electrons that are paired up in an orbital and are not part of a covalent bond
Electrophilic aromatic substitution mechanism
Electrophilic adds to position favored by group previously present (directing effects, below), followed by loss of H+ (15.8)
Solubility Equilibria
Equilibria that exist in a saturated solution, in which additional solid dissolves at the same rate that particles of solution come together to precipitate more solid.
random error
Error that has equal probability of being too high or too low. (2.2)
systematic error
Error that tends toward being consistently either too high or too low. (2.2)
Trisaccharide
Ether formation between mono- and a disaccharide, eventually produces natural polymer (polysaccharide)
The second law of thermodynamic
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Fragmentation pattern
Excess energy from impact of e- forming ion in mass spectrometer will often cause molecule to fragment. The mass of the fragments can indicate details about structure of original molecule.
Hybrid orbitals
Explain geometry; sp3: Tetrahedral (1098, CH4); sp2: Trigonal planar (1208, BH3 and H2CPCH2); sp: Linear (1808, BeH2 and HCqCH) (1-8)
Fluorine
F
objective
Factual, related to reality or physical objects; not influenced by emotions, unbiased
alkaline earth metals
Fairly reactive metals in group 2A of the periodic table. (4.5)
Huckel's Rule
For a molecule to be aromatic it must have 4n+2 pi electrons
frequency (N)
For waves, the number of cycles (or complete wavelengths)that pass through a stationary point in one second. (3.2)
Friedel-Crafts Acylation (Alkanoylation)
Formation of an acylbenzene by substitution of an acylium ion on an aromatic ring.
Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Formation of an alkyl-substituted benzene derivative by substitution of an alkyl carbocation or carbocation-like species on an aromatic ring.
Friedel-Crafts alkylation
Formation of an alkyl-substituted benzene derivative by substitution of an alkyl carbocation or carbocation-like species on an aromatic ring. - in which electron donor
Covalent bonds
Formed by electron sharing between two atoms; polar --------: Between atoms of differing electronegativity (1-3)
Ionic bonds
Formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to another (1-3)
define
Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.
Bromination of alkenes
Gives anti Products It's a family of reactions which proceed through 1) attack of analkeneupon an acid, forming a free carbocation, and 2) attack of a nucleophile upon the carbocation.
crude oil (petroleum)
Gooey liquid consisting mostly of hydrocarbon compounds and small amounts of compounds containing oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. Extracted from underground accumulations, it is sent to oil refineries, where it is converted to heating oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, tar, and other materials.
VSEPR
Governs molecular shape and geometry around atoms (1-8)
Transition metals
Groups 3-12, 1-2 electrons in the outer energy level, less reactive than alsali-earth metals, shiny, good conductor of thermal energy and electrical current, high density
Sulfuric Acid
H2SO4 (Strong Acid)
hydronium ion
H3O+, the ion formed from the association of a water molecule with an H+ ion donated by an acid. (9.7.17.3)
nitric acid
HNO3 (Strong Acid)
Atomic Radii
Half the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
methyl halides
Halide is attached to a methyl group
rigorously
Harsh, strict, thorough.
Bombardier Beetle
Has acid in the body that when they mix it creates an exothermic reaction that gets hot and causes an explosion
alkali metals
Highly reactive metals in group 1A of the periodic table. (4.5)
cyclic alkanes, carbocycles or cycloalkanes.
Hydrocarbons containing single-bonded carbon atoms arranged in rings
racemization
If one enantiomer equilibrates with its mirror image - the interconversion of enantiomers lead to the disappearance of optical activity For example, amino acids such as (1)-alanine (Table 5-1) have been found to undergo very slow ------ in fossil deposits, resulting in reduced optical activity.
Coupling
In NMR spectroscopy, a phenomenon that occurs when there are protons in such close proximity to each other that their magnetic moments affect each other's appearance in the NMR spectrum by subdividing their peaks into subpeaks; also called splitting.
Chemical Equilibrium
In a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.
Deactivator (deactivating group)
In electrophilic aromatic substitution, an aromatic ring substituent that decreases nucleophilicity and arenium ion stability (relative to a hydrogen atom), thereby causing the reaction to be slower than the same reaction on benzene itself.
Activator
In electrophilic aromatic substitution, an aromatic ring substituent that increases nucleophilicity and arenium ion stability (relative to a hydrogen atom), thereby causing the reaction to be faster than the same reaction on benzene itself.
Activator (Activating group)
In electrophilic aromatic substitution, an aromatic ring substituent that increases nucleophilicity and arenium ion stability (relative to a hydrogen atom), thereby causing the reaction to be faster than the same reaction on benzene itself.
covalent radius (bonding atomic radius)
In nonmetals, one-half the distance between two atoms bonded together, and in metals, one-half the distance between two adjacent atoms in a crystal of the metal. (4.6)
hydroxyl group
In organic chemistry, an ¬OH group. (22.9)
enantiomer excess (ee)
In practice, one often encounters mixtures in which one enantiomer is in excess of the other. - the number tells us by how much: ------------ = % of major enantiomer - % of minor enantiomer - Since a racemate constitutes a 1:1 mixture of the two (ee = 0), the ee is a measure of how much one enantiomer is present in excess of racemate.
Walden inversion
In the Walden inversion, the backside attack by the nucleophile in an SN2 reaction gives rise to a product whose configuration is opposite to the reactant. Therefore, during SN2 reaction, 100% inversion of product takes place. This is known as Walden inversion. It was first observed by chemist Paul Walden in 1896
FeCl3
Iron (III) Chloride - also called ferric chloride, is an industrial scale commodity chemical compound, with iron in the +3 oxidation state.
FeBr3
Iron (III) bromide (ferric bromide) is a Lewis acid. It is useful for promoting the bromination of aromatic compounds, as well as in the Friedel-Crafts reaction.
Directing effect
Is how a functional group attached directly to an aromatic ring affects which carbon atoms are more likely to undergo substitution.
Optical isomerism
Isomerism in which the isomers cause plane polarized light to rotate in different directions.
Uncertainty Principle (Heisenberg)
It is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of an electron simultaneously
Fake drug (Counterfeit drugs)
It may be contaminated or contain the wrong or no active ingredient. They could have the right active ingredient but at the wrong dose. --------- are illegal and may be harmful to your health.
Enols
Ketones tautomerize into what functional group in the presence of acid or base?
principal energy level
Layer(s) of space around a nucleus (like layers in an onion) that correspond to energy ranges that an electron can have and are numbered 1 - 7.
Lithium Aluminum Hydride
LiAlH4, reduced carbonyls to alcohol
trough
Lowest point of a wave
artificial
Made by human beings and not by nature
density
Mass per unit volume
William Perkin's sythetic dyes
Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was one of the first synthetic dyes. It was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856 while he was attempting to create a cure for malaria. It is also among the first chemical dyes to have been mass-produced.
Free energy
Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
vicinal diol
Molecule with two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons
Chap 5
Molecules and Compounds
Odd-electron species
Molecules and ions with an odd number of valence electrons have at least one of them unpaired and are called free radicals
stereoisomers
Molecules in which the atoms are bonded in the same order but have a different spatial arrangement. (22.3, 23.4)
structural isomers
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures. (22.3, 23.4)
excess
More than what is needed or usual
resonance forms
Multiple Lewis structures for a molecule (1-4, 5)
amine
NH2
ammonium cyanate
NH4OCN
hydride reagents
NaBH4, LiAlH4; only LiAlH4 can reduce carboxylic acids/esters/acetates to alcohols
Sodium nitrite
NaNO2
sodium hydroxide
NaOH (Strong Base) - a white brittle deliquescent solid NaOH that dissolves readily in water to form a strongly alkaline and caustic solution and that is used in pharmacy as an alkalizing agent.
greenhouse effect
Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases
nitro
Nitrogen
aboitic
Non-living things
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin)
Nonnarcotic medication used to pain and fever. This medicine is an NSAID. - is sold as a racemate. Even though the active ingredient is the (S)-(1) enantiomer ("dexibuprofen"), the racemate is almost as active as the (S) form. As luck (for the discoverers) would have it (see also Problem 64), an enzyme in the body, a-methylacyl-CoA racemase, converts the inactive (R) to the (S) isomer to the tune of 63%, thus adding value to the racemic mixture.
Carbon-13 NMR
Nuclear magnetic resonance utilising the interaction of the 13C nucleus with an external magnetic field and electromagnetic radiation. Used to determine the chemical environment of carbon atoms in compounds.
transition elements (transition metal)
One of the elements found in the d block of the periodic table whose properties tend to be less predictable based simply on their position in the table. (4.2)
main-group element
One of the elements found in the s or p blocks of the periodic table, whose properties tend to be predictable based on their position in the table. (4.2)
noble gas
One of the group 8A elements, which are largely unreactive (inert) due to their stable filled p orbitals. (2.7)
halogen
One of the highly reactive nonmetals in group 7A of the periodic table. (4.5)
isotope
One of two or more atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons and consequently different masses. (1.8)
alkaloid
Organic bases found in plants; they are often poisonous. (17.2)
CHAP 4
Periodic Properties of the Elements
PCl5
Phosphorus pentachloride will convert alcohols to alkyl chlorides, and carboxylic acids to acid chlorides (acyl chlorides)
octet rule
Preferred valence electron total for atoms (2 for H) (1-4, 5)
Bronchodilator albuterol: therapeutic uses
Prevention of asthma attack long-term control of asthma Short acting treatment for asthma attack
complementary properties
Properties that exclude one another; that is, the more you know about one, the less you know about the other. For example, the wave nature and particle nature of the electron are complementary. (3.4)
ozone layer
Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.
Ether
R-O-R
symmetrical ether
R-O-R
unsymmetrical ether
R-O-R'
ribonucleic acids
RNA
Halogenation
Radical chain mechanism with initiation, propagation, termination steps (3-4)
Reaction quotient
Ratio of the concentrations of the products to the concentrations of the reactants at any point during the reaction aside from equilibrium, where each reactant and product in the expression is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient. Commonly denoted by Q.
feedstock
Raw materials needed for a chemical manufacturing process.
radical halogenation
Reactions occur with racemixation at a stereogenic center. From the front and back. Ex- Cl2
composition
Refers to the type of particles that compose matter; by composition is one way to classify matter. (1.2)
Molecular orbital
Region in a molecule where atomic orbitals overlap, resulting in either a stable low-energy bonding orbital or an unstable high-energy antibonding orbital.
Hypersonic
Relates to speed five or more times that of sound in air.
propagate
Reproduce, spread, increase
Dynamic Equilibrium
Result of diffusion where there is continuous movement of particles but no overall change in concentration
Maximizing Orbital Energy Splitting
Same size of orbital Same energy of orbital Directionality in space
Alkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons; contain only carbon and hydrogen bonded together through C-H and C-C single bonds
given off
Send out, emit
screen
Something that shields, protects, or hides; to select or eliminate through a screening process.
reaction intermediates
Species that are formed in one step of a reaction mechanism and consumed in another. (15.7)
Electronic spectra
Spectrum resulting from emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation during changes in the electron configuration of atoms, ions, or molecules, as opposed to vibrational, rotational, fine-structure, or hyperfine spectra. - UV and Visible Spectroscopy
SI unit
Standards for Systeme International d'Unites, an international system which establishes a uniform set of measurement units
Octet rule
States that atoms lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of eight valence electrons
Fetal hemoglobin
Strong form of hemoglobin found in embryos; takes oxygen from mother's hemoglobin.
gene technology
Techniques that allow the study and alteration of genes and their functions.
CHAP 3
The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
joule (J)
The SI unit for energy: equal to 1 kg x m2/s2. (2.4, 10.2)
notation
The act of noting, marking, or setting down in writing
construction
The act or process of building, erecting, or constructing buildings, roads, or other structures.
effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
The actual nuclear charge experienced by an electron, defined as the charge of the nucleus plus the charge of the shielding electrons. (4.3)
Dihydroxylation
The addition of two hydroxyl groups, one at each carbon of the double bond, formally an oxidation
formula mass
The average mass of a molecule of a compound in amu. (5.9)
Reaction rate
The change in concentration of reactants per unit time as a reaction proceeds
standard entropy change for a reaction (delta S°rxn)
The change in entropy for a process in which all reactants and products are in their standard states. (17.6)
Melting
The change in state from a solid to a liquid
Vaporization
The change of state from a liquid to a gas
Feezing
The change of state from a liquid to a solid
Sialic Acid
The common name of N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA), which is the terminal portion of the head group in a ganglioside
alkyloxonium ion
The conjugate acid of the alcohol is often called a protonated alcohol, although more formally it is called an
Carbonation
The conversion of a compound into a carbonate
Pyrolysis
The decomposition of organic matter by heat
Electronegativity difference
The difference in electronegativity between two elements in a bond.
lattice energy
The energy associated with forming a crystalline lattice from gaseous ions. (5.5)
kinetic energy
The energy associated with motion of an object. (2.4, 10.2)
potential energy
The energy associated with the position or composition of an object. (2.4, 10.2)
electron affinity (EA)
The energy change associated with the gaining of an electron by an atom in its gaseous state. (4.8)
coupling constant
The energy difference between spin states caused by spin-spin coupling. Also the chemical shift difference between the lines in a split NMR signal due to spin-spin coupling.
ionization energy (IE)
The energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion in its gaseous state. (4.7)
energy intensity
The energy use per unit of gross domestic product
ion product constant for water (Kw)
The equilibrium constant for the autoionization of water. (17.6)
acid ionization constant (Ka)
The equilibrium constant for the ionization reaction of a weak acid; used to compare the relative strengths of weak acids. (17.5)
bonding molecular orbital
The in-phase overlap of the two 1 s orbitals results in a new orbital of lower energy called---
law of definite proportions
The law stating that all samples of a given compound have the same proportions of their constituent elements. (1.5)
law of conservation of energy
The law stating that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only converted from one form to another. (2.4, 10.2)
law of conservation of mass
The law stating that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. (1.3)
law of multiple proportions
The law stating that when two elements (A and B) form two different compounds, the masses of element B that combine with one gram of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers. (1.5)
ideal gas law
The law that combines the relationships of Boyle's, Charles's, and Avogadro's laws into one comprehensive equation of state with the proportionality constant R in the form PV = nRT. (5.4)
Coulomb's Law
The law that states that the potential energy (E) of two charged particles depends on their charges (q1 and q2) and on their separation (r): E = (1/4*pi*e0) * (q1*q2/ r). (4.3)
Coulomb's law
The law that states that the potential energy (E) of two charged particles depends on their charges (q1 and q2) and on their separation (r): E = 1/4pe0 x (q1 x q2)/r . (4.3)
Vapor pressure lowering
The lowering of vapor pressure of a solvent by the addition of a nonvolatile solute to the solvent.
ground state
The lowest energy state of an atom or molecule. (4.3)
Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a pure substance
p-p overlap
The mutual overlap between two half-filled p - orbitals of two atoms
Avogadro's number
The number of 12C atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C; equal to 6.0221421 * 1023. (2.8)
atomic number (Z)
The number of protons in an atom; the atomic number defines the element. (1.8)
atomic number
The number of protons in an atom; the atomic number defines the element. (1.8)
diffraction
The phenomena by which a wave emerging from an aperture spreads out to form a new wave front. (3.2)
Voltage
The potential difference measured in volts. The amount of work to be done to move a charge from one point to another along an electric circuit.
aufbau principle
The principle that indicates the pattern of orbital filling in an atom. (4.3)
Pauli exclusion principle
The principle that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers. (4.3)
indeterminacy
The principle that present circumstances do not necessarily determine future events in the quantum-mechanical realm. (3.4)
probability density
The probability (per unit volume) of finding the electron at a point in space as expressed by a three-dimensional plot of the wave function squared (c2). (3.6)
substrate
The reactant molecule of a biochemical reaction that binds to an enzyme at the active site. (15.8)
Fission
The splitting of an atomic nucleus to release energy.
