Chemistry: Notable Concepts - Set #2

The Chemistry of Steel (All Concepts)

1. Corrosion & Combustion of Metals- We usually refer to metals undergoing corrosion when they oxidize and different forms of metals with different surface areas corrode or even combust at different rates dependent on those 2 independent variables and the dependent variable being the corrosion or combustion rate, and all combustion processes of metals do not form gases like Carbon Dioxide so it isn't considered that they necessarily catch fire as combusting, but however when undergoing oxidation they do tend to corrode when placed with water and air, but with air by itself it still tends to burn but creates a solid rather than a liquid or gas, known as an Oxide, so a metal in the air creates a metal oxide which may even change color dependent on the light or luster processes of the metal, and it creates a corroded metal in the presence of air and water, Pure Iron is quite expensive, but a common form with impurities contains Steel Alloy or Carbon and Iron, the dependency of Surface Area on wools and powders (forms) of metals determine how well they burn or even corrode, the more surface area the easier for the oxygen to spread and catch fire, but with chunks, squares, nodules, nails, and bars of Iron have small surface areas and large volumes which tend not to catch fire easily 2. Rusting Metals Quickly- Setting up an apparatus of wool metal to rust with the air and water, connecting the apparatus to a tube and inverting it (upside down) into colored water, as the Oxygen reacts with the steel wool in water it is being used up, and thus create a partial vacuum once the water soaks into the wool, so the Atmospheric of the pressure @STP will push down on the colored water the beaker and tube are placed in, and will rise up the tube to rust the metal 3. Corrosion & Combustion of Metals with Low Surface Areas and Large Volumes- Applying Friction also generates heat of metals with low surface areas and large volumes such as Iron in the form of nails or bars, rather than powders and wools, and special machines containing abrasive metals that are generated by electric current to spin extremely fast generate so much friction on a surface to melt through substances like steel and set it on fire, forces of friction overcoming other forces to heat up steel, which can't normally be heat up by chemical energy of Oxygen 4. Types of Iron Oxides- Light brown Oxide is just granulated or powdered rust with water in it, dark brown Oxide is just powdered rust heated with the water removed, and a black oxide which is Fe 3 O 4, rather than Fe 2 O 3 which were the first two, and is a black oxide which is driven be combustion of substances such as gunpowder, decomposing other Iron Compounds like Iron Carbonate produces another type of Iron Oxide Fe (1) O (1) or Iron (II) Oxide, and Carbon Dioxide Gas, so technically you are decomposing it rather than combusting it, but it still produces the gas, so there is Fe O (an unstable Iron Compound which spontaneously catches fire in air when Iron is decomposed or isolated from it), Fe 2 O 3 (Dark Brown), Fe 2 O 3 H20 (Light Brown), and Fe 3 O 4 (Black), these also have other names written as follows 5. Mono to Di Iron Oxidation- At first you have Iron (II) Oxide, but as 2 oxygen atoms are added in the form of Oxygen Gas to make the O3 part of the compound, the Iron (II) remains the same, but an extra iron atom is added to chemically bond electroneutrally 6. Historical Hydrogen Production- Sulfur minerals or blocks were extracted from near volcanoes, and they set aflame this Sulfur and then mixed its dense gas into water to create Sulfuric Acid, and then Henry Cavendish prepared Sulfuric Acid chemically and placed it on metal, creating a salt and oxidizing it, and reducing the Hydrogen, or producing Hydrogen Gas 7. Chemical Sulfuric Acid Production- Chemically, there are two different ways to produce Sulfuric Acid, the most important industrial chemical, the first is by obtaining Sulfur rocks or minerals or allotropes, burning them in air or moist air to produce 2 molecules of Sulfur Dioxide, which react with Oxygen in the air to form 2 molecules of Sulfur Trioxide, which reacts with water to produce Sulfuric Acid, which is then cooled into a liquid; also mixing Sulfur Dioxide in Hydrogen Peroxide yields Sulfuric Acid as well, as these chemical reactions and others are shown in the 100 Conceptual Chemical Reactions Doc, Sulfuric Acid is also known as Oil of Vitriol and is used as an electrolyte in most alkaline batteries 8. Chemical Hydrogen Production- Then, the Sulfuric Acid made reacts with a metal, producing a salt and Hydrogen Gas 9. Iron Sulfate Production- Iron Sulfate is also known as Green Vitriol, and is produced when Sulfuric Acid reacts with Iron, as well as Hydrogen Gas 10. Properties of Transition Metals- 11. Can undertake wide variety of chemical reactions, mostly Redox chemistry, or Oxidation and Reduction go together redox chemical reactions, as well as having multiple oxidation states or different formally charged ionized 12. Since they are naturally all ionized they take in more heat from reacting with Oxygen or Sulfur in producing Oxides, Oxalates, Sulfides, and Sulfate, and (Metal name here)-ates such as Chromates, and absorbs more heat energy and becomes more complex with its oxidation states, absorbing, transmitting, and reflecting or refracting visible light of a wide variety of colors as compounds, such as the various colored compounds including Green Vitriol (Iron Sulfate), Titania Pigment (Titanium Dioxide), and Green Pigment (Chromium Oxide), and their Oxides and Sulfides are used as pigments and dyes 13. Most metals have a luster because of the ways the multiple formally charged oxidation states of metals' excited electrons cling and coincide together creating a pool of electrons and forming metallic bonds, with the same metal atoms having no strong differences in electronegativity, weak pulls, but upmost attraction, and thus excited electrons cannot already absorb heat, but carry or conduct heat, light, and electricity from one cluster of electrons to another, why metals are shiny and good conductors 14. Also used industrially for engineering metal applications 15. Act as good Catalysts as well 16. Iron Reaction with Oxidizing Agent- When Iron reacts with 50% Nitric Acid diluted with water (another great Oxidizing Agent, oxidizing Fe + to Fe 3+, and the reaction produces a brown gas Nitrogen Dioxide, and lots of energy since it is an exothermic reaction, but even though it is a light and heat generating reaction, Nitrogen Dioxide is toxic and also acidic, and so Ammonia and a little indicator are mixed in with water as alkalis to neutralize the toxic Nitrogen Dioxide Gas, and after doing so and creating a salt and water, the water dilutes it even more, eliminates the Nitrogen Gas, but the effect is still created, in creating Ammonium Nitrate 17. Recap of Iron's Oxidation States- So there is the Green Iron Sulfate Solution in Iron's 2+ oxidation state, and so there is Brown Iron Nitrate solution in Iron's 3+ oxidation state, changing color dependent on the state it is in 18. Chemical Tests to Distinguish Iron 2+ and Iron 3+ with Salts in Solution with Sodium Hydroxide- Since the Iron 2+ reacted with Sulfuric Acid to produce green Iron Sulfate solution and Hydrogen Gas, and the Iron 3+ reacted with Nitric Acid to produce brown Iron Nitrate solution and Hydrogen Gas, you now have Iron 3+ Nitrate and Iron 2+ Sulfate, and running chemical tests, such as reacting the Iron 2+ and 3+ in basic solutions, or alkalis, such as Sodium Hydroxide will not only neutralize the acidic properties it still has, but also each ion will turn a different color when reacting with the alkali, and always turn that color in that reaction, so you can tell them apart, and when metal salts and metal bases react, they produce a different metal salt and base, and produce precipitates, with Iron (II) Hydroxide and Iron (III) Hydroxide, the Iron (II) Hydroxide being a green precipitate, and the Iron (III) Hydroxide being a brown precipitate 19. Chemical Tests of Iron Oxidation States with Potassium Iron-Cyanide & Thio-Cyanate- In solution, Iron (3+) reacts with Potassium Ferricyanide to produce a dye called Prussian Blue as a precipitate in the solution, and Iron (2+) reacts with Potassium Ferrocyanide to produce Prussian blue if they are both mixed in, Iron in Thio-Cyanate makes a brown precipitate, some of these precipitates like Prussian Blue are used as dyes and pigments 20. Iron 2+ and 3+ Plants- A solution of Waterglass, also known as Sodium Silicate, soluble in water, used to make "chemical gardens", and you place Iron Sulfate crystals which are made in this chemical garden, crystallizing the solution yields Iron Sulfate, more over as a powder, and also adding some Iron (III) Chloride, brown Iron and green Iron plants 21. Iron 2+ and Purple Potassium Permanganate- Iron 2+ in Potassium Permanganate Solution, a redox reaction, and Iron 2+ are added to Permanganate Ions, and the Iron turns to Iron 3+ with the Permanganate Ions, so it turns from green Iron 2+ solution, colored since it is ionized, and since all transition metals have multiple oxidation states of ionizations, they can each form multiple colors with multiple atoms they absorb from and emit energy with, and so the Iron 2+ reacts electroneutrally with the Permanganate to Iron 3+ and thus changes color from Green to Brown, and since Permanganate (Manganese) is naturally purple, that color will change as well to translucence? Yes, that is because even though it would turn from Green to Brown (or dark brown, dark red), a Thiocyanate chemical test compound is added to indicate the change and show the brown color produced 22. Iron represents Transition Metal Chemistry better than almost any other metal, SO far, we have discussed the Oxidation States and the Changes between them with Iron 2+ and 3+, however let us see how Iron acts as a Catalyst 23. Chemical Clock Reaction- Chemical Reactions made to go back and forth depending on the proportions of ingredients you have in the solution, known in chemistry as Equilibrium between two solutions of ions going back and forth in reacting with substances, and as ions carrying the color with them as they are ionized, and as they go back and forth in equilibrium, they change the color of the solution every now and then, even when mixed, Iron can be used as a catalyst to speed up this reaction 24. Electrochemical Iron - Setting up an apparatus or glass cube, with an Iron File in it and lots of nails, and then putting in Copper Sulfate, which is blue because of the Copper ions' color in it when reacting with the Sulfate, and most likely releasing a little energy to form the liquid crystal solution, it is a salt solution of course, not molten, and filling that Blue Vitriol up as historically known, redox chemistry, and what happens over time is the bottom of the iron file and iron nails are all turned into copper, modern alchemy explained by the electrochemical applicative reaction, where a Single Replacement reaction, Iron and Copper Sulfate react, producing Copper and Iron Sulfate, that green Vitriol, so the Iron transmutated into Copper, and the Blue Vitriol transmutated into Green Vitriol and also produces heat energy, but can also produce electrical energy, the purpose of the electrochemical iron in wet cell batteries, as electrodes! 25. Electrical Iron- Setting up a Wet Cell Battery, you add 2 glass jars, one with Iron file and Iron Sulfate, and one with Copper file and Copper Sulfate, and then a salt bridge with Potassium Nitrate Solution (also known as saltpeter), and connecting an electrical current from ballast-like sources, actually two electrodes, the Iron and Copper, and connected to the Voltmeter, it produces voltage because of how wet cells work based on the transfer of electrons 26. Iron Production of Reducing Agent- Also known as the Thermite Reaction, the Iron is reduced and Aluminum, Carbon or Silicon metalloids or metals, the 3 best Reducing Agents, chemically react with the Oxygen, producing Ruby, CO2 Gas, or Sand, and isolating and purifying the Iron 27. The Electrochemical Series- Designed by Alessandro Volta, the series lists the reactivity of the elements in order of increasing voltage and the difference in each reactivity quantity, and this series means that through single replacement or displacement chemical reactions, you can use this chart for reference, and any metal lower than a metal can be displaced by the metal higher than it because the higher metal in the table shown below produces more of a voltage when connected to another metal in batteries, and this explains the reason Potassium Nitrate salt is used, since any salt could've been used, but Nitrate is non-toxic and cheap, and Potassium produces the most volts, negative quantities because of the negative charge of electrons 28. Prediction and Revisiting Iron Production- So a Copper-Iron Electric Wet Cell Battery produces a voltage of 0.77 volts, the difference in Copper and Iron volt quantities, and so with the Thermite reaction (very exothermic reaction, Thermite Cages are named after the reaction so the reaction can take place in it), and so since Aluminum is above Iron, it will displace the Iron, producing Aluminum Oxide from the previous Iron Oxide, and producing molten Iron metal, the main production process of pure metallic Iron, the difference in Iron and Aluminum is 1.22 volts, so that is how much electrical energy would be produced if you set it up like a wet cell battery, and through the Thermite Reaction, using the Aluminum Reducing Agent to make Carbrorundum (Alumina or Aluminum Oxide) and Iron, producing lots of heat, you can mix some Magnesium and Potassium Permanganates to give light energy as well, bright white to make an explosive reaction occur 29. Iron Production Again- Iron is also produced from its ores through Thermolysis, including from Pyrite (Iron Sulfide, Fool's Gold, in which you can obtain the iron and also start making Sulfuric Acid), Hematite (Red Iron Oxide, formed from molten states), and Magnetitie (Magnetic Black Iron Oxide), ores Iron is extracted from to be produced 30. Safe Iron- When getting the Pure Iron from the Thermite reaction, and then dissolving the molten Iron in water, the water cuts out any other Oxygen which would get in the fire, that is a metal fire, not an alkali fire, in which water would be of no help, and then Magnetite is produced, and you can pick it up with a magnet after getting it fresh and safe out of the water 31. Steel- Iron and Carbon, getting the Iron buy using Oxygen and Sand, so the Oxygen takes the Carbon as well as the Sand, isolating the Iron 32. Welding- In order to make steel alloys, or in order to make Iron-based structures and products, nuts, bolts, and rivets, a screw to hold metals together but stuck there forever which was quite a laborious process, you have to join iron together with something, such as with Carbon, mixing the two at high temperatures or with tremendous amounts of heat to make the alloy, welding is when you join together pieces of metal by heating their surfaces at their melting points using a blowtorch or electric arc, uniting them by pressing or hammering based on their malleability 33. Welding Possibilities- The first reason welding became possible was because the chemistry behind it was well understood, people were able to make gases and collect them and the various types of welding, in which Oxyacetylene was among the most popular method, it was possible to produce Oxygen (from electrolysis of water and liquefaction of air) and Acetylene Gas (Calcium Carbide reacting with Water to also produce Calcium Oxide) and store the two industrially, and also produced steel alloy cylinders strong enough to hold gases used at high temperatures when they were mixed, to be able to melt iron in the steel cylinder, flame that burns at domestic cooking is 600 degrees, low temperature in Metallurgy, Oxyacetylene is also Ethyne Oxide 34. Test Tube Burning- Since Test Tubes are Glass, which is a mixture of Sodium Carbonate, Potash, and Silica, the Sodium flame test when taking in heat energy is a bright orange or yellow fire, and the blue fire from the Oxygen flame added to the Acetylene Gas burning on the test tube makes it turn that color 35. Metallurgy- Copper is not magnetic, but Iron is, and Iron is cheaper than Copper, so Iron or Zinc is used to make pennies, and electroplated with Copper, you have to develop sufficient thermal capacity to actually melt the steel, make it flow, and melting it too much makes it catch fire and burns away ineffectively, Iron and Steel are very strong of course, huge industrial applications including Electroplating 36. Types of Steel- Depend on how they have been heat treated in the foundry, and how much Carbon they have got in them, no more than 1% Carbon, Modern Steel, Cast Iron- wack with a hammer and it splits apart, Tall Steel, High Carbon Steel (used to cut metals), and Steel for Watches and Spring Steel with Potential Energy in it, springs, musical instruments, harmonicas and pianos 37. Electric Motor & Electromagnets 38. Blood- We have 6 grams of Iron in our blood in the form of Hemoglobin, not Iron shavings, plays a very important role in our physiology, the way we live and breathe 39. Steel is very Heat Resistant- Flash Powders like Magnesium-Potassium Chlorate on Hydrogen Gas produces temperatures of over 2,000 degrees Centigrade or Celsius

The Chemistry of Soaps (All Concepts)

Hydrophobic (Nonpolar) and Hydrophilic (Polar) ends on one long chain molecule, Soaps have a thorough history of mixing fats and lye to connect molecules with large polarity differences such as oil and water together to let the water wash out the oil or fat and rinse for reuse To construct a Soap molecule, you derive a long-chained hydrocarbon like Octadecane (18 Carbons), which is a squishy solid wax that melts at room temperature and add an acidic part of the substance, weak acids known as Carboxylic Acids (COOH) which when dissolved in water produce Hydrogen ions as any acid would, so by now you have constructed a Fat, as this type of fat, Octadecane with a Carboxylic Acid attached at one end is naturally and historically recorded to be found in Animal Fats as a Fat itself Hydrocarbons with Acids are then known to be long-chained Acids, and they are present as fats at least in animals, so we call these molecules Fatty Acids, and are like Carboxylic Acids attached to hydrocarbons such as Octadecane, which is specifically abundant in animal fats and used for soaps, in which case when a Hydrophilic or Polar Acid which dissolves easily in water when releasing Hydrogen ions and is thus Hydrophilic of Polar has ben added to Stearic Acid, this substance So Acids are mostly polar because they can dissolve in water, and thus the entire molecule now is polar and will dissolve in water completely and separate from the oil, so in order to stay acidic at one end and basic at the other, it has a different pH on both sides as well as a different polarity, not necessarily a relationship rules out in determining pH and polarity following the same book of rules So, you have Stearic Acid, nonpolar and soluble in oil at one end, and polar and soluble in water at the other end although it is a very weak acid sine Carboxylic or Organic Acids are primarily weak acids, so when you add Lye or Sodium Hydroxide to the Carboxylic Acid it can dissociate better in water Formation of the salt of an Acid is the process in which you can replace the soluble Hydrogen atom in Carboxylic Acid with a Sodium atom which quickly turns into an ion when adding Lye When turning Weak Bi-Polarity Stearic Acid into Strong Bi-Polarity Sodium Stearate, th extra Hydrogen atom reacts and bonds with the Hydroxyl group left over from the Sodium Hydroxide added, so Formation of the Salt of an Acid produces a Salt, Sodium Stearate, and Water and is responsible for dissolving in water and producing the scum or "hard water" composed of salt ions like Sodium Ions, or Potassium Ions from Potassium Hydroxide additives which is known as Potassium Stearate which is also the Salt of the Acid of Potassium Hydroxide clipped to a Carboxylic Acid and certain Hydrocarbon length In raw and arbitrary terms, wax, acid, lye, and fat are the ingredients to making soap in solutions Blobs of oil and water which form into an emulsion or colloid known as Micelles form as Soap is added to water and oil presences, as it is pulled into two directions, the polar or hydrophilic end towards the water, and the nonpolar or hydrophobic end towards the fat or oil and these blobs or micelles formed as the water and oil mix and the nonpolar ends break up the nonpolar molecules which then slide in through the sop medium and dissolve in the water or just mix with it to form a now miscible suspension or colloid or emulsion of soap Historically, adding tallow or fat from animals to Lye which was washed out from wood ashes, produced Soap, as we now know it arbitrarily Triglycerides are the Fats used When a triglyceride is processed with lye, the fatty acids are simultaneously torn off the glycerin backbone and turned into salts, forming salts out of acids, and thus improving the quality in the construction of this kind of soap Sometimes the glycerin is kept in to give the soap translucent properties Today, most soap is synthesized using more complex substances Soap is commonly used in detergents, which work the same way as we discussed above, all the other chemicals useful to its original properties are added The reason modern soaps are needed is because the old ones produced that unnecessary scum of metal alkali ions like Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, etc. based precipitates or insoluble compounds known as hard water, which the Lye and other additives of bases and alkalis in soaps and old detergents are known for being responsible about this Determining how hard the water is a matter of how long its stays slippery, if it washes away real quick and you need to use more and more of it, hard water is beginning to precipitate out of the soap and form precipitates and alkalis, but feeling slippery for long periods of time results in soft water, or normal water and soap In order to reduce the scum and insolubility, they rely on different acids other than natural Carboxylic Acid, such as natural yet artificial Sulfonic Acids or Sulfates The first of these is known as Sodium Dodecylbenzenesulfonate (DDBS), and it is basically Dodecane Hydrocarbon, with a Benzene ring, and Sulfonic Acid attached to the benzene ring, giving it the nomenclature of Dodecylbenzenesulfonate or DDBS as we will abbreviate When adding Sodium to that name as a new compound of Sodium Dodecylbenzenesulfonate, modern chemists and chemical manufacturers still use the common process of forming a salt from an acid, such as converting the first Sulfur-based compound we discussed into the one with the Sodium added on, although it is still the salt of a weak acid, so once again chemists had to come up with one with a strong acid, the same old historical way of solving the problem 11 Carbons as a Hydrocarbon or Wax with a Carboxylic Acid group attached (still a weak acid) is the acid of the salt of two other interesting soap additives, known as Lauric Acid, the formation of a salt from this added is used and Sodium Sulfate groups are added to them, as well as an ether group in one rather than the other, on the second Carbon of the 11 present, and these two salts derived from Lauric Acid (Coconut Oil) are called Sodium Laureth Sulfate and Sodium Lauryl Sulfate These two are much stronger in the way they work and the Sodium Laureth Sulfate has an extra Oxygen which replaces a CH2 group in Sodium Laureth Sulfate which gives it slightly different but more useful properties and isn't naturally found of course but artificially synthesized as an organic compound Saponification is a useful method of producing hard soaps from Sodium Hydroxide, or soft soaps from Potassium Hydroxide, and is a chemical reaction in which a Triglyceride reacts with Sodium Hydroxide to produce glycerol (tri-alcohol) and Sodium, and more specifically Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of the fatty acid esters or fats in general Soap particles or micelles have a Hydrophilic or Polar "Head" and Hydrophobic or Nonpolar "Tail" Emulsifiers allow liquids to form Emulsions that are otherwise immiscible in each other, This means that while oil (which attracts dirt) doesn't naturally mix with water, soap can suspend oil/dirt in such a way that it can be removed

Concepts Associated with Organic Chemistry (All Concepts)