International System of Units (SI)
The standard unit system used by scientists; based on the metric system. (1.3)
diamagnetic
The state of an atom or ion that contains only paired electrons and is, therefore, slightly repelled by an external magnetic field. (4.7)
Graphene
This is a single layer of graphite. They have interlocking hexagonal rings of carbon, one atom thick, so therefore very thin. Excellent electrical conductivity, and is used in electronics and computer chips.
charge to mass ratio
Thomson measured this ratio for cathode rays and in doing so discovered the electron
Polycyclic Benzenoid Hydrocarbons
Those composed only of six-membered rings
alkanenitrile
Those compounds in which an alkyl group is attached to the carbon of -CN group - special class of CA Derivatives
sublevel (subshell)
Those orbitals in the same principal level with the same value of n and l. (3.5)
recur
To come up again or to happen again
deduce
To draw a conclusion from fact; to infer
puckered
To gather into small wrinkles and folds
constitute
To make up; be the parts of
Diagnose
To recognize a disease by signs and symptoms.
hell-volhard-zelinsky reaction
Treatment with bromine and a catalytic amount of phosphorus leads to the selective α-bromination of carboxylic acids.
Epimer
Two Diastereomers that differ at only one stereocenter (chiral center).
enantiomers (optical isomers)
Two molecules that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another. (22.3)
optical isomers
Two molecules that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another. (22.3, 23.4)
molecule
Two or more atoms joined chemically in a specific geometrical arrangement. (1.1)
conjugate acid-base pair
Two substances related to each other by the transfer of a proton. (17.3)
hydrogen bonds
Very weak bonds; occurs when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the electrostatic atom in another molecule
Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO)
Wave functions can add to each other to produce the wave functions of new orbitals. The number of new orbitals generated equals the original number of orbitals.
nitroso
_____ refers to a functional group in organic chemistry which has the general formula RNO.
racemic mixture
a 1:1 mixture of (+) and (-) enantiomers shows no rotation and is therefore optically inactive.
Thiamine
a B1 vitamin necessary to use glucose - a natural, metabolically active thiazolium salt
weak base
a base that reacts with water to form the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the base
golden rule
a basic principle that should always be followed to ensure success in general or in a particular activity.
framework
a basic set of ideas used to develop a larger plan
building blocks
a basic unit from which something is built up
Halides
a binary compound of a halogen with another element or group.
acetic acid
a colorless pungent liquid acid C2H4O2 that is the chief acid of vinegar and that is used especially in synthesis (as of plastics)
carbon monoxide
a colorless, odorless toxic flammable gas formed by incomplete combustion of carbon.
diol
a compound containing two hydroxyl groups
Arenes
a family of aromatic hydrocarbon compounds
electric field
a field of force surrounding a charged particle
resolution
a firm decision to do or not to do something.
electromagnetic radiation
a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
dextrose
a form of glucose found in human blood
Structural formula
a formula that shows the arrangement of atoms in the molecule of a compound.
wave function
a function of the coordinates of an electron's position in three-dimensional space that describes the properties of the electron
the effect of electron spin
a fundamental property of all electrons that affects the number of electrons allowed in one orbital
fleet
a group of ships
Acid-base titration
a laboratory procedure in which a basic (or acidic) solution of unknown concentration is reacted with an acidic (or basic) solution of known concentration, in order to determine the concentration of the unknown
Antifreeze
a liquid added to the water in a cooling system to lower its freezing point
electrostatic potential map
a map that allows you to see how electrons are distributed in a molecule
fuel
a material that releases energy when it burns
Metallic character
a measure of how easily an element loses a valence electron
logarithm
a quantity representing the power to which a fixed number (the base) must be raised to produce a given number.
spin
a quantum mechanical property of electrons that may be thought of as clockwise or counterclockwise
glance
a quick look
glimse
a quick look
acyl
a radical of general formula R-C=O , where R is an alkyl group, derived from a carboxylic acid.
platform
a raised level surface on which people or things can stand
hyperconjugation
a situation in which the number of electron pairs used to bond other atoms to a central atom is less than the number of bonds formed. - alkyl radical in which a C-H bond of the CH3 group is aligned with and overlaps one of the lobes of the singly occupied p orbital on the radical center. This arrangement allows the bonding pair of electrons in the orbital to delocalize into the partly empty p lobe.
van der Waals forces
a slight attraction that develops between the oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules
Volatile (nonelectrolyte) solute
a solute with vapor pressure
plane-polarized light
a special kind of light , is passed through a sample of one of the enantiomers, the plane of polarization of the incoming light is rotated in one direction (either clockwise or counterclockwise). When the same experiment is repeated with the other enantiomer, the plane of the polarized light is rotated by exactly the same amount but in the opposite direction
Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps
a statistical map that shows where an electron is likely to be found under a given set of conditions.
resonance hybrid
a structure with resonance forms does nnot alternate between the forms
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain - one of the most powerful applications in medical diagnosis
scaffold
a temporary platform used in work on a building
principle
a truth, a rule, or a law
Mineral acids
acids made from minerals; include sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid
tran
across, beyond, through
Alditols
aldehyde groups of sugars are reduced to hydroxyl groups
alditols
aldehyde groups of sugars are reduced to hydroxyl groups - oxidative cleavage of vicinal diol units, reduction to -----
amines
alkyl nitrogen
coordinated
alkylmagnesium halides are stabilized by bonding to two ether molecules. The solvent is said to be ———— to the metal.
DEPT C13 NMR
allows the assignment of absorptions to CH3, CH2, CH anf quaternary carbons, respectively
Antitumor drugs
also called antineoplastic drug, any drug that is effective in the treatment of malignant, or cancerous, disease. There are several major classes of anticancer drugs; these include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, natural products, and hormones.
Lewis acid
an atom, ion, or molecule that accepts an electron pair to form a covalent bond
Lewis base
an atom, ion, or molecule that donates an electron pair to form a covalent bond
Fuel cells
an electrochemical cell that uses replenishable substances such as hydrogen or oxygen or water to produce electricity
mass percent composition
an element's percentage of the total mass of a compound containing the element
bimolecular
an elementary step in a reaction that involves two particles, either the same species or different, that collide and go on to form products
Schrödinger equation
an equation that describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes with time
Thermochemical equation
an equation that includes the quantity of energy released or absorbed as heat during the reaction as written
occurrence
an event that happens
Antarctica
an extremely cold continent at the south pole almost entirely below the Antarctic Circle
reverse polarization
an important principle in synthetic organic chemistry that The preparation of alkylmetals from haloalkanes
EPA
an independent federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment
polarimeter
an instrument that measures the rotation of plane-polarized light by an optically active compound - light is fi rst plane polarized and subsequently traverses a cell containing the sample
Common ion
an ion that is common to both salts in a solution; in a solution of silver nitrate and silver chloride, Ag+ would be a common ion
aryl halide
an organic compound containing a halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or other aromatic group
diazo compound
an organic compound containing two nitrogen atoms bonded together, especially a diazonium compound.
Ester
an organic compound made by chemically combining an alcohol and an organic acid
amide
an organic compound obtained by replacing the −OH group in acids by the −NH2 group. an organic compound formed from ammonia by replacing a hydrogen atom by an acyl group.
Carbocylic Compounds
any of a group of organic chemical compounds in which all the atoms composing the ring are carbon atoms, as benzene or cyclopropane
Diastereomers
are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another and are non-superimposable on one another.
diastereomer
are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another and are non-superimposable on one another. Stereoisomers with two or more stereocenters can be diastereomers. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether or not two molecules are diastereomers.
Substituent Effects
are the changes on a reaction or property in the unchanged part of the molecule resulting from substituent variation.
Sigma framework
are the strongest type of covalent chemical bond. They are formed by head-on overlapping between atomic orbitals. ------- is most simply defined for diatomic molecules using the language and tools of symmetry groups.
complex sugars
are those formed by the linkage of simple sugars through ether bridges
When the nuclei are the appropriate bond length apart, the electrons are spread out around both nuclei, and attractive and repulsive forces ----for maximum bonding.
balance
equilibrate
balance
abitrary
based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system
cellar
basement
suffice
be enough or adequate
proton (H+)
because loss of the valence electron from a neutral hydrogen atom leaves only the hydrogen nucleus - a proton.
hydrated carbon
because they had the empirical formula CH2O
deteriorates
become progressively worse
toluene
benzene with CH3
para-
beside, near describes a molecule with substituents at the 1 and 4 positions on an aromatic compound. In other words, the substituent is directly opposite the primary carbon of the ring
inter
between, among
Hydrogen halides
binary compounds that contain hydrogen and a halogen
aldaric acid
both ends of sugars are oxidized - COOH on both ends - double oxidation
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
bond dissociation
breaking a bond
chipped
broke off small pieces of something
aufbau
building up
colliding
bumping into each other
Constant-pressure calorimetry
calorimetry where the pressure stays constant during the process eg coffee cup calorimetry
Ordinary light
can be thought of as bundles of electromagnetic waves that oscillate simultaneously in all planes perpendicular to the direction of the light beam
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
can be used to estimate the pH of a buffer solution. The numerical value of the acid dissociation constant, Kₐ, of the acid is known or assumed.
X-ray diffraction (chemical correlations)
can establish the absolute configuration
Indeterminacy
can refer both to common scientific and mathematical concepts of uncertainty and their implications and to another kind of indeterminacy deriving from the nature of definition or meaning.
aldoses (aldehylic sugar)
carbohydrates containing an aldehyde group *Aldehyde group: H—C =O *CHO at the end of the chain on the first carbon
tetroses
carbohydrates w/ 4 carbons
Heterogeneous catalysis
catalysis where the phase of catalysts differs from that of the reactants or products. Contrasts with homogeneous catalysis where the reactants, products and catalyst exist in the same phase.
catalyst
catalysts are additives that accelerate reactions. They enable new pathways through which reactants and products are interconverted, pathways that have lower activa-tion energies, Ecat, than those available in the absence of the catalyst, Ea
Thermodynamic
caused or operated by heat that has changed into different forms of energy
RU-486 (mifepristone)
causes loss of an implanted embryo (95% effective) - abortion pill
destructive
causing great and irreparable harm or damage.
definite
certain
delta H
change in enthalpy
Delta E
change in internal energy
properties
characteristics used to describe an object
Complex ion
charged species consisting of metal ion surrounded by ligands
empirical formulas
chemical formulas that give only the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule
Acids
compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
acids
compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
Haloalkane
compounds with halogen
constitutional isomer
compounds with the same molecular formula but different connections among their atoms
polyfunctional compounds
compounds with two or more functional groups
mix-up
confusion
fibrous
consisting of or characterized by fibers
rational drug design
construction of a drug to fit the active site of a molecule so that the natural action of the molecule cannot occur
Polyprotic acids
contain more than one ionizable proton and release them sequentially
harness
control and make use of (natural resources), especially to produce energy.
Thionyl chloride (SOCl2)
conversion of alcohols to alkyl halides proceeds through a substitution reaction - specifically, an SN2 mechanism. The first step is attack of the oxygen upon the sulfur of ----, which results in displacement of chloride ion.
S configuration
counterclockwise (left) (sinister, Latin, left).
Diels-Alder Reaction
cycloaddition, dienophile reacts with diene to form a ring
Diels-Alder reaction
cycloaddition, dienophile reacts with diene to form a ring
taper off
decrease in width or thickness; decrease gradually; lessen; diminish
Electronegativity trend
decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period
bugs
defects in the code of an information system
Bronsted-Lowry theory
defines an acid as a hydrogen-ion donor, and a base as a hydrogen-ion acceptor
Green plastic
degradable plastic made from blending sugar and plants with a special chemical to make plastic
deviation
departure or wandering away from the accepted standard
Carboxylate
deprotonated carboxylic acid
ortho-
describes a molecule with substituents at the 1 and 2 positions on an aromatic compound. In other words, the substituent is adjacent or next to the primary carbon on the ring. - The symbol for -----is o- or 1,2
Stereoisomerism
describes isomers whose atoms are connected in the same order but differ in their spatial arrangement. Examples of ——- include the relatively stable and isolable cis-trans isomers and the rapidly equilibrating (and usually not isolable) con-formational ones (Sections 2-5 through 2-8 and 4-1).
periodic
describes something that occurs or repeats at regular intervals
beta-dicarboxylic acids
dicarboxylic acids in which each carboxylic acid is positioned on the beta carbon of the other the two carboxylic acids are separated by a single carbon very acidic due to the alpha carbons located between the two loss of an alpha carbon produces a carbanion - which is stabilized by the electron withdrawing effect of both carboxyl groups
conformational isomers
differ by rotation around a single sigma bond
activation barrier
difference between reactant and transition state free energy is a sort of energetic hurdle that a reaction must bypass.
chemical shift
difference between resonance frequency of chemically shifted hydrogens and those on reference compound - in ppm from an internal standard, tetramethylsilane
DMSO
dimethyl sulfoxide - is an organosulfur compound with the formula (CH₃)₂SO. This colorless liquid is an important polar aprotic solvent that dissolves both polar and nonpolar compounds and is miscible in a wide range of organic solvents as well as water. It has a relatively high boiling point.
Drawback
disadvantage
Lewis acid
electron pair acceptor
Lewis Acids
electron pair acceptors
Lewis acids
electron pair acceptors - is a chemical species that contains an empty orbital which is capable of accepting an electron pair from a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct.
quantized
electrons can only exist at specific energy levels, separated by specific intervals
Nitronium ion
electrophile in the nitration of benzene NO2+
Electrophilic substitution reaction.
electrophile swapping places (substituting) a group (eg NO2 for H in benzene)
Law of Multiple Proportions
elements can combine in different ratios to form different compounds
transition metals
elements that form a bridge between elements on the left and right sides of the periodic table
bear
endure an ordeal or difficulty
thermal energy
energy associated with the temperature of an object - is a type of kinetic energy
nitrogen oxides
enhance the ozone-destroying effects of chlorine
Third Law of Thermodynamics
entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is zero
proton transfer
enzymes may also accept or donate protons thereby increasing the chemical reactivity of the substrate and is especially important when charged amino acids are part of the active site
Carboxylic acid derivatives
esters, amides, anhydrides
hyperacidity
excessive acidity, especially in the stomach - the secretion of unnecessarily large amounts of acid.
formal charges
exist when an atom is surrounded by more or fewer valence electrons than it has in its neutral state
Inherent
existing in something as a permanent, essential, or characteristic attribute
inherent
existing in something as a permanent, essential, or characteristic attribute
abstract
existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence.
drastic
extreme
rectified
fixed or set right
Intermolecular forces
forces of attraction between molecules
intramolecular forces
forces within molecules. Forces caused by the attraction and repulsion of charged particles
constitute
form
Williamson Ether Synthesis
formation of an ether from the reaction of an alkoxide ion with an alkyl halide
Cyanohydrins
formed when hydrogen cyanide reacts with carbonyls
Ozone (O3)
forms in the stratosphere when high-energy solar radiation splits O2 into oxygen atoms, which may react with additional molecules of O2 -generated absorbs ultraviolet (UV) light in the 200- to 300-nm wavelength range. -serves as a natural atmospheric fi lter, blocking up to 99% of this light from reaching the surface of the Earth and thus protecting life from damage.
Pi bond
forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons
Cornerstones
foundations - a stone that forms the base of a corner of a building, joining two walls
reduction
gain of electrons
Nitric oxide
gas released by many small neurons; alters blood flow as well as neuronal activity
electron density
gives the probability that an electron will be found in a particular region of an atom
absolute configuration
gives the stereochemistry of a compound without having to compare to other molecules
sucrose
glucose + fructose - the most widely occurring disaccharide in nature - obtained from sugar beet and sugar cane
outspace
go, rise, or improve faster than.
stratospheric ozone
good ozone, produces oxygen molecules to interact with UV radiation and prevent 95% of it from reaching the surface
dangling
hanging or swinging loosely
Intramolecular aldol condensation
happen when a single molecule contains 2 reaction aldehyde/ketone groups. When the alpha carbon of one group attacks the other, the molecule attacks itself forming a ring structure
uphill battle
hard struggle
Diamond
hardest mineral
Tetrahedral
has a central atom surrounded by four other atoms. The central atom bonds with each of the surrounding atoms, which form bond angles of 109.5 degrees.
self-sustaining
has all elements needed to keep it going
Group 3A
has three valence electrons. Most of the elements in this group lose those three valence electrons and get a +3 charge, otherwise known as a +3 oxidation state.
cursory
hasty, not thorough
Supersonic
having a speed beyond that of sound
equilateral
having all sides equal
barbed
having sharp points
accomodate
help out; oblige
ANCILLARY
helping; providing assistance; subordinate
strike
hit forcibly and deliberately with one's hand or a weapon or other implement
grasp
hold firmly
reactive
how likely an element is to undergo a chemical change
Nevertheless,
however
pH
hydrogen ion concentration
superimposable
identical in all respects. the three-dimensional positions of all atoms coincide when the molecules are placed on top of each other.
N+1 rule
if a signal is split by N neighboring equivalent protons, it will be split into N+1 peaks
Toluene (methylbenzene)
if the phenyl substituent adds a methyl group, this is formed
generic
in general
radical chain mechanism
in which one or more steps are repeated many times, until the chain (the sequence of repeated steps) is terminated, or until one of the reactants is depleted.
branched alkane
in which the carbon chain contains one or several branching points; and the cyclic alkanes - are constitutional isomers of straight-chain alkane
Ruff chain shortening
in which the low sugars relies on - a terminal carbon being expelled as CO2
chain lengthening
in which the synthesis of high sugars is based on - the new carbon being introduced by cyanide ion
Increasing rates of chemical reactions
increasing temp. decreasing Ea Imcreasing conc.
designated
indicated; pointed out
Unimolecular Elimination (E1)
indicates a elimination, unimolecular reaction, where rate = k [R-LG].This implies that the rate determining step of the mechanism depends on the decomposition of a single molecular species.
Bimolecular Elimination (E2)
indicates an elimination, bimolecular reaction, where rate = k [B][R-LG].This implies that the rate determining step involves an interaction between these two species, the base B, and the organic substrate, R-LG
Meta positions
indicates the positions of substituents in aromatic cyclic compounds. The substituents have the 1,3-positions, for example in resorcinol.
Directionality
indicating direction in space.
Appendicitis
inflammation of the vermiform appendix
scope
instrument for visual examination
interconvertible
interchangeable
Dipole-dipole forces
intermolecular forces that exist between polar molecules. Active only when the molecules are close together. The strengths of intermolecular attractions increase when polarity increases
dipole-dipole forces
intermolecular forces that exist between polar molecules. Active only when the molecules are close together. The strengths of intermolecular attractions increase when polarity increases
Reaction stoichiometry
involves the mass relationships between reactants and products in a chemical reaction
Unimolecular Substitution (SN1)
involving a nucleophile replacing a leaving group (just like SN2). However: SN1 reactions are unimolecular: the rate of this reaction depends only on the concentration of one reactant.
hazardous
involving risk or danger
halide ion
ions produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons
Diazepam (Valium - anti anxiety drug)
is a benzodiazepine derivative with anti-anxiety, sedative, hypnotic and anticonvulsant properties.
Degree of unsaturation
is a calculation that determines the total number of rings and π bonds.
Homogeneous catalysis
is catalysis in a solution by a soluble catalyst. ------refers to reactions where the catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants, principally in solution
2-methylpropane
isobutane -the smallest branched alkane, It has the same molecular formula as that of butane (C4H10) but different connectivity; the two compounds therefore form a pair of constitutional isomers
optical isomers.
isomers that are mirror images of each other - enantiomers
Enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon
Anomers
isomers that differ at a new asymmetric carbon atom formed on ring closure
nitric oxide
its radical reactions are destructive to the earth's stratospheric ozone O3
Arrhenius equation
k=Ae^(-Ea/RT) R=rate constant A= a factor with a value characteristic of a specific rxn = maximum rate constant that the rxn could have if molecule had sufficient collisional energy to overcome activation barrier Ea = activation energy - describe how temp affects reaction rates - Ea/RT =0 and e^(-Ea/RT) = 1 => k=A
acetone
ketone that is found in blood, urine, and breath when diabetes mellitus is out of control
Kinetics vs. Thermodynamics
kinetics- rate, intermediate, *activation energy*, catalyst faster product thermodynamics- stability, equilibrium, spontaneity, entropy, enthalpy, *free energy* more stable product for example, free energy of ion transport does not tell you about the kinetics of a channel protein
Inert
lacking the ability or strength to move
Polymerization
large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together
francium
least electronegative element - electropositive
omit
leave out or exclude
diminishing
lessening; growing smaller
Carboxylic Amides
like carboxylic acid, but hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino group [N single bond(s) C(s)]. Planar.
Feasibility
likelihood or not of reaction occurring when reactants are mixed
perishable
likely to decay or to spoil
joined
link; connect conjugate in Latin
fats
lipids that are solid at room temperature
groove
long narrow channel made in a surface to guide the movement of something; Ex. groove of the record
nucleic acid
macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
Nucleic acids
macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
Grand
magnificent and imposing in appearance, size, or style
chemical equivalence
means similar chemical environment. When nuclei are attached by similar linkage
intergration
measure the number of hydrogens giving rise to a peak
Ionic Radii
measured distance from the center of an ion to its outer electrons
pH scale
measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14
immunosuppressant
medication to block certain actions of immune system; used to prevent rejection of transplanted organ
dissolved
melted away; transformed into liquid
Amphoteric metal hydroxides
metal hydroxides that dissolve in excess base
methyl chloride
methane with 1 Hydrogen atom replaced by a chlorine atom
gauche conformation
methyl are 60 degrees apart. kinda stable French, in the sense of awkward, clumsy
Error
mistake
sp3 orbital
mixing one 2s and three 2p orbitals wave function, made up 75% p and 25% s character
sp2 orbital
mixing one 2s and two 2p orbitals wave function, made up 67% p and 33% s character
sp orbitals
mixing the 2s and 2p orbitals wave functions, made up 50% s and 50% p character
Bohr Model
model of the atom in which electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in paths called orbits
Bohr model
model of the atom in which electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in paths called orbits
sigma orbital
molecular orbital that has cylindrical symmetry and no nodal plane that contains the internuclear axis
Nonpolar molecule
molecule that shares electrons equally and does not have oppositely charged ends
heteronuclear diatomic molecules
molecules composed of two different nuclei
Incomplete octets
molecules or ions with fewer than eight electrons around an atom
Chelating agents
molecules that attract or bind with other molecules and are therefore useful in either preventing or promoting movement of substances from place to place
Molecular model
more accurate and complete way to specify a compound
advanced
more highly developed or skilled
Closest-packed structures
most tightly packed or space-efficient composition of crystal structures
protonation of double bond
movement of one of electron pairs of a double bond towards a proton, result in a carbocation. The proton is acting as E+, attacking an e- pair in the double bond
quantum numbers
n, l, ml, ms
skydiving
n. a sport in which a person jumps from an aircraft and falls for as long as possible before opening a parachute môn thể thao nhảy dù
Morphine
narcotic drug derived from opium, used to treat severe pain - a molecular imposter
domestic
native to a country, not foreign; relating to the life or affairs of a household; a household servant
proximity.
nearness; closeness; a neighboring area
indestructible
not capable of being destroyed
hurdle
obstacle
non-first-order spectra
occurs when a nucleusspin-couples with 2 or more sets of nearby nuclei that have different J values.
Dehydration of alcohol
occurs when heated with an acid catalyst and with the loss of an -H and -OH from the adjacent carbon atoms. alcohol --> alkene
Foolproof
of a plan, machine, method, etc.) very well designed and easy to use so that it cannot fail and you cannot use it wrongly, infallible
singly
one at a time; separately or individually.
bystander
one who looks on or observes, a person present but not taking part
Peptic Ulcer
open sore or lesion of the mucous membrane of the stomach or duodenum
peptic ulcer
open sore or lesion of the mucous membrane of the stomach or duodenum
structural isomers
or constitutional isomer (per IUPAC), is a type of isomer in which molecules with the same molecular formula have different bonding patterns and atomic organization, as opposed to stereoisomers, in which molecular bonds are always in the same order and only spatial arrangement differs. -differ in terms of the connectivity of some or all constituent atoms.
orbital hybridization
orbitals involved in covalent bonding in an atom are hybridized so that they are identical in properties, and those properties are intermediate to the properties of the original orbitals
Hund's Rule
orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin
hybrid orbitals
orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of two or more orbitals on the same atom
valence orbitals
orbitals of the outermost or highest energy level and partially filled subshells of lower energy
Biomolecules
organic molecules which combine to form living organisms; includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
Dimerization
pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes
nonbonding electrons
pairs of valence electrons on an atom that are not involved in electron sharing
radial
pertaining to the radius
gastric
pertaining to the stomach
injury
physical harm or damage to someone's body
Odor
physical property, smell
juxtaposing
placing side by side
scheme
plan
apices
plural of apex, meaning peak or summit
dipole moments
point from higher electronegativity to lower, vectors, polar molecules have dipole moments
Ions
positively and negatively charged atoms - losing and gaining electron
metal cations
positively charged ions
polyfunctional
posses multiple functional groups
feasible
possible, able to be done
convention
practice widely observed in a group; custom; accepted technique or device
retention
preservation; withholding
Lactic acid,
product of fermentation in many types of cells, including human muscle cells - is present in blood and muscle f l uid as one enantiomer but in sour milk and some fruits and plants as a mixture of the two.
Colligative properties
properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity
Allyl
propylenes attached to a backbone at the C-3 position. Meaning the double bond at end of the chain and single bonded carbon at rest
digestive enzymes
proteins found in digestive juices that act on food substances, causing them to break down into simpler compounds
Double Elimination
protonate the alkane and from the 2 Pi bonds.
Solution concentration
quantity of solute dissolved in a specific quantity of solvent or solution
ionizing radiation
radiation with enough energy to knock electrons off some atoms of a bombarded substance to produce ions
Hydrogen abstraction
radicals can also remove hydrogen atoms from another alkane
radical disproportionation
radicals can remove hydrogen atoms from the carbon atom adjacent to another radical center to give alkenes
C-14
radioactive carbon
Beta decay
radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus that is accompanied by the emission of a beta particle
optical purity
ratio of actual rotation to rotation of pure sample - The ee can be obtained from the % optical rotation of such a mixture relative to that of the pure enantiomer
Catalytic Hydrogenation
reducing an alkene by adding molecular hydrogen to double bond with aid of metal catalyst. e.g. pt, pd, ni. takes place on surface of metal so it does syn addition
levorotatory
refers to a substance that rotates the plane of polarized light to the left
gasoline
refined petroleum used as fuel for internal combustion engines
Particulate
relating to or in the form of minute separate particles.
discharge
release
Inflammatory agent
releases chemicals that widen blood vessels and prevent from blood clots to increase blood flow after recognizing an infection or injury
Like charges
repel one another
electrically charged plate
repels electrons
Alkylation
replacing hydrogen atoms of a chemical group with a free radical
R (for radical or residue)
represent alkyl group
horizontal line (in Fischer projection)
represent bond to atoms above the plane of page
line notation
represent structures as a linear string of characters
Nuclear Transmutation
results from the bombardment of nuclei by neutrons, protons, or other nuclei
Eclipsing (torsional) strain
results from the inability of a structure to adopt staggered conformations about C-C bonds.
sugar ring
ribose
Heterocycles
ring structures that contain at least two different elements in the ring
Igneous rocks
rocks formed by the cooling of molten rock (either magma or lava)
scrolled
rolled up
optical activity
rotation of the plane of polarized light - special interaction with light
Orbital blocks
s, p, d, f
symmetrical
same on both sides
plot
sequence of events
Heating curve of water
shows the temperature of water in its three states as heat is added or removed at fixed areas
horizontal
side to side
lone
single
pyranose
six membered ring structure of a monosaccharide - a name derived from pyran, a six-membered cyclic ether
Crystalline Solids
solids that are made up of crystals
Ionic solids
solids whose composite units are ions; they generally have high melting points
Hydration
solution process with water as the solvent
Aromaticity
special stability, properties, and reactioon, based on Huckel's rule, 4n + 2pi electrons in a circle of p orbitals
spin-spin splitting
splits into several smaller peaks due to neighboring H that are not chemically equivalent; number of peak splittings is determined by n+1 where n is the number of neighboring H not chemically equivalent
spin-spin splitting
splits into several smaller peaks due to neighboring H that are not chemically equivalent; number of peak splittings is determined by n+1 where n is the number of neighboring H not chemically equivalent - give the number of hydrogen neighbors of a nucleus
pervades
spread through and be perceived in every part of
criteria
standards by which something is judged
ambiguities
statements or events whose meanings are unclear
Law of Definite Proportion
states that, regardless of the amount, a compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass
potential energy
stored energy that results from the position or shape of an object
transannular strain
strain resulting from steric crowding of two groups across a ring
Cathode rays
streams of electrons that are produced when a high voltage is applied to electrodes in an evacuated tube
reinforcing
strengthening
Strained
stretched to the limit, either physically or mentally
If the atoms are too close, the electron-electron and nuclear-nuclear repulsions become ------than the attractive forces.
stronger
medicinal chemistry
study of new drug synthesis; relationship between chemical structure and biological effects
food additives
substances intentionally added to food to produce a desired effect
Semiconductors
substances that can conduct electric current under some conditions but not under other conditions
Indicators
substances that have distinctly different colors in acidic and basic media -pH-dependent colors
Proton-pump inhibitors ("PPIs")
such as omeprazole are the most powerful products on the market currently. They function by blocking directly the acid-producing engine (the "proton pump") in the parietal cells.
adequately
sufficiently; completed to its minimum requirements
furanose
sugars in the five-membered ring form - from furan
furnishing
supply, provide, or equip with whatever is necessary or useful; esp., to put furniture into (a room, apartment, etc.) to supply; provide; give: to furnish information
Metathesis
switching of the order of two sounds, each taking the place of the other
Carbonyl Condensation
takes place between two carbonyl partners and involves both nucleophilic addition and α-substitution. One carbonyl is converted by base into a nucleophilic enolate ion, which then adds to the electrophilic carbonyl group of the second compound.
Resonance
tells about the polarity induced in a molecule by the reaction between a lone pair of electron and a pi bond. It also occurs by the interaction of 2 pi bonds in the adjacent atoms. Resonance in simple is the molecules with multiple Lewis structures.
Standard enthalpy changes
temperature of 298 K pressure 100 kPa concentration of 1 mol /(dm^3) substances in their standard states
reminiscent
tending to remind one of something
Carbocation stability
tertiary > secondary > primary > methyl
carbocation stability
tertiary > secondary > primary > methyl
THF
tetrahydrofuran ; oxacyclopentane
Buffer capacity
the amount of acid or base that can be added to a buffer solution before a significant change in pH occurs
caloric content
the amount of energy a food contains
Joule (J)
the amount of energy needed to move a 1 kg mass a distance of 1 meter
QUANTUM
the amount of energy needed to move an electron from one energy level to another
Electrochemistry
the branch of chemistry that deals with electricity-related applications of oxidation-reduction reactions
energy
the capacity to do work
fructose
the corresponding constitutional isomeric ketohexose of glucose - the sweetest natural sugar ( some synthetic sugars are sweeter) - present in many fruit and in honey - Latin, fructus = fruit
Pyrolysis
the decomposition of solid organic matter by heat
Density
the degree of compactness of a substance.