Is actually a completely different subject than General Chemistry, but some sources of General Chemistry learning includes it because it introduces a whole variety of nonpolar covalent compounds and their various and diverse applications in the real world. Organic Chemicals or compounds are naturally made of nonpolar compounds, and always contain Carbon, or else they wouldn't be nonpolar covalent. Carbon's special reactivity and valency properties allow it to form multiple bonds on all 4 sides of the tetravalent sp3 hybridized atom. Carbon is the essential element to all of life and forms more bonds than any other element on the periodic table. You may have heard the term carbohydrates before. These are compounds that contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, and hydrogen and oxygen are the other main components to Organic Compounds, as well as Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus. Generally, people think of water as pure and classify it as organic; but they are wrong because looking at water's molecular formula, it doesn't contain Carbon, so this assumption is false. There are millions of organic compounds, so there has to be a way to classify them all. You should know that after studying organic chemistry, you can attain a sense of the chemicals that make up life, or DNA, thus the chemicals that make up your genetic material or genes. This involves biochemical concepts that are further discussed on the micromolecular scale after we tackle some important concepts in Inorganic Chemistry. You can start by identifying biochemical substances in food used to be broken down by catalysts in complex metabolic biochemical reactions to convert energy for you to use. Carbohydrates include Simple Carbs or Sugars, and Complex Carbs or Fats and Proteins. Fats are similar to oils and are thus nonpolar like Carbs such as Sugars as Simple Carbs, and proteins or grain containing complex Carbs. But this is talk for health related science class. There's health, there's biochemistry, and there's organic chemistry. The simplest way to classify organic chemicals are by noting that you can learn what makes up organic chemistry. Functional Groups and Organic Compound Types make up Organic Chemistry. We will learn both respectively, and you must know that an organic compound is any compound that contains Carbon and bonds in certain ways. A functional group is a certain kind of base for an organic compound that doesn't always contain Carbon but is attached to a molecule with Carbon. There are 3 different ways to understand Organic Compounds based on certain derivatives that I learned to study and follow, but we will begin in the simplest way. Organic Nomenclature, which I discuss more in Chapter 5 is essential to understanding Organic Chemistry and naming Carbon-containing organic compounds, so if you don't know how to identify such names I am about to begin to spew jargon out at you, go ahead and read that first. Meth is one, Eth is two, and Hex is six, right? Okay. The first type of organic compound are called Hydrocarbons, meaning they simply contain Hydrogen and Carbon, without any other element. They can be classified as Alkanes, hydrocarbons with Carbon to Carbon or Hydrogen bonds that are single, Alkenes or hydrocarbons with Carbon to Carbon or Carbon to Hydrogen double bonds, and Alkynes are the same exact thing only triple bonds. If you understand Organic Nomenclature, you know that we write the simplest alkane of 1 carbon and 4 hydrogens and call it Methane. Methane with double bonds and either extra elements, environment changes, or electronic transfers can create such double bonds, and thus we name it Methylene or Acetylene from the common compound Acetic Acid, or Ethanoic Acid. Methyne meanwhile returns to original suffix form. It is the same for Propane, Propylene, and Propyne that you know has 3 carbons and 8 hydrogens if propane, and may contain less electron free radicals or atoms to form double bonded alkenes or triple bond alkynes. The most common alkane is a gas called Methane, the most common alkene is a plastic called Polyethylene, and the most common alkyne is Propyne. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes are derived from and usually have properties of hydrocarbons. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes are the first three types of Organic Compounds you know now, and the first classification of organic compounds you know are Hydrocarbons. Now, let's learn our first functional group. When you have an Alkane, Alkene, or Alkyne, and for example, you take away a Hydrogen in the drawing of Lewis Structure of an Alkane, this new structure can bond with another type of functional group, or another organic compound to make a new substance with new properties. A functional group can be defined as the base or main component to a certain organic compound, and can also look familiar to other types of molecular structures like polyatomic ions, although they have different properties and are not isoelectronic. The functional group can usually determine the properties of an Organic substance, and the rest of the molecule the functional group attaches or bonds to is represented by a capital R, for rest of molecule, and everyone knows it is not an abbreviation for an element, unlike when B is used to abbreviate Bases in Electrolytic reactions which can get confusing with Boron. So replacing a Hydrogen in an alkane, and placing an R for the rest of the molecule, whether it be another functional group or organic compound is another way of opening up the compound to having an opportunity to bonds with new atoms to form certain organic compounds at certain conditions, and thus expand the average chemist's knowledge of organic compounds or overall chemicals. All functional groups are written with a -yl suffix as explained in Chapter 5. When you take a Hydrogen away, or another less electronegative element than Carbon in an organic compound and replace it with R to represent it can bond with another organic compound, another functional group, or even another for its own kind, you change the suffix of the original compound, whether it be an alkane, alkene, or alkyne makes the alkane, alkene, or alkyne-based structure a functional group called the Alkyl group, as obvious as the nomenclature titles it. Our second type of organic classification is called heterohydrocarbons. Basically, any atom that isn't hydrogen or carbon in an organic compound and is written and stands out in a line bond structure (which you can learn in how to draw and visualize in Chapter 6) is a heteroatom. You can replace any of the Hydrogens in an alkyl-based compound, meaning an alkane, alkene, or alkyne's outside Hydrogens with Halogen atoms, to form our fourth type of organic compound, halides. Halides are harmful emissions to the atmosphere in applications such as aerosol, which seems to be the cause to the depletion of ozone, but no one really knows for sure. Teflon, the nonstick substance on pots and pans, is made of Carbon and is based off Ethane, an Alkane, but it replaces all the Hydrogens with a Halogen atom called Fluorine, to make it an Alkyl-based Halide. Our third type of organic classification, both classification and name of organic compound, or fourth organic compound as we count is called Alcohols. Alcohols are formed when one Hydrogen is replaced not to draw R, but with a functional group OH (not hydroxide the polyatomic ion, different properties, but familiar molecular structure, that applies here!) and an alkyl group, the two functional groups create a new type of organic compound with its own classification, that happens to be alkyl and OH based, and these are actually "bases" to the compound, but not chemical bases like Sodium Hydroxide, whoa! There is a major change in chemistry, that is inorganic because Sodium Hydroxide doesn't contain Carbon, I am using bases as a normal synonym for "fundamental components or units" of functional groups, just so you know. These two functional groups attach, eliminating R notations and making our fifth type of organic compound called an Alcohol. You can derive Alcohols from water, and think of water as an Oxygen with 2 Hydrogens surrounding it, and you can replace the Hydrogen with a Carbon to form an alcohol. This is another approach to learning Organic Chemistry, and I will now continue with this one. When you replace an Oxygen in water for a Carbon, and put the Oxygen on top of the Carbon, making it double bonded, and when 1 hydrogen is replaced, you get an aldehyde. With the same molecule derived from our third functional group, Carbon to Oxygen double bond with Carbon on the bottom is called the Carbonyl functional groups, so when both Hydrogens are replaced by R notations, it creates a new organic compound, our seventh, called a ketone. R could be Carbon, Oxygen, or even Nitrogen, but not Hydrogen, or else it would reform into an aldehyde. Carbonyl or C-O double bonded with O on top is also known to be called Carboxylate, and a OH functional group- characteristic of alcohols can be added in place of the Hydrogen on an Aldehyde or Ketone to yield a Carboxylic Acid, with an R remaining, which can be represented by another functional group such as Methyl, so Methyl OH CO, or CH3COOH turns out to be acetic acid or vinegar, an organic compound, and organic acid. Our fourth classification is called an Organic Acid, and our seventh and eighth types of organic compounds are Carboxylic Acid or Carbonyl-based compounds, and Ketones. So far, we have reviewed the organic compound classifications of Hydrocarbons, Heterohydrocarbons, Alcohols, and Organic Acids. We have reviewed the functional groups of the OH, Alkyl, and Carbonyl groups. We have reviewed the organic compounds of Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones. Remember, Alkanes are Carbon to Carbon single bonds; Alkenes are Carbon to Carbon double bonds, Alkynes are Carbon to Carbon triple bonds, and functional groups can represent other functional groups, organic compounds, or the actual compound itself as R. So Alcohols, which I learned as C-O-H, is actually R-OH; Aldehydes are R-CO-H; Ketones are R-CO-R, and so on. When you replace both hydrogens in water with Carbons, not 1 to make an alcohol, not 2 to make a Ketone, and not a Carbon with Oxygen double bonded to it and 1 hydrogen replaced to make an Aldehyde, but replacing both hydrogens with Carbons, and then from there the molecule contains R representations, where it can be bonded with other atoms. These are ethers. When you add a Carbonyl-based group such as a Carboxylate ion or Carboxylic Acid to an ether on one of the Carbons, you get an ester. So Ethers are R-C-O-C-R, Esters are R-CO-C-R or R-C-CO-R (resonance-wise), and Carboxylic Acids are R-CO-OH. There are certain formulas such as this one CnH2n+2, for determining the number of Carbon and Hydrogen there are in Hydrocarbons and Heterohydrocarbons. Isomers are Homology is Condensed Structural Formulae 2-4 carbon atoms are gases at room temperature, 5 to 18 carbon-12 atoms are liquids, and 18+ are solids as well as all organic & primarily basic compounds- all 3 groups are insoluble in water and float on it too Here are the rest of these formulas: Alkanes CnH2n+2 Alkenes CnH2n Alkynes CnH2n-2 Alcohols CnH2n+1OH = CnH2n+2O Aldehydes CnH2nO Carboxylic/Organic Acids CnH2nO2 Amines CnH2n+1NH2 = CnH2n+3N Amides CnH2n-1ONH2 = CnH2n+1ON Nitriles CnH2n-3N From the top of this list, Alkanes are made from carbon to carbon single bonds and consist of natural nonpolar oils, gases, and fuels such as Methane, containing just Carbon and Hydrogen. Alkenes are made from carbon to carbon double bonds and consist of nonpolar plastics, pigments, and strong but loose materials of the kind that want to fall apart but are held together by a certain binding energy. Alkynes - Aldehydes are made up of Carbon-Oxygen double bonds replacing the Oxygen in water with Carbon stuck to two hydrogens, and rearranging its molecular structure with a double bond and oxygen at the bottom (H-C-H-O) rather than (H-O-H or H-O-H-C) - An Aldehyde can still be an Aldehyde when losing a Hydrogen atom for another carbon-carbon single bond with the carbon in the C-O-H molecule, ultimately Aldehydes are bonds of C-O-H (where the Carbon may react with Carbon, Hydrogen, or Oxygen) - Ketones are made up of Carbon-Carbon-Carbon single bonds where a Ketone replaces both spots for Hydrogen with Carbon in an aldehyde molecule of (C-O) and forms C-CO-C (where CO is the aldehyde & either carbon can continue bonding with C or H) - In short, Aldehydes and Ketones contain the CO double bond- but Aldehydes have at least 1 Hydrogen connected while Ketones have no Hydrogen, and have 2 or more Carbons connected - Organic Acids (sometimes referred to as Carboxylic Acid) are Aldehydes connected to an Oxygen which further connects or bonds to Hydrogen, so Organic Acids are CO-OH or COOH: An Aldehyde with a Hydrogen on the left and Hydroxide (OH) on the right or the other way around (COOH) - Organic Acids also can bond with a part of a Hydrocarbon (due to the free fly process) and bond with a Carbon atom as on the left rather than keep the Hydrogen atom on the left (COOH-CH3) - Organic Acids are the COOH molecular structure - Esters are mostly made up of Carbon-Carbon-Oxygen single bonds where an Ester replaces both the Hydrogen in Hydroxide of an Organic Acid COOH molecule and the Hydrogen on the left of the organic acid with a Carbon atom - In short, Esters are organic acids only without Hydroxide in the COOH, so it's like H-CO-O-C, or C-CO-O-C instead of H-CO-O-H, or C-CO-O-H, In Esters the Hydroxide is stripped from the Organic Acid - Amines are made up of Ammonia & it's hydrogens replaced by one, two, or three alkyl groups such as methyl or ethyl, so methylamine and ethylamine are some of the common amines, while ethylamine and dimethylamine are the same formula, they create an isomeric relationship due to different molecular structures but the same molecular formula, and therefore are 1 of 2 functional groups which contain Nitrogen, note that Anilines are amines attached to benzene - Amino Acids are carboxylic acid or an organic acid COOH bonded with an amino group and an alkyl group, so Amino Acids have NH2 as their defined amino group & COOH as their functional group, while looking for an alkyl group such as CH2 which all bond to make the simplest amino acid: Glycine - Amino Acids are important in making proteins and enzymes for biological systems and humans - Amides are made up of Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, & Oxygen, Amides are Nitrogen atoms attached to carbonyl (alkyl) groups to create an overall amide functional group - In short, Amides are Ketones connected to/bonded with Amines - Unlike Cyclic Hydrocarbon Compounds, Heterocyclic compounds are rings with Carbon & independently one or more Oxygen, Nitrogen, and/or uncommonly Sulfur atoms independently standing as being bonded in the ring - Saturated Hydrocarbons contain single bonds or Alkanes, while Unsaturated Hydrocarbons contain double or triple bonds forcing additions of Hydrogen to form alkanes and become saturated - Benzene is C6H6, and is extremely isomeric and given a ring shape to discriminate its isomeric forms as universally accepted by science with uniform properties of its molecular originality - Hydrocarbons can become Chlorinated or Fluorinated by replacing the Hydrogen in the Hydro carbonic forms with Fluorine or Chlorine called chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) - Functional groups are existing bonds & their associative atoms or molecules or compounds which define the entire Homoglous series of certain organic chemicals from Alkanes & Alkenes to Esters & Amines - Alkyl groups are (represented by the symbol R in molecular structures and formulae nomenclature) Hydrocarbons with one or more Hydrogen atoms removed bonded to a functional group which defines the chemical or substance and its properties - Alkyl groups bond with a functional group, & can bond with the 9 or so functional groups to give it organic properties other than those of its original Hydrocarbon form, & are named by the base prefix of the hydrocarbon and given a -YL suffix so CH3 is an alkyl group called Methyl after Methane, and can bond to (R) a functional group of an Alkane, Alkene, Alkyne, and so on - Methanol is Methyl bonded with an Alcoholic form to make CH3OH which is modernly made from Carbon Monoxide and Natural Hydrogen Gas which chemically reacts and rearranges their respective molecular structures to produce Methanol - Phenols are made up of a Hydroxyl functional group attached to benzene & Phenols are not a functional group nor a alkyl group but just a common organic & weakly acidic compound - Hydroquinone, like Phenols are common organic compounds that somewhat acidic which contain 2 Hydroxyl functional groups which surround the benzene ring - And Cyclic Hydrocarbons are - All Alkyl groups are applied to bonding with functional groups to make new restructured organic compounds, chemicals, and/or substances as well as the following applications: - Alkanes are applied to being used as solvents of oils, fats, and waxes in water- and because of their nonpolar feature, alkanes float on top of water because of water's polarity, Alkanes are also used mainly as fuels because they oxidize and burn in the air - Alkenes & Alkynes are applied to bonding with additive Hydrogen to form saturated hydrocarbons, as well as bonding with Chlorine, Fluorine, & water to saturate and/or make organic chemicals such as CFC's, Freons, Silicones, ALL POLYMERS, Perfluorocarbons, Hemoglobin, & is all used to treat premature babies, Teflon polymers, & substances with nonstick properties- and their respective substances float on water as well like Alkanes - Alcohols are applied to Rx Drugs- indicating the # of alkyl groups involved in the drug, solvents, chemical intermediates, replacements of gasoline, & more - Ethers, Esters, Ketones, Aldehydes, Acids, Amines, & Amides all have respective applications usually used in the medical, biological, and/or constructional fields Synthesis of Organic Compounds (1) Mixing Silver Cyanate and Ammonium Chloride in Solution to produce Urea and Silver Chloride Precipitate (Precipitation, Synthesis) (2) Dissolving Calcium Carbide in Aqueous Solution to produce Acetylene Gas and Calcium Hydroxide (3) Decomposing Metal Oxides in the presence of a Heat Catalyst with moles of Carbon to produce the Metal Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, specifically Calcium Oxide to produce Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide

Concepts Associated with Nuclear Bonding & Forces (All Concepts)

Radioactivity results from an imbalance of forces in the nucleus, specifically the strong nuclear force and electric force. The strong nuclear force exhibited by both protons and neutrons is what holds the nucleus together and keeps atoms of certain elements stable, but it only covers a short distance. The electrical or electromagnetic force exhibited by only protons since neutrons have no electrical charge is what repels the protons from each other and keeps atoms of certain elements unstable, and it covers a somewhat longer distance. The larger the nucleus of the atom, the weaker the strong nuclear force, and thus the stronger the repulsive electromagnetic force, and the more unstable of an atom. Since Neutrons exhibit the strong nuclear force but not the repulsive electromagnetic force, they are found in the nucleus to help keep protons together and keep it stable because the strong nuclear force is what binds it together and adding more particles exhibiting this force is what keeps it stable. Primarily, the reason larger atoms require more neutrons than protons to keep it stable is because sparing the calculations made, each proton repels every other proton within the nucleus, so every proton feels the repulsion; however, the neutron only exhibits the strong nuclear force on a nearby atom, because remember the effectiveness of these forces is based on the distances to which they exhibit their power, and strong nuclear force is naturally automatically weaker than the repulsive electromagnetic force because it only covers short distances, so in an atom with 84 protons, one proton feels the repulsion of all 83 protons, but feels the strong nuclear force only by 1 or 2 nearby neutrons, which is why sometimes when there are not enough neutrons the atom is extremely unstable. Secondarily, isolated neutrons decay into protons and electrons, kind of like how isolated protons decay into neutrons and positrons. Because of this, neutrons and protons must be in a certain balance so that there are enough protons in the mix of the nucleus, and if there is not enough protons in the mix of the nucleus, there are so many more neutrons than protons in atoms like lead where there is over 1 ½ more neutrons than protons, and so the neutrons begin to decay into protons and electrons, exhibiting beta decay, and thus the repulsive electromagnetic force increases again with less and less neutrons present to exert the strong nuclear force upon protons in the nucleus, and as such the protons repel and this is what causes radioactive decay whereas this is the explanation as to why larger atoms are unstable and tend to undergo radioactive decay more than smaller atoms. However, smaller atoms, if of rarer isotopes like Carbon-14 as compared to Carbon-12, can undergo radioactive decay such as beta decay, because there are more neutrons than protons present in the nucleus isotopically, and one or more of these neutrons can thus undergo beta decay, turning into a proton and an electron, converting the Carbon-14 into Nitrogen-14 and producing an electron. Remember, electron production occurs when neutrons decay into protons and electron, neutron production occurs when protons decay into a neutron and a positron and when atoms are bombarded with Alpha Particles, and proton production occurs when atoms are bombarded with Alpha Particles, and when atoms are bombarded with neutrons. So when atoms undergo Alpha Decay, they move 2 atomic numbers down, because they are losing 2 protons and 2 neutrons as a result of the decay; and when atoms undergo Beta Decay, they move 1 atomic number up, because they are losing 1 neutron and gaining 1 proton through conversion, which is analogous to the electron being given up, where the negative charges cancel each other, subtracting a negative charge thus yields a positive charge or gained proton. Some radioactive elements like Uranium-238 take a very long time to decay to a stable isotope, in this case Lead-206. The isotopes it decays to undergo constant Alpha and Beta Decay until they lead to Lead-206. Also remember, the shorter the half-life, the greater the radioactivity, because the more unstable, the greater the radioactivity, and thus the shorter the half-life, the faster it disintegrates and the more radioactive decay per minute is detected. Half-lives are best measured by measuring the rate of decay of a known quantity of the element, done using a radiation detector like a Geiger Counter. All isotopes of elements that are radioactive, and all radioactive substances as such are called Radioisotopes, of which have many uses. Primarily, they are used to date the age of old objects. For example, the Carbon-14 produced in our atmosphere once every hundred billion Carbon-12 atoms produced is produced by the bombardment of neutrons and the bizarre cosmic rays from space which enter our atmosphere, which is naturally a radioactive isotope that usually undergoes Beta Decay to produce Nitrogen-14 and an electron, which thus creates a natural radioactive equilibrium between the two so nothing ever gets out of hand with Carbon-14. With that said, Carbon-14 can then be inserted into the Carbon Cycle, where it is a component now in Carbon Dioxide, and thus gets transported as plants take it and make sugars out of it, and then animals eat those plants, and animals eat other animals, and humans eat other animals, and the soil takes in some of this in different ways, and thus every carbon-containing, meaning specifically every Carbon-14-containing object on Earth when it dies and decays, it does so at a certain rate scientists can measure in comparison with a live object. So, if you have two objects that both contain the same radioisotope, and you know the half-life of that radioisotope, you can measure the amount as a percentage of the isotope in the first object as compared with the second object. Then, based on this percentage, you can tell how many half-lives it has been through to get to that percentage. Sometimes, the percentage is so small that the number of half-lives is inaccurate and that particular radioisotope cannot be used, but a different radioisotope can be used with a longer half-life where the numbers are larger for one to work with when dealing with objects of low percentages of the radioisotope when comparing them to the same objects today. Since not every object on Earth containing the same radioisotope decays at the same rate, there is an inaccuracy in this calculation you make for half-life, in which samples of the same radioisotope may decay faster than other samples of the same radioisotope. Furthermore, the further away the Earth's climate is from the radioactive equilibrium, that is the amount of Carbon Dioxide with Carbon-14 in it in the atmosphere is also relative, due to the fluctuations in the magnetic fields of the Sun and the Earth, which thus causes fluctuations in the cosmic ray intensity, thus causing fluctuations in amounts of Carbon-14 produced, and changes in the Earth's climate affect the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere. Secondarily, radioisotopes can be used as tracers, in which they can be put in something and a Geiger Counter can follow it wherever it goes when it is not visible to the naked eye. For example, radioisotopes can be used for commercial, industrial, and agricultural purposes. For example, putting radioisotopes in pipes where there is pipe leakage in buildings is a commercial application. One would tear up a small part of the floor and insert a radioisotope into the water and track it with a Geiger counter until it stopped moving where they could then rip apart that part of the floor and fix the leak. Another example would be in comparing fertilizers farmers are using. Sometimes without the aid of a Geiger counter, scientists can measure the amount of a certain radioisotope in one object compared with another through the method of radiography. This means that they can put small objects containing radioisotopes with fairly new objects on pieces of photographic film, and like Becquerel observed with his radioactive Uranium sample, these samples can fog up, mark, or expose the film where they contain amounts of radioisotopes, where scientists can thus measure the amounts of that radioisotope taken in. When these objects are plants and these scientists are measuring the amount of Phosphorus radioisotopes they contain from their uptake in fertilizers containing these radioisotopes and they make radiographs to uncover where the fertilizer was taken in, these tracer radioisotopes can be used for comparing and studying the effectiveness, efficiency, and nutritional values of fertilizers, weed killers, pesticides, insecticides, and various cattle feeds, which also helps produce new crops like peanuts and radishes based on the purposeful mutations by irradiation of these radioisotopes as tracers. Thirdly, radioisotopes are used as preservatives in foods, decaying to destroy microorganisms that cause food spoilage through the journey of the food, which as of late have shown no damaging effects to humans, just microorganisms. Fourthly, radioisotopes are used for medicine, in which they are inserted into patients via solutions they can drink or with which they can be injected that contain salts with cations or anions that are usually of radioisotopes that decay and glow to show certain things occurring in your body, usually giving off X-Rays or Gamma Rays otherwise harmless internally unlike Alpha Particles which are very harmful internally due to their kinetic energies but harmless externally due to their size and overall larger surface area than skin. These radioisotopes then glow or give off radiation we cannot see and radiation detectors detect it to make photoscans or PET scans of organs and their conditions in the body, so they are used for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Different radioisotopes naturally or anatomically concentrated in different parts of the body, so different radioisotopes are used for different purposes depending on the patient. Some common radiostopes include Iodine-131 found in the form of a Sodium Iodide or Potassium Iodine oral supplement, in which the radiation is concentrated in the thyroid gland, measured and pictures are taken of the thyroid gland, and it works by decaying and making the parts of the Thyroid gland glow so doctors can see if it has been damaged, and also it works by decaying and making the cancer cells that are reproducing and undergoing Mitosis incorrectly to shut down since they absorb this radiation and are ionized and damaged, which is what Iodine-131 and other common radioisotopes, only different in the location in which the body concentrates them, helps doctors understand what is going on in patients' bodies. Another includes Gadolinium-153 found in the form of a Gadolinium salt solution oral supplement, in which the radiation is concentrated in bones, and the measurement of the absorption of the Gadolinium-153 radiation in the form of attributed X-Rays and Gamma Rays determines the densities of bones throughout the body as measured by a scanning device which measures the amount of these rays absorbed, so if the amount is small, doctors can conclude that the bone density is low and the patient has lost bone density and needs to be treated for osteoporosis. It is important to note that not just are atoms of the same element different as isotopes, but atoms of the same isotope can be different as well, since certain isotopes like Technetium-99 exhibit metastability, in which they do not differ in atomic mass or weight but have a higher energy than other Technetium-99 isotopes alike, which gives radioisotopes like these short half-lives but also special properties. Another includes Carbon-11, in which the radiation is concentrated in the brain, and which undergoes positron emission as soon as it spots a problem in a certain area, and so when inhaled or injected into the body the positron clashes with an electron, producing gamma rays which exit opposite sides of the body and are scanned by devices that pinpoint where the positron-electron crash occurred, ignoring background radiation because they are only examining the planar opposite sides of emission, and as thus a picture is produced which help doctors better study the patient and look for a treatment or diagnosis. Other common radioisotopes used for medicines include Sodium-24, which locates obstructions in blood flow, Xenon-133 which images lungs, and Chromium-51, which measures and determines blood volume, all of which work in their own way like the 3 I mentioned above. Common Radioisotopes dealt with in chemistry include Protium, Deuterium, and Tritium or the isotopes of Hydrogen. Tritium can be used as a dater, dating wines and brandies, since Tritium's half-life is exceedingly less than Carbon-14's half-life, so it is more accurate for dating things that are much younger than that of 50-100 years, as compared to 500-50,000 years, whereas the half-life of Carbon-14 is more compatible. The final application of radioisotopes is in the use of harnessing Nuclear Energy, in which radioisotopes of Uranium are bombarded with Neutrons until a chain reaction of Nuclear Fission begins where half masses of the radioisotope known as Barium are produced and neutrons are produced to release a large amount of energy, large enough to destroy cities in Japan and large enough to power 1 home for 1,000 years. So we have discussed the various types of nuclear forces and types of radiation or radioactive decay including alpha particle decay (transmutates to 2 atomic numbers less), beta particle decay (transmutates to 1 atomic number more), gamma ray decay, X- ray decay, electromagnetic ray decay, electron production (beta decay), proton production (neutron bombardment of small-atom isotopes like Nitrogen due to cosmic rays, neutron bombardment of small-atom isotopes like Boron like in Chadwick's experiments with unstable Beryllium and Boron, and large-atom isotopes like Lead; neutron decay), neutron production (unstable large atoms decaying through Nuclear Fission, Proton Decay), positron production (proton decay) and positron emission (transmutates to 1 atomic number less because to now explain it- . However, electron capture is another type of these forces. Electron works because- At extremely high temperatures Chadwick may have used, protons and electrons or positrons and antiprotons can combine or fuse to produce neutrons, balanced nuclear or atomic reactions so to speak and thus a particle of mass is created from the fusing of energy