Entropy change
the difference between the entropy of the products and the reactants
Mass defect
the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of the atom's protons, neutrons, and electrons
ionic charge
the difference between the number of protons and the number of electrons written in the upper right corner of the symbol for the element or polyatomic ion
Boiling point elevation
the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent
Freezing point depression
the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent
Atomic size
the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus
Bond length
the distance between two bonded atoms at their minimum potential energy, that is, the average distance between two bonded atoms
Lattice energy
the energy released when one mole of an ionic crystalline compound is formed from gaseous ions
Bond energy
the energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms
bond energy
the energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms
Bonding dissociation energy
the energy required to break the bond between two covalent bonded atoms
Bond-Dissociation Energies
the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms
Nuclear binding energy
the energy required to decompose an atomic nucleus into its component protons and neutrons
First ionization energy
the energy required to remove the first electron from a neutral atom
energy expenditure
the energy the body expends to maintain its basic functions and to perform all levels of movement and activity
academia
the environment or community concerned with the pursuit of research, education, and scholarship.
attractive force
the force between particles that draws the particles together and holds them in place
Surface tension
the force that acts on the surface of a liquid and that tends to minimize the area of the surface
Corrosion
the gradual wearing away of a metal element due to a chemical reaction - undesirable redox reactions
Southern Hemisphere
the half of the Earth south of the equator
crest
the highest point of a transverse wave
D
the highest-numbered stereocenter is R
L
the highest-numbered stereocenter is S
Valence bond theory
the idea that covalent bonds are formed when orbitals of different atoms overlap
valence bond theory
the idea that covalent bonds are formed when orbitals of different atoms overlap
Hydrogen Bonding
the intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule
Law of Conservation of Energy
the law that states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another, the total quantity of energy does not change - it remains constant
Avogado's Law
the law that states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules
Law of Conservation of Mass
the law that states that mass cannot be created or destroyed in ordinary chemical and physical changes
Periodic law
the law that states that the repeating chemical and physical properties of elements change periodically with the atomic numbers of the elements
Polarizer filter
the material that When original light is passed through all but one of these light waves are "filtered" away, and the resulting beam oscillates in only one plane: plane-polarized light
Theoretical yield
the maximum amount of product that could be formed from the given amounts of reactants
Testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
chair conformation
the most stable conformation of cyclohexane, with one part puckered upward and another part puckered downward
single-barbed (fishhook) arrows
the movement of single electrons
pOH
the negative of the common logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration
split
the orbital within a principal level of a multi-electron atom are not degenerate - their energy depends on the value of l. the energy of sublevels are ----
levorotatory (laevus, Latin, left)
the other enantiomer, which will effect counterclockwise rotation - called the (2) enantiomer
Macrostate
the overall state of a system as defined by a given set of conditions
configuration
the position of parts or elements of something; a shape; an outline
hydronium ion (H3O+)
the positive ion formed when a water molecule gains a hydrogen ion
Herbal medicine
the practice of using herbs to heal
Regioselectivity
the preference of one direction of chemical bond making or breaking over all other possible directions
Vapor pressure
the pressure caused by the collisions of particles in a vapor with the walls of a container
Partial pressure
the pressure of each gas in a mixture
oil refining
the process of separating oil so it can be made into other, useful products
reduction
the removal of halogen or oxygen or the addition of hydrogen
thiol
the replacement of oxygen in alcohols by sulfur
Ion-dipole forces
the result of electrical interactions between an ion and the partial charges on a polar molecule
cyclization
the ring formation of carbohydrates form their straight-chain form
X-ray diffraction
the scattering of X-rays by the regularly spaced atoms of a crystal, useful in obtaining information about the structure of the crystal.
Navigation
the science of planning and controlling the direction of a ship
Buffer range
the section of the pH scale in which a particular buffer can function
gaseous state
the state of matter having no fixed volume or shape
Reaction mechanism
the step-by-step sequence of reactions by which the overall chemical change occurs
Nuclear chemistry
the study of changes that occur in atomic nuclei
Pharmacology
the study of drugs and their interactions with living systems
Thermochemistry
the study of energy changes that occur during chemical reactions and changes in state
Formula mass
the sum of the average atomic masses of all the atoms represented in the formula of any molecule, formula unit, or ion
Overall reaction rate law
the sum of the orders with respect to each reactant. If m = 1 and n = 1, the overall order of the reaction is second order (m + n = 1 + 1 = 2).
apparatus
the technical equipment or machinery needed for a particular activity or purpose - in spectroscopy, is designed so that radiation of a specific wavelength (NMR, IR, UV, etc) passes through the sample.
recurring theme
the theme is presented in more than one piece of literature
Kinetic molecular theory
the theory that all matter is composed of particles (atoms and molecules) moving constantly in random directions
nuclear charge
the total charge of all the protons in the nucleus
Hertz
the unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second
Chemical test
the use of a chemical to find out something about a substance - such as a pH test
Molar volume
the volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP); 22.4 L
de Broglie wavelength
the wavelength associated with a moving particle
interplay
the way in which two or more things have an effect on each other.
Dispersion force
the weak forces resulting from temporary shifts in the density of electrons in electron clouds
Pressure-volume work
the work that occurs when a volume change takes place against an external pressure
Chemical eqation
the written equation of a chemical reaction using compound formulas and symbols
Half-life of reaction
time required for half of a given amount of reactant to be consumed
lesion
tissue destruction. A brain ---- is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
offset
to balance, counteract or compensate for
outweigh
to be greater or more important than something else
govern
to be in charge of; to control or rule
degenerate
to break down; to deteriorate
construct
to build
Swindle
to cheat someone out of money or property
restrain
to hold back from
denote
to indicate
Chlorination
to introduce chlorine atoms into an organic compound by an addition or substitution reaction.
omit
to leave out; to not send
align
to line up
manufature
to make by hand or by machine; to change raw material into a new product
purify
to make clean and free of dirt or pollutants
reinforce
to make stronger with new materials or support
raised weight
to move to a higher position; lift up; elevate
insulate
to protect from outside influence
Radiotherapy
treatment of tumors using doses of radiation; radiation oncology
alkyne
triple bond
Inversion
turning inward
anomers
type of diastereomer formation is unique to sugars - two diastereomers (epimers) differing in the confi guration of the hemiacetal group. If that confi guration is S in a d-series sugar, that diastereomer is labeled alpha; when it is R in a d sugar, the isomer is called beta.
inert
unable to act or move; inactive; sluggish
intact
unbroken; whole
negligible
unimportant; insignificant
inadvertent
unintentional; accidental
vertical
up and down
Acetal Formation
use of acid, water comes off, alcohol attacks
Carbon NMR
utilizes the low-abundance C13 isotope.
magnificent
very beautiful and impressive
extraodinary
very unusual or remarkable
Chemical Warfare
warfare using chemical agents to kill or injure or incapacitate the enemy
steroid tetrahydrogestrinone
was discovered in 2003—"designed" to avoid detection in doping tests.
Electrocyclization cascade
was discovered in relation to the isolation and synthesis of certain endiandric acids
Aqueous Reaction
water is solvent, reactants will be things that dissolve in water
Fluorinated
what type of topical steroids are high potency and should be avoided in the face
Expanded octet
when a molecule has more than 8 electrons around the central atom
Autoionization of water
when pure water reacts with itself to for hydronium and hydroxide ions
intra
within
compose
write or create
pka of carboxylic acid
~5
stereoisomers
—compounds that have identical connectivities but differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space.
termini
the end of a polypeptide or polynucleotide chain or similar long molecule
kinetic energy
the energy an object has due to its motion
potential energy
the energy associated with the position or composition of an object
Unimolecular Substitution (SN1)
"SN" stands for "nucleophilic substitution", and the "1" says that the rate-determining step is unimolecular. Thus, the rate equation is often shown as having first-order dependence on electrophile and zero-order dependence on nucleophile.
complementary
(adj) completing; fitting together well; filling mutual needs
contemporary
(adj.) belonging to the same period of time as oneself; (n.) a person of the same time
subsequent
(adj.) coming after; following in time, place, or order
ambient
(adj.) completely surrounding, encompassing
viscous
(adj.) having a gelatinous or gluey quality, lacking in easy movement or fluidity
corrosive
(adj.) having the tendency to erode or eat away (The effect of the chemical was highly corrosive.)
substantial
(adj.) large, important; major, significant; prosperous; not imaginary, material
susceptible
(adj.) open to; easily influenced; lacking in resistance
gross
(adj.) overweight; coarse, vulgar; very noticeable; total; (n.) an overall total (without deductions); twelve dozen; (v.) to earn
pertiment
(adj.) related to the matter at hand, to the point
stoichiometry
(chemistry) the relation between the quantities of substances that take part in a reaction or form a compound (typically a ratio of whole integers)
Hydrate ionic compound
(i.e., hydrates) have a specfic number of water molecules in their chemical formulas. In the solid, these water molecules (also called "waters of hydration") are part of the structure of the compound
realm
(n.) a kingdom; a region or field of study
residue
(n.) a remainder, that which remains when a part has been used up or removed, a molecular fragment derived by removal of one hydrogen atom from an alkane
imposter
(n.) a swindler, deceiver; one who uses a false name or character in order to cheat
Endothermic
(of a chemical reaction or compound) occurring or formed with absorption of heat
sore
(of a part of one's body) painful or aching.
afflicted
(of a problem or illness) cause pain or suffering to; affect or trouble.
decay
(of a radioactive substance, particle, etc.) undergo change to a different form by emitting radiation.
render
(v.) to cause to become; to perform; to deliver officially; to process, extract
induce
(v.) to cause, bring about; to persuade
accommodate
(v.) to do a favor or service for, help out; to provide for, supply with; to have space for; to make fit or suitable
encompass
(v.) to encircle, go or reach around; to enclose; to include with a certain group or class
probe
(v.) to examine, investigate thoroughly; (n.) an investigation; a device used to explore or examine
devise
(v.) to think out, plan, figure out, invent, create
Diastereotopic Hydrogens
*Stereoisomers, but not mirror images. *Replacement of the red H leads to the (R, R) product. Replacement of the blue H leads to the (R, S) product. *Show up together on CNMR but as two on HNMR
Cycloaddition.
- an addition reaction in which a ring is formed
Deactivator
- electron acceptors - In electrophilic aromatic substitution, an aromatic ring substituent that decreases nucleophilicity and arenium ion stability (relative to a hydrogen atom), thereby causing the reaction to be slower than the same reaction on benzene itself.
cathode ray tube
A partially evacuated tube equipped with electrodes to produce cathode rays. (1.6)
Le Chatelier's Principle
- how a system at equilibrium responds to disturbance - States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.
Electronegativity value
- indicates the attraction of an atom for shared electrons - increases from left to right going across a period on the periodic table - decreases going down a group on the periodic table - is high for the nonmetals, with fluorine as the highest - is low for the metals
Buffers
- solutions that resist pH change - weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH
glyceraldehyde (2,3 dihydroxypropanal)
- the simplest aldose - is an aldotriose - carbonyl carbon is most oxidized, always lowest number - aldehyde carbon can participate in glycosidic linkages
anticancer drugs
-Cancer chemotherapy only applies to cytotoxic agents -Modern era of cancer chemotherapy dates to 1942 with use of nitrogen mustard -1970's - cancer centers throughout USA Four Major Classifications: 1.Cytotoxic agents- kill cells directly 2. Hormones and hormone antagonists 3. Biological response modifiers- immunomodulators 4. Targeted drugs- bind to specific molecules (target) that promote cancer growth
pi bonds
-form when orbitals overlap such that there are 2 parallel e- densities -no rotation
Oxymercuration-Demercuration
1) Hg(OAc)2, H2O 2) NaBH4 A reaction in which an alkene is reacted with a Hg2+ salt and an oxygen nucleophile (water or an alcohol), to form an organomercury intermediate. ... The overall reaction is electrophilic addition of water to the alkene following Markovnikov's rule.
1,2 addition
An addition in which two atoms or groups add to adjacent atoms.
Modern atomic Theory
1. all matter is composed of atoms 2. atoms of any one element differ in properties from atoms of another element remain unchanged
lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
enzyme
A biochemical catalyst made of protein that increases the rates of biochemical reactions. (15.8)
Sublimation
A change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming liquid
functional group
A characteristic atom or group of atoms that imparts certain chemical properties to an organic compound. (22.8)
deterministic
A characteristic of the classical laws of motion, which imply that present circumstances determine future events. (3.4)
Polyatomic
A charged group of covalently bonded atoms
ionic bond
A chemical bond formed between two oppositely charged ions, generally a metallic cation and a nonmetallic anion, that are attracted to one another by electrostatic forces. (5.2)
ionic compound
A compound composed of cations and anions bound together by electrostatic attraction. (5.2)
molecular compound
A compound composed of two or more covalently bonded nonmetals. (5.2)
Ionic comound
A compound that consists of positive and negative ions
binary compound
A compound that contains only two different elements. (5.6)
Hydrate
A compound that has a specific number of water molecules bound to its atoms
Meso compound
A compound with chirality centers and an internal plane of symmetry causing it to be an achiral molecule
rate constant (k)
A constant of proportionality in the rate law. (15.4)
polar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis - the formation of ether (usually, acetal) bridge.
hydroxyl group
A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.
Prostaglandins
A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more.
Coefficient
A number in front of a chemical formula in an equation that indicates how many molecules or atoms of each reactant and product are involved in a reaction.
even number
A number that is divisible by 2.
chemical symbol
A one- or two-letter abbreviation for an element that is listed directly below its atomic number on the periodic table. (1.8)
lone pair
A pair of electrons associated with only one atom. (5.7)
bonding pair
A pair of electrons shared between two atoms. (5.7)
hybridization
A mathematical procedure in which standard atomic orbitals are combined to form new, hybrid orbitals. (7.3)
formula
A mathematical relationship or rule expressed in symbols.
amine
A member of a family of organic compounds containing nitrogen that are derived from ammonia with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl groups. (22.3)
homogeneous mixture
A mixture with the same composition throughout. (1.3)
quantum-mechanical model
A model that explains the behavior of absolutely small particles such as electrons and photons. (3.1)
quantum-mechanical model
A model that explains the behavior of absolutely small particles such as electrons and photons. (3.1)
structural formula
A molecular formula that shows how the atoms in a molecule are connected or bonded to each other. (5.3, 22.3)
pi molecular orbital
A molecular orbital that concentrates the electron density on opposite sides of an imaginary line that passes through the nuclei.
trigonal planar geometry
A molecular shape in which a central atom is surrounded by 3 bonds, each of which is 120 degrees apart from the others
Biomass-derives hydroxyesters
A molecule bearing a hydroxyl group bonded to β-carbon of an ester.
diatomic
A molecule consisting of two atoms of the same element
β-hydroxy aldehyde
A molecule containing a hydroxyl group bonded to the beta carbon of an aldehyde.
organic molecule
A molecule containing carbon combined with several other elements including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. (22.1)
Lewis adduct
A molecule formed by the bonding of a Lewis acid with a Lewis base, without simultaneous loss of a leaving group. (In other words the Lewis acid-Lewis base reaction cannot be a substitution reaction.)
trisubstituted Benzenes
A molecule or functional group in which three hydrogen atoms have been replaced by another atom or group. These substituents are not limited to methyl groups as shown here. When considering alkene stability, only carbon substituents matter (i.e., -CH3 or -Ph matter but -Br or -OCH3 do not).