Concepts Associated with Liquids (All Concepts)

The wonderful world of liquids, the second state of matter opens up a new concept to chemical and physical properties, unlike solids. Although, like solids, liquids are condensed states, liquids are less diverse than solids and gases other than plasma, but is much more abundant, and therefore some liquid properties are determined by science concepts. Solids are pretty straightforward, and Gases involve a lot of Math, but liquids are straight up scientific concepts and that is why I like them. They are a big part of solutions, and uniquely have the most common property of being in solutions, as most solutions have the common property of being in the liquid phase state. Solids depend on intramolecular forces or bonds, and gases really don't have any forces, if any they have weak forces called London Dispersion forces, which we explain later. Liquids depend on Intermolecular Forces instead, sort of like bonds within the molecule dependent on electron clouds. There are many different types of intermolecular forces, and we will look at the force or bond strength scale at the end of the chapter to uniquely summarize all 3 familiar states of matter together although we still mathematically will talk about gases in the next chapter. Liquids can be polar or nonpolar compounds, such as polar solvents like water, and nonpolar solutes like oil; and usually homogenous mixtures. For a check up on terms I am using to describe liquid solutions, go over to Chapter 10. Liquids contain particles which roll over one another about the space they take up. Liquids have no definite shape, but they have a definite volume and combine in definite proportions like all states of matter, and therefore they are still a condensed state where it has a definite volume and can be measured using volumetric units. A little more kinetic than solids, liquids vaporize to produce gases, and liquids freeze to produce solids. Liquids contain intermolecular forces and polar intramolecular covalent bond forces similar to intermolecular forces known as dipole-dipole forces which are smaller and weaker than normal polar covalent bonds- which depend more on electronegativity, and nonpolar covalent bonds Liquids can be things like polar solvents such as water, liquid solution mixtures, electrolytes, blood, milk, juice, and even mercury, bromine, iodine, and gallium, which melt at room temperature because 98 degrees f is the f melting point. Intermolecular Forces are forces weaker than intramolecular forces that are also known as chemical bonds. The Order from strongest to weakest bond forces of molecules constitutes as the following to summarize all states of matter and phase state properties. o Ionic Bonds (Solids) o Nonpolar Covalent Bonds (Solids, Liquids, and Gases) o Polar Covalent Bonds (Solids, Liquids, and Gases) o Dipole-Dipole Forces (Solids, Liquids) o Metallic Bonds (Solids, Liquids) o Hydrogen Bonds (Liquids) o London-Dispersion Forces (Liquids, Gases) Intermolecular Forces allow particles of liquids to be divided in the case of molecules- so they can be broken or divided into portions. - Intermolecular Forces allow particles of liquids to be divided in the case of atoms- so they can be broken like water is broken into protons and Hydroxide when electrical or thermal energy is endothermic in such a reaction with water - Condensed States are Solids and Liquids - There are 3 different classes of liquids which depend on the intermolecular (not intramolecular) force present, and those intermolecular forces give the liquid its properties, which are: - London Dispersion Forces o Weakest of the intermolecular forces, London dispersion based on the discovery of Fritz London, and are attractions between temporary regions of higher or lower electron density in nonpolar compounds or molecules o Considered a temporary attraction between clusters of electrons that takes place inside of molecules o Most notable in substances such as oil, fuel, air, and noble gases o Occasionally, electrons moving about in their clouds around nuclei can cluster together for less than a second in the many different probabilities according to Heisenberg (that's how temporary), and the region of the atom or molecule where this happens has a slight negative charge due to the fact there is no incoming electron or outgoing photon, and that there are no more than 8 electrons in these clusters according to a Bohr model, and the other regions experience a slightly small positive charge, and therefore very temporarily as we considered- and are strong enough to not so much attract each other, but attract another a negative and another positive charge of another molecule in such a dispersion state to build bonds which don't necessarily attract each other to buildup, giving the liquid such a property for its particles to roll around o It also allows gases behaving with such dispersion forces that they attract and condense to the point where they roll around o Electron Densities or electron clouds tend to distort or flow in rounds to one side of an atom or molecule, easily pushed around with a slight negative charge, but not fixed o Such a weak dipole can induce a dipole in another molecule and lead to such an attraction which gives a liquid such properties o A force is different than a bond, though it may undergo a physical change and have the same physical properties, it will contain the same chemical properties and not undergo a chemical change, so the bonds stay the same, but the density lowers, and the colligative properties of chemical properties are the only ones that really change, due to the amount of substance or density in the physical change, and only are forces such as dispersion of London forces introduced or induced on a substance which underwent such a physical change such as melting or condensing due to intermolecular forces - Dipole-Dipole Forces o A dipole is a separation of partial charges such as water, and such forces occur when the polar covalent compounds or molecules experience polarity with their components, and even nonpolar which has slight positive and negative, but unlike polar, nonpolar obviously due to the name- has the ability to cancel out proportional charges and stay nonpolar o All polar and nonpolar covalent molecules experience such forces o Hydrogen Bonding is another type of force, but it is a type of dipole-dipole force where the Hydrogen atom bonds with a strongly electronegative element; usually oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine and always happening in nonpolar and polar molecules, but only canceling out proportionally in nonpolar ones o Dissolving a force which binds a crystalline solid for example in a polar solvent like water, it will attract water molecules and create slightly small positive and negative charges when interacting with the water molecule o Charge Density is the measure of an atom or an element's amount of electrons to gain or lose based on its atomic properties o Chemical properties such as reactivities between liquids which determine electrochemical processes can importantly be determined by intermolecular forces o Dipole-Dipole forces tend to be especially important in polar liquids and are considered the strongest intermolecular force and according to the list above, but not as strong as the ion-dipole or ion- polar liquid combos in things like electrolytes- where the intermolecular force of electrolytes are stronger than those of say Chlorine- Fluoride gas - Polar Covalent Bonds and Nonpolar Relationships - There are many different properties of liquids too due to the preceding types of forces which determine the bonds of the liquids and essentially, their properties: - Cohesion o Cohesion is defined as any attraction between molecules or particles in a liquid to attract each other, observed when liquid piles up on top of a glass until the weight of the water is greater and stronger than the intermolecular forces holding it together - Surface Tension o Because of such a cohesive observance, Surface tension- a property in which liquids have the tendency to minimize their surface area due to intermolecular forces holding the liquid particles together—is so strong in water that items of higher density can float on top of it - Adhesion o The attraction of molecules to stick or become an adhesive to the container for which they create a definite shape for themselves with a definite volume, acting as a solid adhesive but a liquid due to intermolecular forces o If more attracted to the container than themselves in the solution or liquid, it will form a meniscus- a crescent-shaped swoop in a liquid captured in a container such as a beaker o If more attract to themselves than the container in the solution or liquid, it will form a convex meniscus- still crescent-shapes, but the other way around - Viscosity o The higher the viscosity of a liquid, the more of a tendency to resist flow it has, and substances such as liquids with Hydrogen bonds tend to have high viscosity such as honey- which is a sugar starch that tends to p[our slowly because of the outer Hydrogens o Other examples include Oils which have high viscosity because of all the Hydrogen which can bond to product such Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons, and Medicines- high tech chemical drugs used where Hydrogens on the outside build the bonds to create the substance by Hydrogen bonding o The greater the hydrogen bond, the greater the viscosity, it sort of is like a macromolecular measurement of Hydrogen bonding in liquids - Capillary Action o Liquid spontaneously rising in a narrow tube due to cohesion and adhesion, as the molecules outside of the tubes are attracted to the ones inside the tube, and it has to do with STP as well, and how pressure down and so does gravity, but your straw sucks air and the liquid up in it, a story for another time o Depends on Cohesion and Adhesion as well - Note that the properties of an element or what period or family the element belongs in is essential not only to their number of valence electrons in their shell, but whether or not it is a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal determines whether intermolecular forces or intramolecular forces occur at natural temperatures of such substances - Surfactants are substances or mixtures which disrupt surface tension because of their opposite covalent type bond, be polar to nonpolar solvents, or nonpolar to polar solvents such as water - Temperature Changes in Viscous liquids may change the flow of the liquid you are handling - "slower than molasses in the wintertime" is a quote which comes from the fact that when you freeze molasses, the intermolecular forces are tightly compacted and make it more viscous than ever, resisting flow and slowly moving, molasses is slower then medicine coming from a vial, so imagine how slow it would be if it freeze in the winter season - A high viscosity liquid that appears to be solid is commonly known as amorphous solids, and an amorphous solid classification as not explained in the last chapter is explained by this - Glass, Rubber, and Charcoal- as discussed in the last chapter are examples of amorphous solids with such viscous physical properties - Heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to cause the temperature of a substance to rise 1 Kilojoule, so the stronger the intermolecular force, the more heat is needed to compensate - Explains why some liquids having higher boiling points and vapor pressures than others as well Liquids do not have a definite shape but do have a definite volume Liquids and Solids are known as Condensed States, since they have more similar properties than Gases, as the Kinetic Molecular Theory and other theories to support it conclude three reasons Condensed State Solids and Liquids have more similar properties than they do with Gases, and why the chemistry of the state of Matter you are discussing s confusing when encompassing all three states of Matter/Phase Changes First of all, Solids and Liquids are much more dense and cooler (in terms of temperature, not likeness) than Gases Second of all, Solids and Liquids both have definite volumes unlike that of Gases Third of all, Solids and Liquids have certain forces which bind their particles together, unlike that of Gases, Solids are held by Bonds and Liquids are held by Forces, sometimes these are classified as Intramolecular Forces for Solids and Intermolecular Forces for Liquids, while there are no recordable Forces or Bonds holding gases together On the other hand, the fact that Solids have Intramolecular Forces holding them together, Liquids have Intermolecular Forces, and Gases have no Forces at all, the Chemical Bonds you learned about in Chapter 4 still work for all three phase changes as solids, and are still kept as a distinct chemical property when being heated and changing from solid to liquid to gas, although these bonds make up individual particles of liquids and gases, and as such, the change of forces occurs between particles of liquids and gases, but not the actual forces holding the particles (or molecules) together as described through the derivative of forces holding matter as a solid The range of forces also reflects the range of Polarity as discussed in the Chemical Bonds chapter These Intermolecular Forces include Dipole-Dipole Attractive Forces, London Forces, & Hydrogen Bonding The first of these, Dipole-Dipole Forces act the same way Polar Covalent bonds do, and are represented by balls of electron probabilities around symbols of atoms that may be bigger or smaller in the area of a certain atom in the bond Polar Bonds are defined as electrons not being shared equally by atoms, and in loose terms, this means more electrons come together around the negative side of the polar bond rather than the positive one since it is polar and the partially negatively charged wants more electrons than the partially positive charged element as described on the Periodic Table Diatomic Dielemental Molecules are always polar for one atom wants electrons more than the other because of its electronegativity And Polyatomic Dielemental Symmetrical Molecules are always nonpolar for all atoms share electrons equally in specific places to achieve octets, and although octets are achieved in polar covalent bonds, the electrons in the space imagined of the two atoms huddle around the more electronegative element than the electropositive element creating an easily defined probability of electrons in a cloud since you are cutting in half an atom where most electrons hurdle around the electronegative atom and also give it slight paramagnetic properties Thus, a Dipole is this space imagined and defined are represented by a Delta with a + or -, rather than just a + or -, which means the electrons are completely placed in the electron cloud or shells or however you want to imagine it, and that those electrons around the atom give it eight, and the atom that gave up its electrons as electropositive as it is clicks with the other atom and becomes electrically charged without electrons or with electrons in an ionic bond Come full circle, Dipole-Dipole forces act like Polar Covalent bonds because the negative ends want to reach with the positive ends of other Polar molecules, and since most solvents are polar liquids, the polarity of the individual particles or molecules of the liquid reflects the polarity of the bonds in the particle itself, if the negative end of a liquid particle contains many electrons, it wants to reach out to the positive end of another liquid particle and "attract" for the orientation to be complete, and hold the forces of a liquid together In order for a liquid to reach its boiling point or for a gas to reach its condensation point (both are the same temperature), the attractive orientations have to be less in distance and more in polarity to overcome the kinetic energies of the gas, thus the Binding Energy holding Dipole-Dipole Forces is greater than the Kinetic Energy of individual diatomic gas particles Mathematically, the Force to overcome the Kinetic Energy is equal to the charges as represented by deltas divided by the radius squared of the particle or molecule Applying Gas Laws, Increasing the Pressure or Decreasing the Temperature (but not both for they are proportional) will help condense a gas into a liquid Remember, Low boiling points indicate low attractive forces and High boiling points indicate high attractive forces, highly polar molecules have higher boiling points than lower ones, just like stronger nonpolar triple bonds have higher boiling points and release more energy than nonpolar double bonds Dipole-Dipole Forces reflect polarity of both Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces, and thus determine the macromolecular observations of Vapor Pressure, Viscosity (Density of Hydrogen Bonds), Liquid Solubilities, Solvent Properties, and Surface Tension Although this summarized most substances, it really only worked for Solvent Properties in our macromolecular observations list since it only worked for Polar Liquids like Polar Solvents such as Water or Alcohols, Nonpolar Liquids and their Forces derived from most gases being Nonpolar anyway would come from Fritz London's revolutionary intermolecular force innovation of understanding to summarize Nonpolar Liquids condensed from most gases being Nonpolar anyway such as those in our atmosphere London Dispersion Forces weren't as original in theory but creative enough by London than any other mind at the time for much grand of an expectation, as he stated that "nonpolar atoms and molecules may become momentarily polar when an unsymmetrical or congregating distribution of their electrons results in the formation of instantaneous dipoles or induced dipoles" In other words, when electron orbiting around atoms have determined location probabilities according to quantum physical theories, the electrons moving about all the time may turn into a dipole for one quick second as a probability of a location all the electrons could be in, even if it is a nonpolar molecule, since according to quantum theory electrons are always whizzing about their atoms, and as dipoles they are still whizzing about, but they are next to an electronegative atom But in London Dispersion forces, the electrons are "dispersing" throughout an atom or molecule all the time, with no electronegativity or electropositivity existent because the molecule is symmetrical and nonpolar geometrically, thus whenever electrons do happen to retain a dipole moment in a fraction of a second, these molecules are then induced as dipoles and allow for these forces to be created These induced dipoles may induce other nonpolar particles or molecules as liquids, or they may be attracted by other induced nonpolar particles in the liquid already at attractive orientations and thus create weak but attractive forces which thus allow nonpolar liquids evaporating into gases have very low boiling points London Dispersion Forces are strong enough to liquefy Hydrogen Gas since the electrons can induce dipoles and attract molecules of Hydrogen Gas slowing their kinetic energies so they are strong enough to form a liquid, as is the physical explanation rather than the experimental definition of liquefying Hydrogen, Helium, and Noble Gases as done by William Ramsay Polarizability refers to the ease with which the electron cloud of a nonpolar atom or nonpolar molecule can be induced into a dipole based on the constant whizzing about of electrons Atoms with electrons held tightly to the nucleus have small atomic radii and high effective nuclear charge according to Periodic Trends and Properties Atoms that are small have low Polarizability Atoms that are large with larger atomic radii have high Polarizability Higher Boiling Points indicate Higher Attractive Forces and Lower Boiling Points indicate Lower Attractive Forces All of this said, the more electrons there are in an atom, the more of a Polarizability it has or the greater tendency it has to form dipoles and thus have stronger attractive forces which raise the boiling points of the nonpolar atoms or molecules This is also the reason for the following Periodic Trends: 1. The boiling points of nonmetal elements tend to increase from the top to the bottom of the group they are in 2. The boiling points of metallic elements tend to decrease from the top to the bottom of the group they are in This is also the reason boiling points increase of fuels and waxes such as the primary Alkane (aka the Paraffin) series, because the more Hydrogen added to the nonpolar bonds thus increases the Polarizability or tendency to induce dipoles because more electrons are being added and more probabilities of inducing dipoles can occur, thus making the attractive forces stronger, and thus raising the boiling point of the Methane Series gases and being able to condense into liquids so easily such as those at room temperature: Propane, Butane, and Octane This is also the reason Halogens have higher boiling points than Noble Gases Hydrogen Bonding is the third type if intermolecular force which is also considered a dipole-dipole force where Hydrogen bonds with Nitrogen, Oxygen, or Fluorine as a Polar Bond, although Hydrogen has a unique electronegativity which allows it to bond with Halogens such as Chlorine or Fluorine, Nitrogen, or Oxygen as a Polar Bond rather than an Ionic Bond like Sodium and Chlorine, where Sodium is in the same family as Hydrogen on the Periodic Table The electronegativity difference between Hydrogen and these three particular elements if greater than that of any other covalent bond on the polarity scale, just below the strength of ionic bonds, and is thus weak enough to be heated to a liquid rather than solid like salts or mineral-composed rocks These extremely tight polar covalent bonds can form chains like plastics because of the free radical Hydrogen gas to give to Fluorine as a Polar Bond, Hydrogen Fluoride, Water, and Ammonia are good examples of Hydrogen Bonding which makes strong polar bonds as forces in liquids rather than bonds in Solids Hydrogen bonds with Fluorine to make Hydrogen Fluoride, Hydrogen bonds with Nitrogen to make Amines derived from Ammonia Gas such as Amino Acids, which are full of strong polar Hydrogen bonds, and Hydrogen bonds with Oxygen to make water, which has a ton of interesting properties as being polar and Hydrogen bonded which we will explain in a bit, this also explains why a type of Carbohydrates (nonpolar) called Sugars (polar) dissolve in Water (polar, like dissolves like) as explained in Solutions Chemistry (Chapter 15) as the Hydrogen bonds all over sugar and even over Alcohols (OH Functional Group) has the OH Functional Group itself to be a Polar Hydrogen Bond rather than a nonpolar bond, because if you think about it, it is a diatomic polar bond, where the electronegativity difference is great and the OH functional group thus supports alcohols, and similar alcohol structures in the form of Carbohydrates called Sugars, allowing them to be Polar and thus dissolve in like Polar Solvent water So Hydrogen bonds with Oxygen to form the OH Functional Group, not just common in Sugars and Alcohols, but as you learn in Organic Chemistry, also common in Organic Acids (which are the only type of Polar Acids other than Amino Acids when Hydrogen bonds with Nitrogen), as well as in Phenol Alcohols Hydrogen bonding is strong enough to give Water strange properties unlike that of any other Polar Solvent, thus making it the Polar Solvent This is because the bonds that hold water are unusually stronger than any other liquid between O and H in the substance, and also why ice is less dense than water and floats on it, a stronger crystal formation of OH indeed, but still water and thus less dense Hydrogen bonds also hold Amino Acids together, which is essential for the construction of Proteins, and hold the Bases together as a part of putting together the Double Helix of DNA, so without Hydrogen bonding, our world would be covered in Ice (no water, less strong than ice and more dense), there would be no medicine (viscous or thick liquids with Hydrogen bonds as Alcohols, Phenols, and Sugars used to treat symptoms of sickness in thorough measures), nor would there be any DNA meaning no life at all, so this proves why genetically engineering microscopic Hydrogen bonds is extremely dangerous and should be prevented at all costs for all of life depends on it London Dispersion Forces are generally weaker unless Dipole-Dipole Moments occur To summarize the Intermolecular Forces learned and all the Forces and Bonds that hold matter together, the Polarity scale is based on this In order of least strength to greatest strength: o Nonpolar Bonds o London Dispersion Forces o Dipole-Dipole Forces o Hydrogen Bonds o Polar Bonds o Ionic Bonds (Dipole-Ion: When Dipoles attract and dissolve ionically bonded substances, this is what makes water (Dipole) attract and decompose or dissolve salts (Ions)) All Intermolecular Forces can also be considered "Van Der Waals" forces in contribution to the work of Johannes Van Der Waals himself and the fundamental law that opposites attract and like repels in all of chemistry, physics, and the universe So, Polar liquids have Dipole-Dipole Forces, Nonpolar liquids have London Dispersion Forces, and Viscous Liquids have Hydrogen Bonding Forces Viscosity is a property, and as we said before, one property of liquid is that "it can be viscous or thick, meaning the ability to resist flow, the thicker or more resistant, the more viscous", and is created from Hydrogen Bonding such as Medicine's various OH groups Temperature also affects Viscosity, as if the Temperature is increased, the Kinetic Energy increases and thus some of the strong Hydrogen bonds break, allowing for less resistance for a liquid to flow and thus an Increase in Temperature decreases Viscosity Like when taking a cold liquid out of the freezer, it has to warm up at STP first in order to begin to flow easier or the reason being to keep Syrup in the cabinet instead of the fridge so it flows easy as soon as it comes out of the jar, containing all those sugars with OH groups slowing the flow down and thus increasing the viscosity, the increase in temperature in other words decreases the orientation strength of the intermolecular forces, this decreasing the viscosity Surface Tension is a phenomenon of liquids that occur when liquids are turning into gases or reaching their boiling points and the kinetic energy from the heat and potential energy contained throughout the liquid add to the breaking of intermolecular forces between molecules throughout the liquid and when liquids boil or evaporate, it starts from the outside, in as a macromolecular observation Thus, the intermolecular forces around the edges or surface area of a liquid come together and make the entire liquid's surface area minimize and make the liquid form beads or wafts of fluid among surfaces in certain shapes rather than desired or random ones In other words, The "bulk" of the liquid is surrounded by molecules, but at the "surface" of the Liquid, the molecules broken from the potential and kinetic energies accelerating compensate with intermolecular forces and make the edge of the liquid smaller, making the liquid form such certain shapes This stronger edge around the surface of the liquid rather than the inside in potential phase state change allows a surface for an iron nail or even an animal like an insect to "float" on the surface area of the water and minimize tension thus making the Surface tension real, sort of like a "skin" on the liquid Cohesive Forces are those attractions between identical molecules of a liquid Adhesive Forces are those attractions between different molecules of a liquid, such as those in the liquid and those of the surface they are attracted to When the Cohesive Forces are stronger than those of the Adhesive ones, beads are formed and the skin layer is complete When the Adhesive Forces are stronger than those of the Cohesive ones, uniforms are formed and the skin layer spreads out throughout the layer such as glass that water tends to surface itself on Surfactants are chemicals that react to remove or overcome the Cohesive Forces of Water when they evaporate on glassware as beads and create undesired spots such as in the dishwasher, thus reducing the spot problem Evaporation occurs when a liquid reaches its boiling point or when gases are formed as a physical change from liquids, thus is the opposite of Condensation, when the kinetic energy overcomes the energy or "escape" energy of the intermolecular forces in liquids and turns the liquid into a gas where there are no forces at all and as such is not a condensed state The Evaporation Rate of a Liquid is dependent on the type of Intermolecular Forces holding it together, the Surface Area, and the Temperature The rate at which a liquid evaporates is dependent on the type of intermolecular force which holds up the liquid where the kinetic energy is trying to overcome the overall potential or binding energy aka "escape" energy of Intermolecular Forces to vaporize it So syrup takes longer to evaporate than water which takes longer to evaporate than gasoline because of the decrease in strong intermolecular force Hydrogen bonding between the substances listed The rate at which a liquid evaporates is also dependent on the surface area of the liquid, since it is known that as liquids could evaporate, the compensation of intermolecular forces to create surface tension occurs because the liquid begins to evaporate at the surface and thus the size of the surface area will determine the evaporation rate, the smallest the surface area the liquid is contained in to hold its shape as rolling particles held by intermolecular forces The smaller the Surface Area, the slower it will take to evaporate, and thus the larger the surface area, the faster surface tension will occur and the liquid will evaporate, overcoming the potential energy of the intermolecular forces compensating in attractive orientations because of the loss of liquid due to the kinetic energy overcoming it So evaporating water in a test tube will take a lot longer than in a glass cup In any group of molecules, the average kinetic energy is proportional to the Kelvin temperature Also, another factor in speeding up the evaporation of a liquid would be temperature, the higher the temperature, the faster the evaporation process, and thus a relationship with volume and pressure are not needed, STP is hot enough to make reactions occur based on normal conditions of the other two factors Evaporation of most liquids in containers occurs at STP too because it absorbs heat from its surroundings, but if it is insulated for example it will slow down, however if it is made up of metal it will most likely speed up To come to terms, the escape energy can also be defined as the minimum amount of Kinetic Energy needed for a molecule to escape from the liquid into the gas phase, as such all molecules with kinetic energies greater than the escape energy are capable of evaporating Vapor Pressure is defined as the pressure that begins to develop when liquids evaporating in a container contain a gas in which the gas's particles come in contact with the walls of the container or the liquid, rarely bouncing off of the liquid because of the weak yet attractive forces the two contain, and thus some of the gas returns to the liquid as a liquid at the same time the liquid evaporates and the kinetic energy overcomes the intermolecular forces to evaporate into the gas, the pressure at which can only be further exceeded by temperature is known as the "Vapor Pressure" And the action at which a liquid-gas solution requires temperature to continue evaporating, thus when it isn't the gas particles condense into liquid and the liquid particles evaporate into the gas at the same time is known as "Dynamic Equilibrium" And according to the Gas Laws and Joseph Gay-Lussac, since Temperature and Pressure are proportionally related, Vapor Pressure increases as Temperature increases, and more and more liquid is evaporating to reduce Dynamic Equilibrium Since Vapor Pressure depends on the temperature at which you heat the liquid, there is no calculation to be need and the vapor pressure of different liquids at different temperatures has already inversely and proportionally been recorded The boiling point can be defined in two different ways using two different terms; as Evaporation it is the temperature at which a liquid begins to turn into a gas and boil, and as Vapor Pressure or when boiling occurs, the vapor Pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure around that liquid Therefore, the Boiling Point of a liquid is not constant unless the amount of Pressure is specified, so if the Pressure is at STP, the Boiling Point is always the same based on the chemical of liquid you are using Heat of Vaporization is the energy needed to convert 1 gram off liquid into 1 gram of gas at a temperature equal to the normal or standard boiling point of a liquid which is @STP So Viscosity, Surface Tension, Evaporation, Vapor Pressure, and Heat of Vaporization are all physical properties recorded about Liquids Heat Capacity is the measurement of the amount of heat needed to raise 1 degree Celsius of a substance Specific Heat is the measurement of the amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of a substance to 1 degree Celsius Heat of Vaporization is the measurement or amount of heat needed to evaporate a given amount of liquid into a gas by use of breaking intermolecular forces Condensation Point: Temperature at which a substance can turn from a gas into a liquid Boiling Point: Temperature at which a substance can turn from a liquid into a gas Freezing Point: Temperature at which a substance can turn from a liquid into a solid Crystallization Point: Temperature at which a substance begins to form crystals and either may expand or contract, freeze or heat, depending on the substance These are all other properties of liquids, particularly the fact that water shares the same rates of certain properties compared to any liquid and gives it special properties unlike that of any other liquid