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one.
achiral
A molecule that either does not contain a chiral center or contains chiral centers and a plane of symmetry; as such, it has a superimposable mirror image.
Polar molecule
A molecule that has electrically charged areas.
renewable resource
A natural resource that can be replaced at the same rate at which the resource is consumed
anion
A negatively charged ion. (1.8)
electron
A negatively charged, low-mass particle found outside the nucleus of all atoms that occupies most of the atom's volume but contributes almost none of its mass. (1.6)
grid
A network of lines that cross each other to form a series of squares or rectangles.
innovations
A new method, idea, or product
line notation
A notation method describes the anode and cathode of a battery. anode|electrolyte||electrolyte|cathode -make arrow from anode to cathode to show e- transfer -one | is phase boundary (solid vs solution) -two | (||) is physical boundary (two different beakers)
electron configuration
A notation that shows the particular orbitals that are occupied by electrons in an atom. (4.3)
Alpha decay
A nuclear reaction in which an atom emits an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons. This increases the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4.
exponential factor
A number between zero and one that represents the fraction of molecules that have enough energy to make it over the activation barrier on a given approach. (15.6)
Positron Emission
A radioactive decay process in which a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron and a positron and then the positron is emitted from the nucleus
Combustion
A rapid reaction between oxygen and fuel that results in fire
Michael addition
A reaction in which a carbanion attacks an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl.
Addition reaction
A reaction in which a reactant is added to an unsaturated molecule to make a saturated molecule
addition reaction
A reaction in which a reactant is added to an unsaturated molecule to make a saturated molecule
Electrophilic aromatic substitution
A reaction in which an electrophile is substituted for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring.
Electrophilic aromatic substitution.
A reaction in which an electrophile is substituted for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring.
electrophilic aromatic substitution
A reaction in which an electrophile is substituted for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring.
radical reaction
A reaction in which bonds are made by donation of one electron from each of two reactants and in which bonds are broken when each fragment leaves with one electron
heterogeneous catalysis
A reaction in which the catalyst has a different physical state from the reactants; frequently, reactants are gases whilst the catalyst is a solid.
elimination reaction
A reaction in which two molecules join together while eliminating a small molecule such as water. (22.9)
condensation reaction
A reaction in which two or more organic compounds are joined, often with the loss of water or some other small molecule. (22.11)
1,4 addition
A reaction involving the addition of two groups to a conjugated pi system in which one group is installed at the C1 position and the other group is installed at the C4 position.
Regioselective
A reaction that can produce two or more constitutional isomers but nevertheless produces one as the major product.
Aromatic Nitration
A reaction that forms nitrated benzene compounds by the addition of nitronium ion (NO2) in the presence of acid
Carbene
A reactive species having a C with only two bonds and an unshared pair of electrons.
integrated rate law
A relationship between the concentrations of the reactants in a chemical reaction and time. (15.5)
rate law
A relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of the reactants. (15.4)
space-filling molecular model
A representation of a molecule that shows how the atoms fill the space between them. (5.3)
ball-and-stick molecular model
A representation of the arrangement of atoms in a molecule that shows how the atoms are bonded to each other and the overall shape of the molecule. (5.3)
Enolate ion
A resonance-stabilized anion resulting from the deprotonation of a carbon atom adjacent to a carbonyl functional group.
optically active.
A sample which rotates the plane of plane polarised light _ give rise to optical rotation
lobe
A section of orbital bordered by one or more orbital nodes. -The π orbital of ethylene has two orbital ---- (one shown in the red and the other in blue), and one orbital node (the plane which contains the atoms).
reaction mechanism
A series of individual chemical steps by which an overall chemical reaction occurs. (15.7)
Radioactive Decay series
A series of nuclear reactions that starts with an unstable nucleus and results in the formation of a stable nucleus
Homologous series
A series of organic compounds with the same functional group but with each successive member differing by CH2
atomic radius
A set of average bonding radii determined from measurements on a large number of elements and compounds. (4.6)
PROTOCOL
A set of rules governing the exchange or transmission of data between devices.
protocol
A set of rules governing the exchange or transmission of data between devices.
milestone
A significant point or event in a project, program, or portfolio.
Lewis model
A simple model of chemical bonding, which uses diagrams to represent bonds between atoms as lines or pairs of dots. In this model, atoms bond together to obtain stable octets (eight valence electrons). (5.4)
collision
A situation in which two objects in close contact exchange energy and momentum
pyranose
A six-membered ring sugar One of two stable cyclic molecules
John Dalton
English chemist and physicist who formulated atomic theory and the law of partial pressures
fiber
A tough complex carbohydrate that the body cannot digest
common name
A traditional name of a compound that gives little or no information about its chemical structure; for example, the common name of NaHCO3 is "baking soda." (5.6)
Electrophilic Addition
A type of addition reaction in which an electrophile is attracted to an electron-rich centre or atom, where it accepts a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.
Helicobacter pylori
A type of bacterium that causes inflammation and ulcers in the stomach or small intestine.
Voltaic cell (galvanic cell)
A type of electrochemical cell that uses chemical reactions (chemical energy) to produce electrical energy (electricity) - generating electricity from spontaneous chemical reactions
Cholesterol
A type of fat made by the body from saturated fat; a minor part of fat in foods.
thermal energy
A type of kinetic energy associated with the temperature of an object, arising from the motion of individual atoms or molecules in the object; see also heat. (2.4, 10.2)
waxes
A type of lipid molecule consisting of one fatty acid linked to an alcohol; functions as a waterproof coating on many biological surfaces such as apples and other fruits.
addition reaction
A type of organic reaction in which two substituents are added across a double bond. (22.6)
anti conformation
A type of staggered conformation in which the two largest groups are antiperiplanar to each other; the most energetically favorable conformation
Nucleophilic substitution
A type of substitution reaction in which a nucleophile is attracted to an electron-deficient centre or atom, where it donates a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.
performance-enhancing drugs
A type of unlawful drug that can help to improve sporting performance
the order of reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives
Amide < Ester < Acid anhydride < Acid halide
strong acid
An acid that completely ionizes in solution. (9.4, 17.3)
polyprotic acid
An acid that contains more than one ionizable proton and releases them sequentially. (9.7, 17.10)
monoprotic acid
An acid that contains only one ionizable proton. (17.5)
diprotic acid
An acid that contains two ionizable protons. (9.7, 17.5)
weak acid
An acid that does not completely ionize in water. (9.4, 17.3)
acylium ion
An acyl group fragment with a positive charge
Aldol Condensation Reaction
An addition reaction between two aldehydes, two ketones, or an aldehyde and a ketone, resulting in a β-hydroxy aldehyde or a β-hydroxy ketone. Subsequent dehydration produces an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. The addition step without subsequent dehydration is an aldol reaction. Both the aldol and dehydration steps may be promoted by base or acid.
molecular orbital theory
An advanced model of chemical bonding in which electrons reside in molecular orbitals delocalized over the entire molecule. In the simplest version, the molecular orbitals are simply linear combinations of atomic orbitals. (7.4)
valence bond theory
An advanced model of chemical bonding in which electrons reside in quantum-mechanical orbitals localized on individual atoms that are a hybridized blend of standard atomic orbitals; chemical bonds result from an overlap of these orbitals. (7.2)
Alkyl Halide
An alkane in which one of the hydrogens has been replaced by a halogen.
aromatic
An aromatic molecule or compound is one that has special stability and properties due to a closed loop of electrons. Not all molecules with ring (loop) structures are aromatic
nucleophile
An atom (or group of atoms) that is attracted to an electron- deficient centre or atom, where it donates a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.
nucleophile
An atom (or group of atoms) that is attracted to an electron- deficient centre or atom, where it donates a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond. - refer to a basic atom when it attacks an atom other than hydrogen
electrophile
An atom (or group of atoms) that is attracted to an electron-rich centre or atom, where it accepts a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.
ion
An atom or molecule with a net charge caused by the loss or gain of electrons. (1.8)
Lewis acid
An atom, ion, or molecule that is an electron pair acceptor. (15.11)
Lewis base
An atom, ion, or molecule that is an electron pair donor. (15.11)
Pauli Exclusion Principle
An atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction
Chemical bonds
An attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
optical rotation
An effect that occurs when polarized light passes through a solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer.
IOn charge
An electric charge that forms on an atom when it gains or loses electrons
neutron
An electrically neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom, with a mass almost equal to that of a proton. (1.7)
mass percent composition (mass percent)
An element's percentage of the total mass of a compound containing the element. (5.10)
bimolecular
An elementary step in a reaction that involves two particles, either the same species or different, that collide and go on to form products. (15.7)
dextrorotatory (dexter, Latin, right),
An enantiomer that rotates the plane of light in a clockwise sense as the viewer faces the light source - and the compound is (arbitrarily) referred to as the (+) enantiomer.
activation energy
An energy barrier in a chemical reaction that must be overcome for the reactants to be converted into products. (15.6)
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
An energy unit used primarily to express large amounts of energy produced by the flow of electricity; equal to 3.60 * 106 J. (2.4)
Born-Haber cycle
An enthalpy cycle that allows you to calculate the lattice enthalpy change of formation for system.
Leaving group
Atoms or groups that can dissociate from the parent chain to form a stable species after accepting electron pairs. Weak bases tend to be good leaving groups.
Bird Flu
Caused by the H1N1 virus (the one similar to humans) This will affect only birds.
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides - constitutes the framework of cellulose and starch
acid halide (acyl halides)
Carbonyl bound to halogen
Acyl Halides
Carboxylic acid where the OH is replaced with a halide. Most reactive of carboxylic acid derivatives. Synthesized using SOCl2 PCl3 PCl5
heterogeneous catalysis
Catalysis in which the catalyst and the reactants exist in different phases. (15.8)
homogeneous catalysis
Catalysis in which the catalyst exists in the same phase as the reactants. (15.8)
Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things
Delocalized pi system
Conjugation occurs when one or more electrons can be delocalized over an adjacent π-system. Three center - three electron systems that are stabilized in this fashion are the allylic radicals, allylic anions, and the allylic cations.
Benzene
Consists of a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double carbon-carbon bonds.
microwaves
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths slightly longer than those of infrared radiation; used for radar and in microwave ovens. (3.2)
Gamma ray
Electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies
inductive effect
Electron donation or withdrawal (the shifting of electrons) through the sigma bonds of a molecule in response to the electronegativity of nearby atoms. - metals inducetively donate e- - nonmetal inductively withdraw e-
inductive effect
Electron donation or withdrawal through the sigma bonds of a molecule.
inductive effect.
Electron donation or withdrawal through the sigma bonds of a molecule.
Lewis structures
Electron dot descriptions of molecules; (1-4, 5)
EAS
Electrophilic aromatic substitution
metal
Elements that are good conductors of heat and electric current.
altitude
Elevation above sea level
First law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Ring strain
Energy created in a cyclic molecule by angle strain, torsional strain, and nonbonded strain; determines whether a ring is stable enough to stay intact.
Successive Ionization energy
Energy required to remove a second, third, fourth (etc.) electron from an atom
Nuclear power
Energy that is harnessed from reactions among radioactive isotopes - using fission to generate electricity
radiation
Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles.
ionic bond
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
S bonds
From end-to-end orbital overlap; P bonds: From side-by-side orbital overlap (1-8)
Condensation
Gas to liquid
gastric pits
Gastric glands that release secretions into the stomach
embodied
Gave form to; made concrete
Thermodynamics:
Govern equilibria; DG8 5 2RT ln K 5 21.36 log K (at 258C) (2-1)
organometallic reagents
Grignard Reagent Formation: -Ch3Br+Mg=CH3MgBr -RMgX (X=Br,Cl).H3O+ -act as carbocations, therefore they are strongly nucleophilic and basic (avoid acidic protons)
Grignard reagents
Grignard reagents are extremely good nucleophiles and strong bases. They react with many electrophiles containing a C=O (carbonyl) group such as aldehydes, ketones, esters, and carbon dioxide, as well as epoxides. Organomagnesium compounds, RMgX,
Planarity
Having the quality of a flat plane
James Joule (1818-1889)
He developed the modern concept of heat in the cellar of his home near Manchester, England, during the decade following 1840.
Alkanes
Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds
Alkenes
Hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds
orientation factor
In collision theory, a variable that is a measure of how specific the orientation of the colliding molecules must be. A large----- (near 1) indicates that the colliding molecules can have virtually any orientation and the reaction will still occur. A small ----- indicates that the colliding molecules must have a highly specific orientation for the reaction to occur. (15.6)
Meta directors
In electrophilic aromatic substitution, a substituent that favors electrophilic attack meta to the substituent. - Most ------- are also deactivators. Bromination of nitrobenzene gives meta-bromonitrobenzene as the major product because the nitro group is a ---------
Ortho/para director
In electrophilic aromatic substitution, a substituent that favors electrophilic attack ortho or para to the substituent. Most ortho/para directors are also activators, except for the halogens, which are deactivators.
collision frequency
In the gas phase, the number of collisions that occur per unit time between gaseous particles. (15.6)
NMR Resonance
In the resonance condition, a proton in the lower-energy +½ spin state (aligned with B0) will transition (flip) to the higher energy -½ spin state (opposed to B0).
Atomic Mass
Number of protons and neutrons - the average mass of an element's atoms
exact numbers
Numbers that have no uncertainty and thus do not limit the number of significant figures in any calculation. (1.7)
Oxidative Cleavage
O3 and Zn (weak oxidizer) cleaves double bond to produce 2 carboyl carbons attached to the R groups R R R R \ / \ / C===C --> C=O O=C / \ / \ R R R R O3 and H2O2 (strong oxidizer) creates carboxylic acids (higher oxidation state) Aldehyde to carboxylic acid
hydroxide
OH charge -1
hydroxy
OH-
CHAP 22
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
amendments
Official changes, corrections, or additions to the Constitution
antibonding molecular orbital.
On the other hand, out-of-phase overlap between the same two atomic orbitals results in a destabilizing interaction and formation of an------ - the amplitude of the wave function is canceled in the space between the two atoms, thereby giving rise to a node
molecular element
One of a group of elements that exist in nature with diatomic or polyatomic molecules as their basic unit. (3.4)
van der Waals radius (nonbonding atomic radius)
One-half the distance between the centers of adjacent, nonbonding atoms in a crystal. (4.6)
Coulomb's* law
Opposite charges attract each other with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of the charges.
hybrid orbitals
Orbitals that form from the combination of standard atomic orbitals and that correspond more closely to the actual distribution of electrons in a chemically bonded atom. (7.3) - is a product of mixing two or more standard atomic orbitals
malic acid
Organic acid that is used to store carbon dioxide during the night and is released during the day to allow photosynthesis when the stomata are closed
Amides
Organic compounds whose molecules have a carbonyl nitrogen bond. They are the product formed in a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an amine.
Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation
Oxidizes ketone to ester mcPBA (peroxyacid) /Ch2Cl2 Carboxylic acid is a side product
energy
The capacity to do work. (2.4, 10.2)
kilogram (kg)
The SI standard unit of mass defined as the mass of a block of metal kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. (1.6)
substainability
The ability to provide for the needs of the world's current population without damaging the ability of future generations to provide for themselves.
sugar-phosphate backbone
The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached
energy splitting
The amount of energy by which the bonding level drops and the anti bonding level is raised
intensity
The amount of energy per second carried through a unit area by a wave.
Ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
calorie (cal)
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C; also the amount of heat energy that 1 g of water releases when it cools by 1°C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie.
bond angle
The angle formed by two bonds to the same atom, tells which way these atoms point
atomic mass (atomic weight)
The average mass in amu of the atoms of a particular element based on the relative abundance of the various isotopes; it is numerically equivalent to the mass in grams of one mole of the element. (1.9)
Diffraction
The bending of a wave as it moves around an obstacle or passes through a narrow opening
Sigma bond (σ bond)
The bond that forms between a combination of any two s, p, or hybridized orbitals that overlap end to end. (7.3)
triple bond
The bond that forms when three electron pairs are shared between two atoms. (5.7)
double bond
The bond that forms when two electrons are shared between two atoms. (5.7)
heterolytic cleavage
The breaking of a bond in such a way that one of the atoms retains both of the bond's electrons, forming two ions.
quanta
The bundle of electromagnetic energy that is absorbed or emitted by matter
Stoichiometry
The calculation of quantities in chemical reactions
hydrogenation
The catalyzed addition of hydrogen to alkene double bonds to make single bonds. (15.8)
Brønsted-Lowry definitions (of acids and bases)
The definitions of an acid as a proton (H+ ion) donor and a base as a proton acceptor. (17.3)
Arrhenius definitions (of acids and bases)
The definitions of an acid as a substance that produces H+ ions in aqueous solution and a base as a substance that produces OH- ions in aqueous solution. (9.7, 17.3)
Cell potential
The difference in potential energy between the anode and the cathode in a voltaic cell
wavelength
The distance between adjacent crests of a wave. (3.2)
bond length
The distance between the two nuclei at this point when the atoms reach a certain closeness, no more energy is released
Shielding
The effect on an electron of repulsion by electrons in lower-energy orbitals that screen it from the full effects of nuclear charge. (4.3)
shielding
The effect on an electron of repulsion by electrons in lower-energy orbitals that screen it from the full effects of nuclear charge. (4.3)
Induction
The effect on electron density in one portion of a molecule due to electron-withdrawing or electron-donating groups elsewhere in the molecule
Inductive effect
The effect on electron density in one portion of a molecule due to electron-withdrawing or electron-donating groups elsewhere in the molecule. - withdrawal or donation of electrons through a sigma bond
Anode
The electrode in an electrochemical cell where oxidation occurs; electrons flow away from the anode. (20.3)
cathode
The electrode in an electrochemical cell where reduction occurs; electrons flow toward the cathode. (20.3)
valence electrons
The electrons that are important in chemical bonding. For main-group elements, the valence electrons are those in the outermost principal energy level. (4.4)
Diazo Coupling Reactions
The electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction of a diazonium cation with another aromatic ring to form a diazo compound.
radioactivity
The emission of subatomic particles or high-energy electromagnetic radiation by the unstable nuclei of certain atoms. (1.7, 21.1)
base ionization constant (Kb)
The equilibrium constant for the ionization reaction of a weak base; used to compare the relative strengths of weak bases. (17.8)
van der Waals equation
The extrapolation of the ideal gas law that considers the effects of intermolecular forces and particle volume in a nonideal gas; P + a*(n/V)^2 x (V - nb) = nRT. (5.9)
penetration
The phenomenon of some higher-level atomic orbitals having significant amounts of probability within the space occupied by orbitals of lower energy level. For example, the 2s orbital penetrates into the 1s orbital. (4.3)
penetration
The phenomenon of some higher-level atomic orbitals having significant amounts of probability within the space occupied by orbitals of lower energy level. For example, the 2s orbital penetrates into the 1s orbital. (4.3)
saliva
The fluid released when the mouth waters that plays an important role in both mechanical and chemical digestion
electrostatic force
The force between electrically charged objects (like charges repel and opposite charges attract each other).
electrostatic force
The force between electrically charged particles (protons and electrons) that compose atom and molecule
exhaust gases
The force that accelerates a rocket in outer space is exerted on the rocket by the
radio waves
The form of electromagnetic radiation with the longest wavelengths and smallest energy. (3.2)
gamma ray emission
The form of radioactive decay that occurs when an unstable nucleus emits extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. (3.2, 21.3)
spin quantum number (ms)
The fourth quantum number, which denotes the electron's spin as either 1/2 (up arrow) or -1/2 (down arrow). (3.5)
resonant frequency
The frequency that is most strongly enhanced by resonance. The resonance frequency of a closed tube is determined by the length of the tube.
principal level (shell)
The group of orbitals with the same value of n. (3.5)
Enthalpy
The heat content of a system at constant pressure The heat evolved in a chemical reaction at constant pressure
mucosa
The innermost layer of the human digestive tract; in some parts of the digestive system, it contains mucus-secreting cells and glands that secrete digestive enzymes
Hyper-conjugate
The interaction of an unoccupied or partially filled p orbital, π molecular orbital, or π* molecular orbital with an adjacent sigma bond. The sigma bond is usually a C-C or C-H bond. Explains how increasing degree of substitution stabilizes carbocations and radicals.
constructive interference
The interaction of waves from two sources that align with overlapping crests, resulting in a wave of greater amplitude. (3.2)
destructive interference
The interaction of waves from two sources that are aligned so that the crest of one overlaps the trough of the other, resulting in cancellation. (3.2)
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
The principle stating that due to the wave-particle duality, it is fundamentally impossible to precisely determine both the position and velocity of a particle at a given moment in time. (3.4)
Hund's rule
The principle stating that when electrons fill degenerate orbitals, they first fill them singly with parallel spins. (4.3)
troposphere
The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere; which extends to about 15 km in altitude, is the region where weather occurs
molar mass
The mass in grams of one mole of atoms of an element; numerically equivalent to the atomic mass of the element in amu. (2.8)
wave function (psi)
The mathematical function that describes the wavelike nature of the electron. (3.5)
observed optical rotation
The measured rotation (in degrees)of the sample - alpha . Its value depends on the concentration and structure of the optically active molecule, the length of the sample cell, the wavelength of the light, the solvent, and the temperature.
stoichiometric coefficient
The multiplying numbers assigned to the species in a chemical equation in order to balance the equation
Halogen reactions
The name "------" means "salt-producing". When ------react with metals, they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride (common table salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide
frequency factor (A)
The number of times that reactants approach the activation energy per unit time. (15.6
Formal charge
The number of valence electrons in an isolated atom minus the number of electrons assigned to the atom in the Lewis structure
formal charge
The number of valence electrons in an isolated atom minus the number of electrons assigned to the atom in the Lewis structure
photoelectric effect
The observation that many metals emit electrons when light falls upon the metal. (3.2)
de Broglie relation
The observation that the wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum - lamda = h/mv. (3.4)
electromagnetic spectrum
The range of the wavelengths of all possible electromagnetic radiation. (3.2)
emission spectrum
The range of wavelengths emitted by a particular element; used to identify the element. (3.3)
Mutarotation
The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar
Mutarotation (mutare, Latin, to change).
The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar - The change in optical rotation observed when a sugar equilibrates with its anomer
mutarotation
The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar - The measured optical rotation in whicm between equilibrium between anomers in solution give rises to change
Density
The ratio of an object's mass to its volume. (2.3)
density (d)
The ratio of an object's mass to its volume. (2.3)
Mole fraction
The ratio of the moles of solute in solution to the total number of moles of both solvent and solute
Limiting Reactants
The reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product that can be formed. In an equation, one reactant will be in excess and one will be the limiting reactant. This is calculated using moles.
Esterification
The reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid to produce an ester and water.
Spectral characteristics
The relation between wavelength and some other variable, such as between wavelength and emitted radiant power of a luminescent screen per unit wavelength interval.
natural abundance
The relative percentage of a particular isotope in a naturally occurring sample with respect to other isotopes of the same element. (1.8)
deprotonation
The removal of a hydrogen cation (H+) from a molecule
Elimination reaction
The removal of a molecule from a saturated molecule to make an unsaturated molecule
Enol
The resonance form of a carbonyl that has a carbon-carbon double bond (ene) and an alcohol (-ol)
work (w)
The result of a force acting through a distance. (2.4, 10.2)
bond strength
The resulting decrease in energy -> attractive force causes energy to be released as the neutral atoms are brought together.
chemical bond
The sharing or transfer of electrons to attain stable electron configurations for the bonding atoms. (5.2)
rate determining step
The slowest step in the reaction mechanism of a multi-step reaction.
photon (quantum)
The smallest possible packet of electromagnetic radiation with an energy equal to hv. (3.2)
formula unit
The smallest, electrically neutral collection of ions in an ionic compound. (5.5)
active site
The specific area of an enzyme at which catalysis occurs. (15.8)
paramagnetic
The state of an atom or ion that contains unpaired electrons and is, therefore, attracted by an external magnetic field. (4.7)
gas
The state of matter in which atoms or molecules have a great deal of space between them and are free to move relative to one another; lacking a definite shape or volume, a gas conforms to the shape and volume of its container. (1.2)
liquid
The state of matter in which atoms or molecules pack about as closely as they do in solid matter but are free to move relative to each other, resulting in a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. (1.2)
rate-determining step
The step in a reaction mechanism that occurs more slowly than any of the other steps. (15.7)
organic chemistry
The study of carbon-based compounds. (22.1)
Thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.
Spectroscopy
The study of the properties of light that depend on wavelength. - a technique for analyzing the structure of molecules, based on hoe they absorb electromagnetic radiation
reaction kinetics
The study of the relationship between a chemical reaction and its rate
Halogenation
The substitution of Hydrogen with one or more Halogens (Group VIIA elements).
Reaction order
The sum of the exponents in a rate law, where each exponent provides the reaction order with respect to its reactant.
Molecular mass
The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule; sometimes called molecular weight.
empirical formula molar mass
The sum of the masses of all the atoms in an empirical formula. (5.11)
mass number (A)
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. (1.8)
interference
The superposition of two or more waves overlapping in space, resulting in either an increase in amplitude (constructive interference) or a decrease in amplitude (destructive interference). (3.2)
metric system
The system of measurements used in most countries in which the meter is the unit of length, the kilogram is the unit of mass, and the second is the unit of time. (1.3)
English system
The system of units used in the United States and various other countries in which the inch is the unit of length, the pound is the unit of force, and the ounce is the unit of mass. (1.3)
Celsius (°C) scale
The temperature scale most often used by scientists (and by most countries other than the United States), on which pure water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C (at atmospheric pressure). (Appendix I)
atomic theory
The theory that each element is composed of tiny indestructible particles called atoms, that all atoms of a given element have the same mass and other properties, and that atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds. (1.3, 1.5)
nuclear theory
The theory that most of the atom's mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small, dense nucleus. (1.7)
Alkylation
The transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another
dimensional analysis
The use of units as a guide to solving problems. (2.5)
Molecular Velocities
The velocity of an individual molecule in a given sample of gas; the vector quantity is symbolizedu, and the magnitude is symbolized u.
amplitude
The vertical height of a crest (or depth of a trough) of a wave; a measure of wave intensity. (3.2)
nucleus
The very small, dense core of the atom that contains most of the atom's mass and all of its positive charge; the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. (1.7)
core electrons
Those electrons in a complete principal energy level and those in complete d and f sublevels. (4.4)
core electrons
Those electrons in a complete principal energy level and those in complete d and f sublevels. (4.4) - are the electrons in an atom that are not valence electrons and do not participate in chemical bonding.
Covalent Bond
a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Infrared Spectroscopy
Used to determine chemical structure because different bonds will absorb different wavelengths of light.
VSEPR Theory
Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory; because electron pairs repel, molecules adjust their shapes so that valence electron pairs are as far apart as possible
Covalent Bonding
a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
WHIP
What is the problem asking? H ow to begin? I nformation needed? P roceed step by step, without skipping any steps.
Mass Spectroscopy
What type of spectroscopy can determine the molecular weight of a compound?
Markovnikov's rule
When adding to an alkene, put the H on the C with the most H's already. ("The rich get richer")
Acylation
When an acyl group (-COR) is added to a molecule
Planar Arrangement
When the electron pairs are in the same plane as the nucleus
Radical Allylic Halogenation
When you have an alkene in the presence of a halogen you can add a halogen to the compound at the allylic position instead of adding it on the double bond. It undergoes a radical chain mechanism (Initiation, propagation, termination)
phase
With regard to waves and orbitals, the sign of the amplitude of the wave, which can be positive or negative. (3.6)
Deactivating groups
Withdraw electrons from the ring, destabilizing the carbonation intermediate
Resonance effect
Withdrawal or donation of electrons through a pi bond due to the overlap of a p orbital on the substituent with a p orbital on the aromatic ring
resonance effect
Withdrawal or donation of electrons through a pi bond due to the overlap of a p orbital on the substituent with a p orbital on the aromatic ring
Dry-cell battery
a battery that uses dry chemicals to produce an electric current
Lead-acid storage battery
a battery that uses the oxidation of lead and the reduction of lead (IV) oxide in sulfuric acid to provide electrical current
Methoxide
a binary compound of methoxyl especially : a base formed from methanol by replacement of the hydroxyl hydrogen with a metal sodium methoxide NaOCH3.
Schrodinger's Cat
a cat imagined as being enclosed in a box with a radioactive source and a poison that will be released when the source (unpredictably) emits radiation, the cat being considered (according to quantum mechanics) to be simultaneously both dead and alive until the box is opened and the cat observed.
Fertilizer
a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility
rate constant
a constant of proportionality between the reaction rate and the concentrations of reactants that appear in the rate law
rate constant
a constant of proportionality between the reaction rate and the concentrations of reactants that appear in the rate law = the rate of the reaction at 1 molar conc. of 2 reactants, A and B
Batteries
a container consisting of one or more cells, in which chemical energy is converted into electricity and used as a source of power.
Molecular Gastronomy
a contemporary scientific movement that investigates the chemistry and physics behind the preparation of foods and dishes
Epoxidation
a conversion of a usually unsaturated compound into an epoxide.
nonpolar covalent bond
a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms
pi bonding
a covalent bond where two lobes of one involved atomic orbital overlap two lobes of the other involved atomic orbital. These orbitals share a nodal plane which passes through both of the involved nuclei
glycoside
a cyclic acetal formed by reaction of a monosaccharide with an alcohol, accompanied by loss of H2O
vinyl halide
a derivative of an alkene in which one (or more) of the hydrogen atoms on the double-bonded carbon atoms has been replaced by a halogen
Cell (electricity)
a device that produces an electric current by converting chemical or radiant energy into electrical energy
Phase
a distinct period or stage in a series of events or a process of change or development.
Real gas
a gas that does not behave completely according to the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory
Decompression
a gradual reduction of air pressure on a person who has been experiencing high pressure while diving, in order to prevent decompression sickness.
Phase Diagram
a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor
dozen
a group of twelve
TNT
a high explosive formed from toluene by substitution of nitro groups for three hydrogen atoms. It is relatively insensitive to shock and can be conveniently melted.
transition state
a high-energy intermediate state of the reactants during a chemical reaction that must be achieved for the reaction to proceed
Beta particle
a high-speed electron with a 1- charge that is emitted during radioactive decay
row
a horizontal group of cells in a worksheet identified by numbers
Polyenes
a hydrocarbon with several carbon-carbon double bonds, especially one having a chain of alternating single and double bonds.