Concepts Associated with Solutions (All Concepts)

The world around us is composed of Solutions- usually liquid or gas, and once in a while solid. They are definitely a form of matter, so we can classify them in our universe chart as being of matter, mixture, and homogenous- in which you can take a sample of this mixture in two different spots and it will retain the same properties, as well as being known to be evenly mixed. Air is a mixture of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon (Carbon Dioxide), and Argon, so as a gas it is classified this way. Solutions have components as well, which are better defined and thoroughly discovered by many scientists famous for the work such as Joseph Priestly. The first component is the solvent, or substance that never undergoes a phase change and usually has more space to take up, more of a mass, volume, or overall density than the solute. The solute is the substance which may change in solution and usually dissolves into the solvent homogenously to be a little less in quantity than the solvent itself. Altogether, the solute and solvent make the solution what it is. There can only be one solvent, usually a polar compound like water which dissolves one, two, or multiple solutes which retain solute properties and keep the mixture homogenous as always. So, in our air, Nitrogen is the solvent, and Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, and Argon are all solutes. The air isn't any different here than it is in China, right? Well, that can get a little interesting because Sulfur and Chlorine gas is emitted into the air in China, which makes the air a little different than here, but not to the point where the Chinese can't breathe. So Sulfur Dioxide and Chlorine are still solutes. Sulfur Dioxide also creates acid rain, which I discuss in environmental chemistry in Chapter 23. Whenever considering solutions, the state of the solvent determines the state of the solution. The rule like dissolves like is a loose term with many exceptions unless you can establish a theory, partly of which I did. The original solubility theory states that like substances are substances which hold the same bonds, and that certain complex molecule compounds or molecular nonpolar covalent compounds can turn polar if their isomers are discovered and used in the solution. Overall, Isomers are substances that constitute of the same molecular formula but have different molecular structures or arrangements because of more complex isomeric sciences discussed in quantum hybridization theory, and thus with different structures has different properties, possibly different electronegativites between the central atom and the rest of the atoms that formulate themselves in a different way to create the isomer, and thus have different electronegativites and overall different bonds defining them. This usually occurs when a nonpolar molecule becomes polar because the more electronegative reactivity center is created in the rearrangement of atoms to form the isomer. Believe it or not, this is actually my theory I thought of after a suggestion from my 8th grade science teacher, and unless this is actually true to real scientific data, I will perhaps one day promote this theory to fill in the blanks for the like dissolves like exceptions. With that said, like dissolves like, even if the solute being dissolved is nonpolar, it may be undergoing dissolving processes because it is of an isomer being used. Thus, polar can dissolve anything, be it like substances with polar covalent bonds, unlike substances which have isomers that are polar covalent, or ionic bonds which are also known to be an exception since these are closely related with their polar bond sisters although their reactivity centers are different because they contain highly electronegative elements which are recorded so high that all ionic compounds cannot have isomers. It is a general rule that only covalent compounds, be they nonpolar or polar covalent can have isomers of each other and thus may interchangeably be defined by different bond types dissolving each other to fulfill the exceptions of the rule. The only other exception of course is of ionic compounds which like polar covalent compounds, have positive and negative charges. The only difference is that the negative charges of the ionic compounds are far greater and require much higher ionization energies to be isomers and thus dissolve differently in solution. But all of this is only a theory. For example, when dealing with Organic Chemistry, you are dealing with Carbon and all nonpolar covalent compounds, some of which are solvents and are all nonpolar solvents. So now you know solvents can be polar or nonpolar, although polar and nonpolar are unlike and cannot be dissolved. Sucrose, a common sugar substance is considered a class of organic polymers called sugars supported by certain nonpolar bonds. If such a theory is established, isomers of sucrose may be polar, thus allowing water to dissolve sugar (nonpolar usually, but polar as an isomer) or salt (ionic, but similar to polar because of charges throughout substance, not electronegativites). We assume salt is soluble because of its polar related properties, not any isomers, which we can prove do not exist after these considerations. Normally, solutes and solvents undergo physical changes instead of chemical changes. Likewise, chemical changes will occur when both solubilities and insolubilities of substances acting as nonpolar or polar solutes in polar solvents such as water, or nonpolar organic solvents such as Methanol are present. If a solute is polar, and the solvent is polar, the solution might actually change its chemical properties determined by the solubility. If a solute is nonpolar, and the solvent is nonpolar, the solution once again will most likely undergo a chemical change. If a solute is nonpolar or ionic and the solvent is polar (solvents are never ionic), which occurs in most cases of solutions, the solute will dissolve in the solvent. If the solute is able to dissolve in the solvent that being usually of water or the universal polar solvent, it is said to be soluble, otherwise it is insoluble, meaning it cannot be dissolved in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a certain temperature. When a solution reaches its solubility to the point where solvent just starts collecting at the bottom or in another relative location, it is said to be saturated. The rates of reactions in solutions Molarity is represented as the moles of solute per liter of solution. Molality is represented as the moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Molarity has to do with volume, and Molality has to do with Mass, because liters are a measurement of volume and kilograms are a measurement of mass. Both are applicable and diverse anyway because the process of measuring molality is easy because you just need to use a scale and measure the masses and divide them, unlike molarity where you have to take out the flask and measure out the difference in volumes using Archimedes principle and divide them, where the process and math takes longer. I prefer to use Molarity over Molality because it isn't that popular of a formula, but it so iconic because it represents those flask you see when measuring solution concentrations. Note that Molarity relates the solute to the entire solution in volume, and Molality relates the solute to the just the solvent in mass. Percentage Composition of solution concentration units using molality concepts refers to the percentage expressing the concentration of a particular solute in a solution as well. These percentages are figured Mass/Mass, Volume/Volume, and Mass/Volume - Mass/Mass Percentage- - Mass/Volume Percentage- - Volume/Volume Percentage- So the units used for solution concentrations are moles per liter, solute per solution for molarity, and moles per kilogram, solute per solvent in solution for molality. M stands for molarity, and m. stands for molality. Under certain, non-standard conditions, a solute can come back out of its solution and form a solid, this process is called crystallization, & when solutions are mixed, chemical reactions occur forming solids- this solid is called a precipitate. A precipitate is a result of a chemical change and minerals that are dissolved in tap water react chemically with soap, and the products of such a reaction leave the water as a precipitate called soap scum, the stuff at the bottom of your soap bar holders. More about this process is discussed in Chapter 9. More measurements and practice of molarity, molality, percentage composition, and other modern solution laws can be practiced on the worksheets and workbooks attached to the end of these study concepts written in this book Solutions are usually Liquids or Gases and are considered to be all or most Homogenous Mixtures, other than that of colloids or suspensions The solvent determines the overall properties of the solution Good descriptions of solutions include the terms used below and concentrations units described below as well and solution concentration percentages The solute is the substance that dissolves in the solvent which dissolves the solute Most Solutes are Solids and Most Solvents are Liquids, but Gases and Liquids can be Solutes too, although when dealing with Solutions you are more likely to classify all of them as liquid homogenous mixtures Also, most chemical reactions take place in liquids or solutions These reactions include the basic chemical reaction such as Formation and Synthesis Reactions, Double Displacement reactions such as Precipitation and Neutralization reactions, Single Displacement reactions, and Redox reactions such as Oxidation-Reduction reactions Remember, one or more solutes can be dissolved in a Solvent The combinations of phase states in solutions include two Solids melted at high temperatures and fused to produce alloys, a Solid Solute and Liquid Solvent, a Liquid Solute and Liquid Solvent, a Gas Solute and Liquid Solvent, or a Gas Solute and (rarely) Gas Solvent You can never have a Gas Solute and Solid Solvent, Solid Solute and Gas Solvent, or Solid Solvent altogether Remember, there is always more solvent than the solute in solutions Solutions often are used by Analytical Chemists to understand, experiment, evaluate, and/or perform chemical reactions in solution such as those described above and they do it both chemically and analytically using concepts of Stoichiometry Concentration is defined as the amount of solute per given amount of solvent and is used with numerical terms as Quantitative Analysis makes use of this term to describe solutions since Concentration is described in mathematical units in variables of Mass and Volume of Solute and Solvent as these are known as Concentration Units Solubility is the measure at which the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved in the solvent in grams per liter in the realm of Quantitative Analysis as well Saturation refers to the amount of solute compared to the given amount of solvent Qualitative Analysis makes use of the term since Qualitative Analytic Chemists describe what is actually happening instead of the numerical or mathematical insight (something I might be interested in other than Spectroscopy and Astrochemistry in the realm of science) Thus, if a Solution is saturated it has the maximum amount of solute per given amount of solvent and will only have more solute if more solute is added Thus, if a Solution is unsaturated it has less than the maximum amount of solute per given amount of solvent and will only have less solute if more solute is removed Thus, if a Solution is supersaturated, it contains more solute per given amount of solvent than can be dissolved because of increase in temperature and that the rate at which solute dissolves in solvent to uniformly consist of a solution is affected just like the rate of any chemical reaction; through the usage of Temperature, Catalysts, Inhibitors, Surface Area, or Concentration of the Solute in Solvent When there is more solute than solvent, and no more solvent is added (unless it is supersaturated or metastable or reaction rates aren't involved) and the solute begins to sink at the bottom, the solution is considered saturated No pun intended, when "mixing up" qualitative and quantitative terms, we can conclude that a solution is usually concentrated until it reaches it solubility to be determined as saturated or unsaturated This means that the more solute you add, the more concentrated the solution becomes, and once it reaches its highest concentration equal to its level of solubility, it becomes saturated, meaning no more solvent can dissolve the solute unless affected by reaction rates, and before being saturated it was unsaturated If affected by reaction rates, raising the temperature of a solution raises the solubility level Temperature: Heating a solution will allow the rate of dissolution to formation of solution to become a lot faster and increases in entropy based on phase change will occur Catalysts (speed up) and Inhibitors (slow down) affect reactions and can further be understood scientifically and mathematically in the Kinetics section of Physical Chemistry Official Journal Surface Area: Granulating or grinding the solute into small particles and stirring the solution at an accelerated rate boosts the process of the formation of solution (aka Solution Formation from Dissolution Processes) Concentration of Solute in Solution is determined by Solution Concentration Units discussed in the Math in Chemistry and Physics Journal Concentration is defined as a solution that has a large amount of solute per given amount of solvent in terms of Qualitative Analysis Pressure, be it outside of the solvent in the system or partial of the solute or gas acting as a solute, like Carbon Dioxide in Water (and Sugar to make Soda), thus this pressure makes it dissolve and make it fizzy Creating an upward pressure on the surrounding gas because of their kinetic energy, the total partial pressures outside of the solvent and holding down the solute gas from escaping must be greater than that of the solute gas This is why in soda, that little air bit in soda, a crunched and stabilized bottle holding the gas explodes if you shake the bottle and open it The bubbles pop out because they are carbon dioxide molecules which were pressurized in the soda sugar solution of Carbon Dioxide and Water reacting with the atmosphere at high kinetic energies Burping is the Carbon Dioxide released from your body because it does not have enough pressure to hold it down Dilution or Dilute is defined as a solution that has a small amount of solute per given amount of solvent in terms of Qualitative Analysis, and is not a term often used in the realm of Quantitative Analysis, since there are no such thing as Dilution Units, but there are accurate ways of representing solution as Concentration Units as used in the realm of Quantitative Analysis, not Qualitative Analysis Remember, the terms Dilution and Concentration have absolutely nothing to do with Saturated, Unsaturation, and Supersaturation and are separate terms used for separate concepts/applications Dilution is the process of reducing solute or increasing solvent in saturated solutions to make them unsaturated and thus concentrated at a certain measurement, although they are less concentrated The higher the amount of solute in solution, the higher the concentration of the solution is to the substance of the solute A 20% Vinegar 80% Water solution has a higher concentration than a 5% Vinegar 85% Water solution, Usually, dilution occurs when adding more solvent such as water to make it less concentrated The more concentrated solution before the dilution is performed is known as the stock solution Thus, dilution keeps the amount of solute constant, but adds solvent, and thus adds to the overall solution This does change the concentration because the fraction's denominator's value is higher measuring concentration using 1 of the 3 mass percentage equations Solubility is defined as the ability for a solute to dissolve in a solvent in the realm of Qualitative Analysis Solubility is always dependent on the polarity of the solute and solvent mixing together, similar polarity on the polarity scale thus will make the solvent dissolve the Solute and the Solute Soluble, but different polarities between the components known in solution will have an Insoluble solute in solution In the case of our theory and common chemistry, polarity ultimately determines whether or not a substance or solute is soluble and will thus dissolve Some chemical reactions such as Precipitation Reactions undergo state of matter or phase changes because of the way chemicals react with each other and their various polarities between reacting and producing chemicals being able to create solids and liquids or aqueous solutions (solutions where water is the solvent and is always polar), and the determination of the solid or liquid produced has already been recorded by thousands of quantitative and qualitative analytical chemists on the Solubility table which follows the Solubility Rules Factors Affecting Solubility mainly involve Le Chatelier's Principle discussed in another Chemistry Journal For the Solubility Table and Rules, see Math in Chemistry Journal or Applications of Chemicals by Topic Journal The rule that "like dissolves like" is another way of saying similar polarities allow solubility to occur, so polar substances will dissolve both other polar substance because they are of the same bond and ionic substances since they are a little stronger than Polar Bonds to the point where they have much higher melting points, and since they act like Dipole-Dipole Forces as Intramolecular Forces, and Nonpolar Solvents will dissolve Nonpolar Solutes But Nonpolar Solvents and Polar Solutes, Polar Solvents and Nonpolar Solutes, and Metallic Solutes or Solvents will not dissolve, although Metallic Solutes or Solids aka Crystals may be produced through Precipitation reactions as explained before Spontaneous Reactions do not need energy from the outside of the zone where the energy is being used, it does not need any energy to keep it going because chemically it is already going and thus Chemical Energy is really the only energy used, one energy instead of energy conversion or multiple "outside" energies Entropy is also known as the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that in order for the universe to resume its increase, disorder must follow the ordering of other systems, like eating food and jogging, your muscles produced more proteins, but the food produced various locations of random floating disorders of food particles Any Spontaneous Chemical Reaction increases in disorder and follows the Second Law of Thermodynamics and also the First Law of Thermodynamics which states that energy neither broken or destroyed nor produced or created in a chemical reaction Any decrease in disorder follows the Spontaneous Chemical Reactions as well In other words, if Entropy increases, the disorder increases as well And what is so cool is that Spontaneous Reactions can absorb heat from its surroundings because of Thermodynamic Laws and Entropy Concepts, so when mixing two bases to produce a slushy salt and Ammonia gas, the Entropy of the solution doesn't actually give off heat, but gives off non-heat or coldness to the point where it actually absorbs heat! Endothermic and Exothermic changes therefore occur When Solvents break up solute particles, it requires a certain amount of energy, and when Solutes break up solvent particles, it requires a certain amount of energy, thus when both the Solvent and Solute particles form solution and energy is released due to the new bonds being formed or (intermolecular) forces colliding in the (liquid) solution If the release of energy is greater than the energy used to put into the breaking of the solute and solvent, heat is released and the solution formed turns hot If the release of energy is less than the energy used to put into the breaking of the solute and solvent, heat may be absorbed and the solution formed turns cold The breaking up of solutes and solvents to uniform as solution is known as dissolution For the solute to dissolve, however, the lesser energy must compensate with the increase in entropy in the solution Solutes that are solids have the greatest increase in entropy when dissolves although Gases have little or no increase in entropy at all In speeding the Solution Reaction Rate, heat allows for collisions to occur faster increasing the Pressure and Temperature @STP as if to increase collision force and frequency, as well as grinding to allow more solute to be exposed to the solvent, and stirring a solution fast moves dissolved solute away from the surface of the solute and brings less concentrated parts of the solvent to be more concentrated when coming in contact with the solute Remember, (Quantitative) Concentration depends on the amount of Solute in comparison with Solvent in relation to chemical properties and the temperature at which it is being dissolved Ionization occurs when Polar Covalent solutes dissolve in solvents through dissociation or when soluble Ionic Compounds such as salts and minerals dissolve in solvents through dissociation with a Polar Solvent Solutions can be classified as Electrolytes or Nonelectrolytes Electrolytes are solutions which conduct electricity and are made up of salts, acids, or bases, most commonly salts and acids, and are used in batteries to regulate free ion movement of metals that dissolve in the Solution, while the cationic metal to begin with bonded to the ternary nonpolar covalently bonded polyatomic ion was removed through semipermeable membranes or pores in batteries, obeying the law of electroneutrality and thus creating current from the ionization of metals in the anode compartment of solution Electrolytes are solutions which conduct electricity because through electrolysis can be split apart into their associative ions Electrolytes include Amines as well because they derive from the Weak Base of Ammonia, these are all Weak Electrolytes though Non Electrolytes cannot conduct electricity, although they are still soluble in water as solutes and include substances such as Sugars and Starches or Carbs, Proteins, Lipids, and so on Strong Electrolytes are that of Salts and Strong Acids and Strong Bases, while Weak Electrolytes are that of Weak Acids (Organic Acids, Amino Acids) and Weak Bases (Ammonia, Amines) Concentration Units are that of Percent Composition and describe the solution's concentration of solute in solvent in a Percentage based on three different ratios The first ratio is that of Mass/Mass Percentage The second ratio is that of Mass/Volume Percentage The third ratio is that of Volume/Volume Percentage Solution Measurements of Solute to Solvent in Concentration Units for Complex quantitative Analysis include those of Molarity and Molality Molarity is defined as the moles of solute per liters of solution and accounts for volumetric measurements or simply volume Molality is defined as the moles of solute per kilogram of solvent and accounts for massive measurements or simply mass Applications of Polarities in Solubility are important in chemistry such as when talking about water Applications of Solutions themselves are also commonly addressed in Chemistry Slime/Goo: How slime is made: Acids/Base + Alcohol = Condensation Polymer + Water (Solution with actual Solute and Solvent), and for Soda the information is as follows Pressure, be it outside of the solvent in the system or partial of the solute or gas acting as a solute, like Carbon Dioxide in Water (and Sugar to make Soda), thus this pressure makes it dissolve and make it fizzy Creating an upward pressure on the surrounding gas because of their kinetic energy, the total partial pressures outside of the solvent and holding down the solute gas from escaping must be greater than that of the solute gas This is why in soda, that little air bit in soda, a crunched and stabilized bottle holding the gas explodes if you shake the bottle and open it The bubbles pop out because they are carbon dioxide molecules which were pressurized in the soda sugar solution of Carbon Dioxide and Water reacting with the atmosphere at high kinetic energies Burping is the Carbon Dioxide released from your body because it does not have enough pressure to hold it down The reasons people say "copper sulfate solution" isn't because they melted the copper, rather dissolved it in a polar solvent as ionic is like to polar to produce a solution that seems as if the copper sulfate was in liquid form There are many other quantitative and qualitative terms to classify solutions Fluids, Liquids, Solutions, whatever you want to call them, Mixtures can be homogenous or heterogeneous Solutions are homogenous, and any other mixture or liquid is heterogeneous Solutions are homogenous, and they can be Newtonian or Non-Newtonian based fluids, we will call them fluids- or liquid solvent-based (aqueous) solutions Another name from Fluids or Aqueous Solutions which can act primarily as a liquid are Newtonian-based matter or Newtonian Fluids Solutions which can act as more than one state of matter are considered Non-Newtonian Fluids, and are also known as suspensions where the solute separates out over time in the solvent or quickly spreads rather than slowly Newtonian Fluids or Liquid Solutions can be water, oil, and even milk Non-Newtonian Fluids or Liquid Suspensions can be substances like Oobleck, a mixture of cornstarch carbohydrate and water Newtonian Fluids are primarily defined as having the same viscosity due to the force applied, any force, light or heavy Non-Newtonian Fluids are primarily defined as having different viscosities due to the force applied, as the rules of such follow Dilatant Non-Newtonian Fluids are fluids in which when the force increases, the viscosity increases Pseudoplastic Non-Newtonian Fluids are fluids in which when the force increases, the viscosity decreases (like Ketchup, which doesn't move and has a high viscosity, even when strong forces are applied) Oobleck acts as a liquid when little force is applied, and thus the smaller force makes it flow easier since having a higher viscosity means having a higher resistance to flowing Oobleck acts as a solid when much force is applied, and thus the larger force gives it a larger viscosity This works because Oobleck is a suspension, and also because the starch has more of a mass than the water particles since it just has a ton more particles hooked up together than does the water which has particles all over the place in constant equilibrium When a weak force is applied, the starch is able to slowly move and roll around with the water, making it act as a liquid When a strong force is applied, all the water molecules move away and only the starch is left sitting at the top acting as it normally would as a hard solid when a strong force is applied The Water molecules are always moving faster than the large particles or molecules of cornstarch Suspensions have no solutes or solvents, they just have not-dissolved particles of a solid and liquid forming a solution together When mixing Cornstarch and Water together in a bowl, you can make your very own Oobleck suspension (not solution!) So we have been talking about solutions this whole time which are Newtonian Fluids and are Homogenous Mixtures, but there are also mixtures which are Heterogeneous in liquids and include that of Suspensions and Colloids Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids are primarily recognized by particle size Suspensions have particle sizes of the greatest size and smaller particles like water Colloids have particle sizes of a smaller size compared to suspensions Solutions have particle sizes of the smallest size and no bigger particles so it can dissolve and ion-dipole forces can occur like when dissolving salt into water Suspensions are primarily defined as mixtures containing particles that settle out even if left undisturbed and contain the largest particles which are large enough to be filtered out of the suspension, and suspensions also are determined as a solution with a solid and liquid as usual, but the solid particles are normally much larger than the liquid particles Oobleck, Blood, and Aerosols are good examples of Suspensions Colloids are primarily defined as mixtures containing sized particles between that of suspensions and solutions, held together through a concept known as Brownian Motion Colloids do not settle out when left undisturbed and must be disturbed just like a solution to be settled out although unlike suspensions or solutions, light cannot be shown through it, and it contains mid-size particles smaller than Suspensions but bigger than Colloids Milk, Paint, and Fog are good examples of Colloids The Brownian Motion and Tyndall Effect Tests are good concepts to distinguish between a Suspension or Colloid and helps to determine which is which in the system Brownian Motion is the erratic movement of colloid particles and occurs only in colloids, so if we had two large colloid particles which would normally repel each other on end such as Hydrogen-Hydrogen or electrons on the ends in their excited states in solution of two colloid particles, another part of the solution will join to attract the colloid particle, this is what happens at the microscopic level, but at the macromolecular level, we can tell the difference by testing with the Tyndall Effect The Tyndall Effect is the scattering of light in a system due to the Brownian Motion When shining electromagnetic radiation, photons, waves (LIGHT) something happens When light shines right through, it is a suspension When light doesn't shine through, it is a colloid When light shines through and the particles are extremely tiny, it is a solution Colloids are usually impossible to see with the naked eye Although milk seems like a homogenous mixture, it is technically a heterogeneous mixture because it follows the rule that its particles cannot be seen individually nor can light shine through it, so it isn't a solution, and isn't as obvious as a suspension (like salad dressing) Also, when a solute dissolves in solution, it still is a solid, but it acts overall as a liquid Suspensions are solid and liquids, like solutions, but can act as liquids and solids, and are thus considered Non-Newtonian Matter Good examples of Suspensions include a bucket of sand and water for sand castles, with the sand at the bottom and water at the top, heterogeneous since it is not evenly mixed Nonpolar to Polar Solutions are actually not solutions either but suspensions, since in solution something dissolves (physical change) or undergoes a reaction with something else in the solution like Acids and Alcohols to form Condensation Polymers (chemical change) So then oil in water, sand in water, and even dust in air which settles to the floor over time are all good examples of suspensions Lubricants, Foams, Lotions, Milk and Mayonnaise, Aerosols, Sprays, Fog, and Creams and Lathers are all good examples of colloids We can also introduce a whole bunch of new chemicals here we will further discuss in the Household Chemicals Inorganic Chemistry Official Journal Part such as the ones listed above as well as Solid and Gas Aerosols, Solid and Liquid Foams, Solid and Liquid Sols, Gels, and Emulsions which are discussed in the Household Chemicals part as well Solubility • Solubility rules rather than their exceptions included in the table, are quite easy to follow • Solubility depends on the properties of both the solute and solvent in relation with each other, because the solute might dissolve or be soluble in one solvent rather than another • As for either looking at the solute and/or the solvent, solubility depends on Polarity & Intermolecular Forces Amount Density Phase State Temperature Pressure