Diene
a hydrocarbon with two double bonds - electron donors
refrigerant
a material used to cool an area or an object to a temperature that is lower than the temperature of the environment
wave function
a mathematical function that describes the wavelike nature of the electron
Mole percent
a means of expressing solution concentration as the mole fraction multiplied by 100%
magnetic moment
a measure of an object's tendency to align with a magnetic field
Bond polarity
a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any covalent bond are shared
bond polarity
a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any covalent bond are shared
entropy change
a measure of the degree of energy dispersal in the system
Standard molar entropies
a measure of the energy dispersed into one mole of a substance at a particular temperature
Titration
a measured amount of a solution of unknown concentration is added to a known volume of a second solution until the reaction between them is just complete
Metric
a measuring system that quantifies a trend, dynamic, or characteristic
Silicate
a member of the mineral group that has silicon and oxygen in its crystal structure
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
combustion analysis
a method of obtaining empirical formulas for unknown compounds, especially those containing carbon and hydrogen, by burning a sample of the compound in pure oxygen and analyzing the products of the combustion reaction
Chlorination
a method of purifying water by mixing it with the chemical chlorine
particle
a minute portion of matter
Collision model
a model based on the idea that molecules must collide to react; used to account for the observed characteristics of reaction rates
Crystal field theory
a model of the electronic structure of transition-metal complexes that considers how the energies of the d orbitals of a metal ion are affected by the electric field of the ligands
Bronsted-Lowry Base
a molecule or ion that is a proton acceptor
Monomer
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
chiral
a molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image
orifice
a mouth or vent; an opening
boat conformation
a nonplanar conformation of a cyclohexane ring in which carbons 1 and 4 of the ring are bent toward each other
twist boat conformation
a nonplanar conformation of a cyclohexane ring that is twisted from and slightly more stable than a boat conformation
Nuclear fusion
a nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of energy. - the power of the sun
Atomic bomb
a nuclear weapon in which enormous energy is released by nuclear fission (splitting the nuclei of a heavy element like uranium 235 or plutonium 239)
arcs
a part of the circumference of a circle or other curve.
Positron
a particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge
wild card
a playing card that does not have any particular value but that can be used to represent any other card:
Oxyanion
a polyatomic ion that contains oxygen
hexagon
a polygon with 6 sides
petagon
a polygon with five sides
cation
a positively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis.
Resveratrol
a potent phenolic antioxidant found in red wine as well as grapes and nuts
Emeralds
a precious stone that is colored green
Selective precipitation
a process involving the addition of a reagent to a solution that forms a precipitate with one of the dissolved ions but not the others
oxidation
a process that adds electronegative atoms such as halogen or oxygen to, or removes hydrogen forms
Dipole Moment
a property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be represented by a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge
continuum
a range with no clear divisions
petroleum coke
a residue of pyrolysis
optical rotation
a rotation of the plane of polarization that results from the interaction - If a beam of plane-polarized light is passed through a chiral substance, the electric fi eld interacts differently with, say, the "left" and "right" halves of the molecule.
resonance structure
a structure that occurs when it is possible to draw two or more valid electron dot structures that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion
Naproxen
a synthetic compound used as an anti-inflammatory drug, especially in the treatment of headache and arthritis.
Aspirin
a synthetic compound used medicinally to relieve mild or chronic pain and to reduce fever and inflammation.
Ibuprofen
a synthetic compound used widely as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug.
radar
a system that uses reflected radio waves to detect objects and measure their distance and speed
Physical test
a test designed to ensure that applicants are capable of performing on the job in ways defined by the job specification and description
Atomic Theory
a theory that states that all matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
Chloral
a thin, oily, colorless liquid, CClCHO, with a pungent odor, prepared by the action of chlorine on alcohol: used in the manufacture of DDT
Rubber
a tough elastic polymeric substance made from the latex of a tropical plant or synthetically.
Fibers
a tough, lightweight, elastic synthetic polymer with a protein-like chemical structure, able to be produced as filaments, sheets, or molded objects.
sp hybridization
a type of bonding where the 2s orbital mixes with only one of the three p-orbitals resulting in two sp orbitals and two remaining unchanged p orbitals
Coordination compounds
a type of complex in which a metal atoms is surrounded by ligands
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
a unit of energy equal to the work done by a power of 1000 watts operating for one hour
Naphthalene
a volatile white crystalline compound produced by the distillation of coal tar, used in mothballs and as a raw material for chemical manufacture.
paddle wheel
a wheel with paddles around it, used to push a boat through the water
renewable
able to be created again
falsifiable
able to be disproven by experimental results
versatile
able to do many different things or to be used in many different ways
glucose
also known as dextrose, blood sugar, or grape sugar - Greek, = sweet - is a pentahydroxyhexanal and hence belongs to the class of aldohexose - occurs naturally in many fruits and plants and in conc ranging from 0.08 to 0.1% in human blood.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
also known as freons, are halogenated alkanes containing fluorine and chlorine
Male contraceptive
also known as male birth control, are methods of preventing pregnancy that solely involve the male physiology. The most common kinds of male contraception include condoms, outercourse, and vasectomy. In domestic animals, castration is commonly used for contraception.
Oxyacid
an acid that contains both a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom that is bonded to another element
binary acid
an acid that contains only two different elements: hydrogen and one of the more electronegative elements
oxyacid
an acid that is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element, usually a nonmetal
organic acids
an acid with a carbon-atom backbone; often contains the carboxyl group.
Cycloalkane
an alkane that is a ring or cyclic structure
Acetaminophen
an analgesic drug used to treat headaches, arthritis, etc., and also to reduce fever, often as an alternative to aspirin. Proprietary names include Tylenol.
Substituent
an atom or group of atoms that can take the place of a hydrogen atom on a parent hydrocarbon molecule
Suspect
doubtful
Complete ionic equation
an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions
Solubility product constant (Ksp)
an equilibrium constant applied to the solubility of electrolytes; it is equal to the product of the concentrations of the ions each raised to a power equal to the coefficient of the ion in the dissociation equation
Heterogeneous equilibria
an equilibrium involving reactants and/or products in more than one phase
Manifestation
an event, action, or object that clearly shows or embodies something, especially a theory or an abstract idea.
instance
an example
instance
an example or single occurrence of something
rate law
an expression for the rate of a reaction in terms of the concentration of reactants
Rate law
an expression relating the rate of a reaction to the concentration of the reactants
Integrated Rate Law
an expression that shows the concentration of a reactant as a function of time
electrolysis reaction
an oxidation-reduction reaction that requires the input of electrical energy
complication
an undesired problem that is the result of some other event
trans fatty acid
an unsaturated fatty acid in which the hydrogen atoms are on the opposite sides of the double bond
DNA fingerprinting
analysis of sections of DNA that have little or no known function, but vary widely from one individual to another, in order to identify individuals
heteroatom
any atom other than carbon or hydrogen in an organic molecule, such as Cl, O, N ...
steric effect
any effect on molecule or reaction due to the size of atoms or groups
Transuranium Elements
any elements in the periodic table with atomic number above 92, the atomic number of uranium
cancer
any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division
peroxide
any of a class of chemical compounds in which two oxygen atoms are linked together by a single covalent bond.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
any of a class of inert compounds of carbon, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, chlorine, and fluorine, used in place of chlorofluorocarbons as being somewhat less destructive to the ozone layer.
Ethers
any of a class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. ------are similar in structure to alcohols, and both ethers and alcohols are similar in structure to water.
sulfonic acid
any of numerous acids that contain the SO3H group and may be derived from sulfuric acid by replacement of a hydroxyl group by either an inorganic anion or a monovalent organic group
Quaternary amonium salts
any of numerous strong bases and their salts derived from ammonium by replacement of the hydrogen atoms with organic radicals and important especially as surface-active agents, disinfectants, and drugs. — called also quat, quaternary.
transition-metal compounds
any of various chemical elements that have valence electrons—i.e., electrons that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds—in two shells instead of only one.
limiting reagent
any reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction; it determines the amount of product that can be formed in the reaction
Interlude
anything filling the time between two events; interval; break; intermission
hybrid
anything of mixed origin
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
are a class of chemicals that occur naturally in coal, crude oil, and gasoline. ... PAHs generated from these sources can bind to or form small particles in the air. - any of a class of hydrocarbon molecules that have multiple carbon rings
Higher Alkane
are alkanes having nine or more carbon atoms. Nonane is the lightest alkane to have a flash point above 25 °C, and is not classified as dangerously flammable. The term -------- is sometimes used literally as "alkanes with a higher number of carbon atoms".
organometallic reagents
are compounds which contains carbon-metal bonds. For the purposes of the discussion that follows, the only compounds we will consider will be ones where M = Li or Mg. When M= Li, the organometallic reagent is called an organolithium reagent. When M = Mg, it is called a Grignard reagent. Grignard Reagent Formation: -Ch3Br+Mg=CH3MgBr -RMgX (X=Br,Cl).H3O+ -act as carbocations, therefore they are strongly nucleophilic and basic (avoid acidic protons)
Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reactions
are concerted, meaning they are a one step process. This means that the process whereby the nucleophile attacks and the leaving group leaves is simultaneous.
Alkyl sulfonates
are esters of alkane sulfonic acids with the general formula R-SO₂-O-R'. They act as alkylating agents, some of them are used as alkylating antineoplastic agents in the treatment of cancer, e.g. Busulfan
Di- and higher saccharides
are formed by the combination of hemiacetal and alcohol hydroxy groups of 2 sugars to give an acetal linkage
early transition stage
are frequently characteristic of fast, exothermic processes
Polycylic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
are hydrocarbons—organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple aromatic rings (organic rings in which the electrons are delocalized).
Juvenile hormone analogs
are known to disrupt insect development but the molecular mechanisms of their action have been studied only in a few model insects belonging to orders Diptera and Lepidoptera.
polyhydroxycarbonyl
are molecules with more than one hydroxyl group (−OH), and a carbonyl group (C=O) either at the terminal carbon atom (aldose) or at the second carbon atom (ketose) are called carbohydrates
radical
are reactive species containing odd number of electrons
Diamandoid
are variants of the carbon cage molecule known as adamantane, the smallest unit cage structure of the diamond crystal lattice.
Insect-borne diseases
are viral and bacterial illnesses from insect (bug) bites. The most common insects that pass on disease are mosquitoes, sand flies, ticks, and fleas. For example, mosquitoes are known for spreading the Zika virus, Yellow Fever, and Malaria.
Aromatic Substitution
aromatic compounds undergo substitution reactions,(instead of addition) in which an atom is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. Substitution of H by X keeps the stable aromatic ring intact.
arene
aromatic ring
electron's spin
around the nucleus
Cation
as weak acids
Anions
as weak bases
approriate
assign to a particular use
aid
assistance such as money or supplies
pi bond.
atomic orbitals are perpendicular to the internuclear axis - double and triple bonds ave -----h
out of phase (antibonding)
atomic orbitals may interact in a destructive way if the overlap is between areas of the wave function of the opposite sign - has a nodal plane where the probability of finding electrons is zero. -Electronsin this molecular orbitals are most likely to be found outside the space between the nuclei and therefore do not contribute to bonding.
in phase bonding
atomic orbitals may interact in a reinforcing way if the overlap is between areas of the wave function of the same sign, - electrons have a high probability of occupying the space between the atomic nuclei,
Unlike charges
attract each other
dispersion forces
attractions between molecules caused by the electron motion on one molecule affecting the electron motion on the other through electrical forces; these are the weakest interactions between molecules
dipole-dipole forces
attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules
Coulomb forces
attractions that exist between oppositely electrically charged particles (protons & electrons) within a single atom.
Radiocarbon dating
chemical analysis used to determine the age of organic materials based on their content of the radioisotope carbon-14 - using radioactive to measure the age of fossils and artifacts
R configuration
clockwise (rectus, Latin, right)
latter
closer to the end; relating to the second of two things discussed
integrate
combine (one thing) with another so that they become a whole.
Oligomerization
coming together of smaller units to make a complex
Absolute
complete; totally unlimited; certain
absolute configuration
describes the exact spatial arrangement of groups of atoms independent of other molecules.
Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment
determined the charge of the electron
Sublevel Energy Splitting
determines the order of orbital filling within a level
sublevel energy splitting
determines the order of orbital filling within a level
Merrifield Solid phase peptide synthesis
developed by R. B. Merrifield, was a major breakthrough allowing for the chemical synthesis of peptides and small proteins. SPPS results in high yields of pure products and works more quickly than classical synthesis (liquid-phase peptide synthesis, LPPS).
glucometer
device for measuring blood glucose levels from a drop of blood obtained by a fingerstick
Pure carbon
diamond, graphite, fullerenes, and nanotubes
quanta
discrete packets of energy that molecules absorb electromagnetic radiation
repulsive
disgusting; tending to drive off; offensive
discrupt
disturb, interrupt, break into
acid
donate H
Alkene
double bond
tentative
experimental in nature; uncertain, hesitant
elucidation
explanation; clarification
irradiate
expose to radiation
Irradiation
exposure to any form of radiant energy such as light, heat, or x-rays
hv
irritated with ultra violet light
Streptomyces
is - any of a genus (Streptomyces) of mostly soil streptomycetes including some that form antibiotics as by-products of their metabolism.
earth's gravitational field
is 10 N/kg. This means that for each kg of mass, an object will experience 10 N of force.
phase transfer catalyst
is a catalyst that facilitates the migration of a reactant from one phase into another phase where reaction occurs. ------a special form of heterogeneous catalysis.
Valley of stability
is a characterization of the stability of nuclides to radioactivity based on their binding energy. Nuclides are composed of protons and neutrons - predicting the type of radioactivity
ester
is a chemical compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group. Usually, esters are derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
Hydroxylation
is a chemical process that introduces a hydroxyl group into an organic compound
Substitution chemistry
is a chemical reaction during which one functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another functional group.
Robinson Annulation
is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for ring formation. It was discovered by Robert Robinson in 1935 as a method to create a six membered ring by forming three new carbon-carbon bonds.[1] T - he method uses a ketone and a methyl vinyl ketone to form an α,β-unsaturated ketone in a cyclohexane ring by a Michael addition followed by an aldol condensation. This procedure is one of the key methods to form fused ring systems.
Adamantanes
is a colorless, crystalline chemical compound with a camphor-like odor. With a formula C₁₀H₁₆, it is a cycloalkane and also the simplest diamondoid. Adamantane molecules consists of three connected cyclohexane rings arranged in the "armchair" configuration
Boronic Acid
is a compound related to boric acid in which one of the three hydroxyl groups is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group.
Dehydration
is a conversion that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule or ion. --------reactions are common processes, the reverse of a hydration reaction. Common dehydrating agents used in organic synthesis include sulfuric acid and alumina.
Sonogashira Coupling reaction
is a cross-coupling reaction used in organic synthesis to form carbon-carbon bonds. It employs a palladium catalyst as well as copper co-catalyst to form a carbon-carbon bond between a terminal alkyne and an aryl or vinyl halide.
oxacyclopropane
is a cyclic ether with a three-atom ring. This ring approximates an equilateral triangle, which makes it strained, and hence highly reactive, more so than other ethers
arenium
is a cyclohexadienyl cation that appears as a reactive intermediate in electrophilic aromatic substitution.
mechanism
is a detailed, step-by-step description of all the changes in bonding that occur in a rxn
Reductive Amination
is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde.
amoxicillin
is a form of penicillin that is made in the laboratory. It kills certain types of bacteria. It is a type of antibiotic.
Arrhenius Equation
is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates.
1,2-Dioxacyclobutanes
is a heterocyclic organic compound with formula C2O2H4, containing a ring of two adjacent oxygen atoms and two adjacent carbon atoms. It is therefore an organic peroxide, and can be viewed as a dimer of formaldehyde (COH2).
Resonance
is a method of describing the delocalized electrons in some molecules where the bonding cannot be explicitly expressed by a single Lewis structure.
leaving group
is a molecular fragment that departs with a pair of electrons in heterolytic bond cleavage.
specific rotation [alpha]
is a physical constant characteristic of an optically active molecule, just like its melting point, boiling point, and density. - possible only for chiral molecules. where [a] = specific rotation - t = temperature in degrees Celsius - lambda = wavelength of incident light; for a sodium vapor lamp, which is commonly used for this purpose, the yellow D emission line (usually indicated simply by D) has l = 589 nm. -a = observed optical rotation in degrees - l = length of sample container in decimeters; its value is frequently 1 (i.e., 10 cm). - c = concentration (grams per milliliter of solution)
pH curves
is a plot showing the change in pH of the solution in the conical flask as the reagent is added from the burette.
Nitrosation
is a process of converting organic compounds into nitroso derivatives, i.e. compounds containing the R-NO functionality.
Effusion (gas)
is a similar process in which gaseous species pass from a container to a vacuum through very small orifices
Fischer projection
is a simplified way of depicting tetrahedral carbon atoms and their substituents in two dimensions.
Conjugation (chemistry)
is a system of connected p orbitals with delocalized electrons in a molecule, which in general lowers the overall energy of the molecule and increases stability. It is conventionally represented as having alternating single and multiple bonds.
Radical Halogenation
is a type of halogenation. This chemical reaction is typical of alkanes and alkyl-substituted aromatics under application of UV light. The reaction is used for the industrial synthesis of chloroform (CHCl3), dichloromethane (CH2Cl2), and hexachlorobutadiene. It proceeds by a free-radical chain mechanism.
Elimination
is a type of organic reaction in which two substituents are removed from a molecule in either one or two-step mechanism
Breath analyzer test
is a type of test performed on air generated from the act of exhalation
glycosyl group
is a univalent free radical or substituent structure obtained by removing the hemiacetal hydroxyl group from the cyclic form of a monosaccharide and, by extension, of a lower oligosaccharide.
resonance
is a way of describing electron delocalizatio (sharing) in a compound that has pi bonding
alkoxy
is an -OR group, an alkyl (or aryl) groupatttached to an oxygen atom.
natural alanine
is an abundant amino acid that is found in only one form.
Peroxycarboxylic acids
is an acid which contains an acidic -OOH group. The two main classes are those derived from conventional mineral acids, especially sulfuric acid, and the peroxy derivatives of organic carboxylic acids.
Peroxycarboxylic acids (McPBA) or COOOH
is an acid which contains an acidic -OOH group. The two main classes are those derived from conventional mineral acids, especially sulfuric acid, and the peroxy derivatives of organic carboxylic acids.
Radical addition
is an addition reaction in organic chemistry which involves free radicals.[1] The addition may occur between a radical and a non-radical, or between two radicals.
Order-of-Magnitude estimation
is an approximation of the logarithm of a value relative to some contextually understood reference value, usually ten, interpreted as the base of the logarithm and the representative of values of magnitude on
Toluene
is an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a CH₃ group attached to a phenyl group. As such, its IUPAC systematic name is methylbenzene.
Chloro benzene
is an aromatic organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5Cl. This colorless, flammable liquid is a common solvent and a widely used intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals.
chlorobenzene
is an aromatic organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5Cl. This colorless, flammable liquid is a common solvent and a widely used intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals.
Radicals chemistry
is an atom, molecule, or ion that has an unpaired valence electron.With some exceptions, these unpaired electrons make ----highly chemically reactive. Many radicals spontaneously dimerize. Most organic ----have short lifetimes.
reducing agent
is an element or compound that loses (or "donates") an electron to an electron recipient (oxidizing agent) in a redox chemical reaction. A reducing agent is thus oxidized when it loses electrons in the redox reaction.
Lithium aluminium hydride (LAH)
is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula LiAlH4. It was discovered by Finholt, Bond and Schlesinger in 1947. This compound is used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis, especially for the reduction of esters, carboxylic acids, and amides.
self-dissociation of water
is an ionization reaction in pure water or in an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule, H₂O, deprotonates to become a hydroxide ion, OH⁻. The hydrogen nucleus, H⁺, immediately protonates another water molecule to form hydronium, H₃O⁺.
Polycylic alkane
is an organic compound featuring several closed rings of atoms, primarily carbon. These ring substructures include cycloalkanes, aromatics, and other ring types.
Picric acid
is an organic compound with the formula (O2N)3C6H2OH. Its IUPAC name is 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP). The name "picric" comes from the Greek πικρός (pikros), meaning "bitter", reflecting its bitter taste. It is one of the most acidic phenols. Like other highly nitrated organic compounds, picric acid is an explosive, hence its primary use. It has also been used in medicine (antiseptic, burn treatments) and dyes.
Mannich Reaction
is an organic reaction which consists of an amino alkylation of an acidic proton placed next to a carbonyl functional group by formaldehyde and a primary or secondary amine or ammonia. The final product is a β-amino-carbonyl compound also known as a Mannich base.
Suzuki
is an organic reaction, classified as a cross-coupling reaction, where the coupling partners are a boronic acid and an organohalide catalyzed by a palladium complex.
alcohol
is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn is bound to other hydrogen and/or carbon atoms. In general usage, alcohol refers almost always to ethanol.
rate
is change in concentration with change
Standard electrode potentials
is defined as the measures the individual potential of reversible electrode at standard state with ions at an effective concentration of 1mol dm⁻³ at the pressure of 1 atm.
wave
is defined by its wavelength lambda or by its frequency v. v = c/lambda
Dienophile
is electron deficient, typically has EWG attached to make it more electron deficient - electron acceptors
Arenediazonium salts
is formed by the reaction of an aromatic amine with nitrous acid at 0-5°C, and has the structure shown below. ------- are very unstable; therefore, arenediazonium salts are often simply referred to as diazonium salts.
Carvone
is found in nature in either enantiomeric form, each having a very characteristic odor: One enantiomer gives caraway its characteristic smell, whereas the other is responsible for the fl avor of spearmint.
transannular strain
is led from steric repulsion between atoms across a ring
Grape seed
is made from the crushed seeds of grape plants. It contains proanthocyanidin. This is a phenolic chemical belonging in the larger group of plant phytochemicals. They are called flavonoids. It belongs to a subgroup of tannins. Proanthocyanidin may protect the blood vessels and cardiovascular system. It does this by stopping the breakdown of collagen. This reduces the risk of a heart attack and stroke. It may also have an antioxidant effect. This may lower the risk of certain cancers.
plane of symmetry (mirror plane)
is one that bisects the molecule so that the part of the structure lying on one side of the plane mirrors the part on the other side - Chiral molecules cannot have a plane of symmetry.
chlorosuccinic acid
is succinic acid substituted at position 2 by a chloro group.
electrophilic hydration
is the act of adding electrophilic hydrogen from a non-nucleophilic strong acid (a reusable catalyst, examples of which include sulfuric and phosphoric acid) and applying appropriate temperatures to break the alkene's double bond
Diazomethane
is the chemical compound CH₂N₂, discovered by German chemist Hans von Pechmann in 1894. It is the simplest diazo compound. In the pure form at room temperature, it is an extremely sensitive explosive yellow gas; thus, it is almost universally used as a solution in diethyl ether.
Osmium tetroxide
is the chemical compound with the formula OsO₄. The compound is noteworthy for its many uses, despite its toxicity and the rarity of osmium. It also has a number of unusual properties, one being that the solid is volatile. The compound is colourless, but most samples appear yellow
aglycons
is the compound remaining after the glycosyl group on a glycoside is replaced by a hydrogen atom. For example, the -----of a cardiac glycoside would be a steroid molecule.
hybridization
is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory
Wohler's Synthesis
is the conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea. This chemical reaction was described in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler.[1] It is often cited as the starting point of modern organic chemistry.
Cyclopropane
is the cycloalkane with the molecular formula C3H6, consisting of three carbon atoms linked to each other to form a ring, with each carbon atom bearing two hydrogen atoms resulting in D3h molecular symmetry.
methyl vinyl ketone
is the organic compound with the formula CH3C(O)CH=CH2. It is a reactive compound classified as an enone, in fact the simplest example thereof. It is a colorless, flammable, highly toxic liquid with a pungent odor. It is soluble in water and polar organic solvents.
pkA
is the pH at which the acid id 50% dissociated
Vicinal Syn Dihydroxylation
is the process by which an alkene is converted into a vicinal diol. Although there are many routes to accomplish this oxidation, the most common and direct processes use a high-oxidation-state transition metal (typically osmium or manganese)
Diffusion
is the process whereby gaseous atoms and molecules are transferred from regions of relatively high concentration to regions of relatively low concentration
Proton chemical shift
is the resonant frequency of a nucleus relative to a standard in a magnetic field. Often the position and number of chemical shifts are diagnostic of the structure of a molecule.
total energy
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system
doping test / drug test
is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors. The term ———- is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.
nucleic acids
macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
dilute
make (a liquid) less concentrated; reduce in strength; Ex. dilute the influence of the president
constitutes
makes up; forms
Solution Dilution
making a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution
gastric mucosa
mucosa that lines the stomach
Logarithm
multiples of ten
overlap of any -------atomic orbitals gives rise to ------molecular orbitals. For a simple two-electron bond, and the two molecular orbitals are bonding and antibonding, respectively.
n
carbon anion
n anion in which carbon has an unshared pair of electrons and bears a negative charge usually with three substituents for a total of eight valence electrons. [1] The ----exists in a trigonal pyramidal geometry. Formally, a ----is the conjugate base of a carbon acid.
Osmotic pressure
pressure that must be applied to prevent osmotic movement across a selectively permeable membrane
NMR spectroscopy
probes the structure in the vicinity of individual nuclei, particular hydrogens and carbons, and provides the most detailed information regarding the atomic connectivity of a molecule
Chemiluminescence
process by which light is emitted as a product of a chemical reaction
spoilage
process in which food deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced.
Endothermic
processes in which the system gains energy
Nucleus
protons and neutrons
Haworth projections
provide a good way to represent three-dimensional structure
Keto-Enol Equilibrium
refers to a chemical equilibrium between a keto form (a ketone or an aldehyde) and an enol (an alcohol). The keto and enol forms are said to be tautomers of each other.
acid anhydride
refers to an acidic oxide, an oxide that reacts with water to form an oxyacid (an inorganic acid that contains oxygen or carbonic acid), or with a base to form a salt.
Resonance
refers to pi-type overlap of p orbitals,
Grignard reagent
s a chemical compound with the generic formula R−Mg−X, where X is a halogen and R is an organic group, normally an alkyl or aryl. - Two typical examples are methylmagnesium chloride Cl−Mg−CH3 and phenylmagnesium bromide (C6H5)−Mg−Br. - They are a subclass of the organomagnesium compounds
parietal cells
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor in the stomach
assign
select something or someone for a specific purpose
corresponding
showing a direct connection between two things
equipped
supply with the necessary items for a particular purpose.
beta anomer
the OH group of the C1 cis to the CH2OH group *it will be equatorial and up* - the anomeric carbon pointing up
Mole
the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance
Aromaticity
the ability of a molecule to delocalize pi electrons around a conjugated ring, creating exceptional stability
vicinity
the area near or surrounding a particular place
Chemical Kinetics
the area of chemistry that is concerned with reaction rates and reaction mechanisms
Electron Configuration
the arrangement of electrons of an atom in its ground state into various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms - how electrons occupy orbital
Capillary action
the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid
bond length
the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
Mean free path
the average distance traveled by a gas molecule between collisions
atom
the basic unit of a chemical element.
pi-bond (π-bond)
the bond that forms between two p orbitals that overlap side to side. (7.3)
Stereochemistry
the branch of chemistry concerned with the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms and molecules and the effect of this on chemical reactions.
arithmetic
the branch of mathematics dealing with the properties and manipulation of numbers.
tertiary haloalkanes
the carbon atom holding the halogen is attached directly to three alkyl groups, which may be any combination of the same or different
shielding
the effect on an electron of repulsion by electrons in lower-energy orbitals that screen it from the full effects of nuclear charge - the chemical shift is highly dependent on the present of electron density - results in relatively high-field peak [to the right toward (CH3)4Si - electron-donor substituents----
Coulomb Force
the electrostatic force of repulsion or attraction between charged bodies
Radioactivity
the emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
bond-angle strain
the energy needed to distort the tetrahedral carbons enough to close the ring -in the small cycloalkanes is largely accommodated by the formation of bent bonds.
Electron affinity
the energy needed to remove an electron from a negative ion to form a neutral atom or molecule
Gibbs Free energy
the energy of a system that is available to do work at a constant temperature and pressure
heat of combustion
the energy released as heat by the complete combustion of one mole of a substance
momentum
the force or speed with which something moves
Constant-volume calorimetry
the measurement of heat at a constant volume to find the change in internal energy of the system; requires the use of a "bomb" calorimeter
Effective nuclear charge
the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a many-electron atom; this charge is not the full nuclear charge because there is some shielding of the nucleus by the other electrons in the atom
anomeric carbon
the new chiral center formed in ring closure; it was the carbon containing the carbonyl in the straight-chain form - the new stereocenter formed by cyclization
anomeric carbon.
the new stereocenter resulting from cyclic hemiacetal formation
Molar solubility (mol/L)
the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of a saturated solution
Molarity
the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Frequency factor
the number of times that the reactants approach the activation barrier per unit time
geometrical
the shape of a plane figure determined by its outline; round, oval, square, etc.
electronic transition
the single step transition of an electron from the ground state to the excited state or vice versa
Rate Determining Step (RDS)
the slowest step in a reaction mechanism
Unit cell
the smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the geometric shape of the crystal
precipitates
the solid materials left behind after a liquid evaporates.
conjugate acid
the species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid
conjugate base
the species produced when an acid donates a hydrogen ion to a base
Carbohydrates
the starches and sugars present in foods
Physiology
the study of how the body and its parts work or function
MECHANICS
the study of the motion of objects
Nitration
the substitution of a nitro group (-NO2) for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring
Nitration
the substitution of a nitro group (-NO2) for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring - electron withdrawing
Acid ionization constant
the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a weak acid
bond energy
the value of the interaction energy at the equilibrium bond distance
elucidate
to clarify, explain
Catenate
to connect as in or by a chain
tackle
to deal with
decompose
to decay or to break down into basic elements
quantify
to describe or express something as an amount or a number
coin
to devise a new word or phrase
Strain
to draw or stretch tight beyond the normal limits
account for
to explain
ascertain
to find out
infer
to find out by reasoning; to arrive at a conclusion on the basis of thought; to hint, suggest, imply
Circumvent
to get around; to bypass
obtain
to get or gain through some effort
Taper off
to gradually lessen
furnish
to provide
submerge
to push under the surface
transpose
to put into a different order or place; to reverse or transfer the order
expel
to send out or away
ignite
to set on fire, cause to burn; to heat up, excite
Suspend
to stop; to put on hold
emcompass
to surround
GRASP
to take hold of something tightly with the hands
occupied
to take up or fill
make hair stand on end
to the actual sensation of hairs, especially those on the neck, standing upright when the skin contracts due to cold or to fear.
deflect
to turn or move to one side; to bend; to swerve
distort
to twist out of shape
employ
to use
transverse
top and bottom
Coventional
traditional, ordinary
Hammond Postulate
transition state resembles the structure (and energy) of the reactant or product that is closest to it in energy.
chemical cold pack
used to prevent swelling, control bleeding, and relieve pain and inflammation
Organocatalysis
uses small organic molecules predominantly composed of C, H, O, N, S and P to accelerate chemical reactions.
Fischer proof
uses the techniques of chain lengthening and shortening together with the symmetry properties of aldaric acids to determine the structures of the alsoses
crossed aldol condensation
uses two different aldehyde and/or ketone reactants. Such reactions usually give a mixture of multiple condensation products, because there are two or more possible enolate nucleophiles, and two different carbonyl electrophiles.
evacuate
vacate; empty; abandon
Generality
vague statement; general statement which is not detailed; quality of being general; greater part; most; Ex. generality of people
automobile
vehicle capable of moving on its own