Concepts Associated with Energy (All Concepts)

• Energy is the ability to do work or cause change & produce heat • Kinetic Molecular Theory which is the basis of matter relies on heat being applied which is based on the production of heat which comes from certain forms of energy from certain matter • Kinetic Energy is motion in the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects • Kinetic Energy: o Electrical Energy- Electricity or flow of electrons o Radiant Energy- Electromagnetic waves which travel transversely, solar energy and light are radiant energy, energy made by movement of waves and photonic energy o Thermal Energy- Heat, the internal energy in substances or vibration and movement of atoms and molecules in substances, geothermal energy included o Acoustic Energy- The movement of energy through substances in longitudinal- refraction and compression waves, so when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate, the energy is transferred through the substance in such a wave o Motion Energy- Substances and matter which moves and produces energy according to Newton's laws • Potential Energy is stored energy and the energy of position based on gravity • Potential Energy: o Chemical Energy- Energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules, holding particles closely together- including biomass, petroleum, methane, and propane o Stored Mechanical Energy- Energy stored in objects by application of another force, springs and rubber bands inclusive o Nuclear Energy- Energy stored in nuclei which hold nuclei particles together based on strong and weak forces of nature o Gravitational Energy- o Fission- The splitting of nuclei through neutron accelerators to produce bombs and amounts of nuclear energy through unstable atoms and overall radioactivity o Fusion- 2 hydrogen atoms fuse to make helium emitting photons of electromagnetic energy and absorbing energy of electromagnetic force at the same time • Energy can be converted from different grades, & from potential to kinetic & kinetic to potential such as: o Chemical Energy to Motion Energy- Sugars stored in fruits and veggies, other carbohydrates stored in bread are broken down with enzymes and catalysts in your digestive system giving you other forms of energy which allow motion energy to come in and give you overall energy to exert motion o Radiant Energy to Chemical Energy- photosynthesis o Electrical Energy to Thermal Energy- Electric charge flowing or current converts the source of mechanical or chemical energy into natural electrical energy in which speedy electrons are then converted into heat or thermal energy but have enough resistance in whatever conductor not to burn up o Chemical Energy to Electrical Energy- Batteries convert electrolytic processes of wires with flowing electric charge to separate the charges in a voltaic cell on the saltwater boards creating bonds between the two other plates associatively and sodium hydrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, to produce electrical current and electrical energy or electricity secondhand energy-wise • The separate study of Energy mathematically and naturally in science is Thermodynamics • Conservation of Energy is the first law of Thermodynamics states energy is neither created nor destroyed • Instead, energy is changed or converted from one form to another at different grade levels • Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy you get from an internal energy system • The system is the starting point of internal energy and the B point is the surroundings or where the energy is externally converted to • Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable energy • Nonrenewable energy sources are common and mostly used such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium • Nonrenewable energy sources are used to make electricity, heat our homes, and commercial spaces, move our cars, and manufacture plastics and petrochemicals • Nonrenewable energy sources are called this because their supply is limited • Nonrenewable energy sources come from natural decomposition of geological, botanical, & zoological feature • Renewable energy sources are not so common and mostly used from biomass, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power, hydrogen gas, solar energy, and wind energy • Renewable energy sources are used to make electricity and to heat homes and commercial spaces • Renewable energy sources are called this because their supplies are replenished by laws and nature of science in a short time • Electricity is sometimes called an energy carrier because it is an efficient and safe way to move energy from one place to another and can be used in many different applications • All energy is primary energy other than electrical energy which is energized only when other forms of energy convert to electrical energy • Nonrenewable sources are used mainly due to lack of controversial nuclear power & nuclear fission & fusion potential & renewable energy sources, which nonrenewable sources include mostly natural gas, coal, and petroleum • Renewable Sources of Energy: o Biomass: Any organic matter grown and died which can be used as an energy source such as wood, crops, and yard waste, energy from sun, radiant energy to chemical energy o Geothermal Energy: Since there is a lot heat generated closer to the Earth's core, a lot of steam which comes up from lava boiling out to lands over bodies of water and sea rifts, the water boils to steam and comes up through the layers of sand or rocks or any geological formation after the water has been burned from the volcano, which in this case only affects the sea rifts, not actual erupting of the land, creating steam that of course can be piped up along tubes and pressurized to move turbines and generate electricity o Hydropower & Hydroelectric Power: Building Dams in huge reservoirs is politically controversial, but scientifically is a great way to harness heat and electrical energy, where a system is build underground, and when the doors to the dam holding the water open up, the potential energy stored in the fast moving water can move quickly and spin the turbine generated underground and as it was built to be connected to transistors which made the voltage compatible with a town's wire lines of electrical conductors of metal on wood in towns to reach homes, phones, and other appliances, the doors close at night since not as much electricity is used assumedly and most people are asleep, it's the cause for rejecting late night video game parties in the middle of Southern Nevada, which is weird and wacky and most people don't care about that anyway o Solar Energy: Using the sun, our primary resource of energy as it has been for many years, we can absorb the sun's rays in certain panels controlled by electronic functions and electric physics which allow the panel to be reflected onto a surface filled with water which heats up to create steam and is pressurized to move turbines and generate electricity, amazing how well water gives us electricity and is an electrolyte itself though it doesn't react well with electricity anyway! So if you pointed a mirror at the sun, used another mirror to reflect that, and put a bin of water right under the second mirror's reflection, hypothetically enough quanta of light energy in the atoms of the water will cause the electrons to move out of their shells, producing wild emission spectra emissions, and generating energy to of course turn into steam, and you can do this at home by building a mini-turbine from a store and pressurizing the steam to turn the turbine o Wind Energy: According to physics, wind moves wings which hold onto turbine sources and make the turbine spin, generating electricity, no water required! • Nonrenewable Sources of Energy: o Petroleum: Not getting into statistics or politics for the rest of the chapter, petroleum is simply the common name for hydrocarbon fuels or oils which act as fuels and energy sources to power things up according to Diesel's principles, explained later in the chapter o Natural Gas: Methane, Ethane, and Propane can all be used as fuels and pressurize to generate heat which can be converted into electricity o Coal: Carbon and Water can be piled up to produce steam and carbon dioxide gas which can be generated to produce steam, heat energy, polluted air, and electricity which can turn turbines and make generators work o Uranium: Nuclear Fission processes undergo and generate huge amounts of energy • Renewable Source Factories: o Hydropower & Hydroelectric Power: Dams and their processes as explained o Nuclear Power: Nuclear Power Plants undergoing careful processes of Nuclear Fusion and Fission as explained in the Nuclear Chemistry and Nuclear Physics chapters of this science book series o Solar Energy: Solar Panels, Mirrors, Reflectors, Bins, Reflective Walls are all primary components o Wind Energy: Wind Wing Turbines o Generators: Convert mechanical energy (from manual use) into electrical energy. When electric charge flows as a current in a looped metal wire, the charges create a magnetic field which attracts and repels between the two magnets it's placed in. This causes the loop to spin back and forth producing alternating current. When coal (shown below in source factories of coal) and water boil to produce steam, the steam gas pressurizes the tube in which the wind turbine is located forcing it to spin, causing the metallic coil inside the generator for electrons to move and produce current and move back and forth with the magnetic field, allowing the generator to spin and produce electricity run out of the generator from the same coil to voltage transistors, pylons, and finally to homes to power things like your TV • Nonrenewable Source Factories: o Coal: Power Plants generate electricity through when coal and water mix and boil releasing carbon waste gas or smoke soot into the atmosphere, along the mix of coal and water to pressurize in a vacuum where the turbine wheel is located, as the steam forces the wheel to spin and produce mechanical energy which is converted into electrical energy as explained above, in generators, this goes out to transformer which steps up the voltage for transmission, through pylon transmission lines carrying electricity long distances, transformer steps down the voltage chemically, and a distribution line or telephone pole carries electricity to the homes and commercial spaces for light, heat, and electrical energy o Petroleum: Natural Gas processes and Biomass processes o Natural Gas: Theoretically, animals which lived long ago died and were naturally buried into the ground, so when animals and even plants began to decay, all the pressure from all the piling up and the space in the crust, as well as the heat generated from the dead organisms getting closer to the center of the Earth crushed the organisms, oxidizing them and splitting them up so the Carbon and Hydrogen would emit from the Carbohydrates which made up plants solely, and which made up animals genetically to produce Hydrocarbons, or oils which streamed back up to the surface as gases when they got closer to the heat energy and created the gases or fuels which can be pressurized to generate more heat energy which can be converted to electrical energy to power things such as cars using the Diesel Principles, but anyway, drilling into the ground to find oil which didn't go as far to be heated atomically to be like Methane or Propane, rather more like Butane or Octane atomic properties where it is oil in liquid form, so the Middle East area must have had a lot of animals and wildlife long ago in that particular area for all this oil to come from dead organisms, also note that microbes fed off of the dead organisms to give them energy to live and survive, so without them, there would still be the same amount of fossils, but they wouldn't have been oxidized as much and there would be lots more oil and fuel gas in the Earth's lithosphere or crust layers for us to drill today • Laws of Thermodynamics: • 0th states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other • 1st states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed • 2nd states that the total unusable energy of an isolated system increases over time • 3rd states that there is a minimum temperate for which the motion of the particles of matter would cease: -459 degrees Fahrenheit or 0 Kelvin- Absolute Zero as the Lord primarily directed • Entropy: • Enthalpy: • When heat is lost to the atmosphere- it produces an entropy of energy which hasn't been destroyed but can't be used because it chemically converted into the atmosphere, the reason trains always need more coal to run, burn as a fuel, and produce steam because the steam is released into the air and can't be reused, the entropy of the train system is the steam • Nuclear Fusion: • Nuclear Fission: • Carbon Cycle: • Solar Energy Cycle: • Hydrogen Fuel: • Fuel Cells: o A device in which a fuel is oxidized in an electrochemical cell so as to produce electricity directly by direct current o Fuel & Oxygen are fed in continuously o Electrodes are made of an inert material such as platinum that does not react during the process o Electrodes serve to conduct electrons to and from the solution o A fuel cell is composed of a water solution and some sort of electrolyte such as copper sulfate, platinum electrodes in which Hydrogen gas enters the platinum anode inert, and Oxygen gas enters the platinum cathode inert as a tube or vacuum for both electrodes are in to be inert with the platinum's natural atomic properties o Hydrogen is oxidized at the anode losing electrons o Oxygen is reduced at the cathode gaining electrons o Hydrogen gas and Oxygen gas form to make the water that is a part of the electrolyte solution- in which case the water could be the electrolyte as well o The gases bubble in the solution as chemical energy is converted into heat which is converted into electrical energy of free radical electrons which stick and without a mercuric oxide protecting it, the anode is electroplated by the free radical electrons, which electroplate the positive anode and flow as a current to the cathode which is the negative charge at first but later in the reaction becomes positive so the electrons are attracted to it, creating the necessary electrical energy and heat energy for the thermoelectric conduction of Tungsten to glow and produce heat energy and light energy for the lightbulb, while still maintaining electrical energy through the current o The gas allows the atoms in water to separate according to Hydroxide and Hydrogen, acids and bases and redox as the normal reactions follow to produce electrical energy from the usual chemical energy • Heat Transfer occurs in 3 ways: o Convection: As water is heated, the warm water closest to the heat source becomes less dense and rises as a gas, replaced by cooler and denser water seeking downwards from elsewhere, convection continues until the water boils, as the Hydrocarbon fuels, burns and oxidizes supplying kinetic energy to create convection currents in water from heat while Carbon is a waste and goes into the air to form Carbon Dioxide o Conduction: As a stick is heated by being burned in a fire, the wood atoms conduct heat as best they can and burn or oxidize the whole stick, conduction of heat, electricity, or energy in general occurs with the electromagnetic force of metallic and/or ionic bonds separating to give fundamental conduction of substance- such as when electrolysis splits water to form molten compounds, water is a conductor of electricity and splits through electrolysis forming more of an ionic separation rather than polar as in the polar compound itself, allowing electrons to flow, or in other words allowing electricity to flow, electric current to re-bond metallically, ionically, or flow right through o Radiation: As a human is heated by basking in the sun, radiation from the sun's rays traveling from space through the atmosphere to the skin, or of high photonic energies in light bulbs and how hot it can get with moving atoms and their electrons of noble gases Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission In a small block of wood- it is made up of matter: the protons, electrons, neutrons, positrons, bonds, and other particles, & energy: Mass Energy based on Einstein's equation, Thermal Energy based on all the particles or atoms constantly moving and bonding together to create heat, anything above absolute zero has thermal energy even very cold things, and they would stop moving at absolute zero; & Chemical Energy between the bonds using the strong and weak nuclear forces or nucleic chemical energy, so all the bonds between the matter of cellulose and lignin which make up the wood contain energy to hold them together, and some can be broken releasing energy such as lighting the wood block on fire to apply more heat thermally and break chemical energy while making it more energetic thermally • Potential Energy: The energy stored in an object such as a block of wood when it is lifted and gravity pulls it back down to the Earth's core is called the object's potential energy, contained within a system such as wood or water because of its position • You cannot create nor destroy energy- law of conservation of change or energy, and the first law of thermodynamics • The amount of everything in the universe is constant, formulations of such laws of energy were formed out of Einstein's famous equation • Thermodynamics is • Math involved in Thermodynamics include • Heat is not something which is contained in objects just like work isn't contained in objects but changes objects • Heat and/or work of energy or heat energy is an energy transfer & is a transfer of movement of certain matter or atoms by thermal interaction or kinetics, which include thermal conduction and radiation • Lowercase q is the common symbol for heat • Capital E is the common symbol for the internal energy of a system which causes work, heat application, or change upon a substance or surroundings, system and surroundings are scientific terms for the thermodynamic situation you're studying • Change from the internal energy of a system to external energy of the system's surroundings is represented by a Delta or Triangle constant • Change of Internal Energy in a System Equation (see the Math Involved) • (Delta/Triangle)E= q + w (for work) • Positive Delta E is when work is done on the system or heat is transferred to the system , E is greater than zero • Negative Delta E is when work is done by the system or heat is transferred from the system to its surroundings, E is less than zero • Endothermic Reactions in Chemistry or in Atoms absorb heat and kinetic energy to speed up • Exothermic Reactions in Chemistry or in Atoms give off heat and kinetic energy to slow down a little • Chemistry & Energy are related because, Chemistry is the study of Matter and it's changes from Energy as well as Energy itself, Chemical and Nuclear Energy are two important concepts in chemistry, & energy causes matter to change or heat up on basis of kinetic molecular theory in matter • Burning Carbon oxidizes with the atmosphere releasing energy as an exothermic reaction • Combusting Nitrogen & Oxygen at high temperatures in say your car fuel- Nitrogen & Oxygen suck some energy into chemical bonds where they transfer such energy into the support of the holding of those bonds forming nitric oxide • Chemistry is also the study of energy where the energy stored in bonds transferred between atoms and molecules to find stable forms and released to the environment to do work • Enthalpy is a mathematical equation or (kinetic) energy state function based on the loss or gain of heat in chemical reactions • H= E + PV, where H is the enthalpy state function= the internal energy or E of the system, + the energy required to shove the surroundings out of the way making room for the system's P= pressure, and V=Volume • Work is energy transferred to the motion of objects • Heat is energy transferred to the motion of atoms and molecules kinetically • Heat & Work are pathway dependent • Relationship of Heat, Work, & Pressure • Change in energy is independent of the pathway- called state function, all that matters is the start and end of the state function, one amount minus another amount • Delta H= q + w + Delta (PV) • Atmospheric Pressure changes very little unless of humidity or electrostatic conditions such as lightning and thunder • An increase or positive change in volume results in an output of work by the system, a loss in internal energy is defined as a negative amount • STANDARD STATE OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS: o 25 degrees Celsius o 278.15 degrees Kelvin o 1 Atmosphere of pressure= 103.25 kilo Pascal's • Standard Enthalpy Formation- The amount of heat lost or gained when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements • The Enthalpy change for a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy of formation of all products minus the sum of enthalpy of formation of all the reactants - Friction converts kinetic energy (a motion energy) to heat - This is why hydroelectric projects are significant, converting motion energy to the maximum potential energy of mass, height, & acceleration of free falling water from waterfalls, cataracts, and dams to churn into electricity - This is why coal has the potential to create heat by being burned in powerful stations that generate electricity: the burning of coal fuel gives carbon wastes and byproducts of heat which makes things gassy or at the highest temperatures - Gasoline has the power to drive combustion engines- which work by: - Chemicals in batteries produce electricity directly and ionically - Carbohydrates, have potential energy to create kinetic energy in our muscles - Hydroelectric water, Coal, Gasoline, Zinc & Tin & Iron & Sulfate, & Carbs all have potential energies based on their mass, acceleration, and/or height - Heat are high temperatures of atoms and molecules that make up an object - Light is motion energy, since it is made of small particles called photons which are always moving and are easily converted to heat and can directly be converted to electricity by processes of photovoltaic cells -Magnetic Energy? - Activation Energy- when forming new bonds in the product, old bonds must break in the reactants, which requires the use and take of energy, so the energy needed to do so is the such energy - Rate of Reaction tells how fast a reaction occurs after it has started - You can measure how quickly one of the reactants is consumed or how quickly one of the products is created - Food spoils unless you put it in the fridge, so when cooling it in the fridge, the spoiling reaction is slowed down because of the kinetically colder fridge atmosphere - Exposed surface areas, concentration, and temperature affect reaction rates - The exposed surface area of reactant particles also affect how fast the reaction can occur - Inhibitors are substances that slow down chemical reactions, normally in the form of BHT or butylated hydroxytoluene - Catalysts and Enzymes also work with reactions chemically

The Chemistry of Fireworks (All Concepts)

Sulfur has a low melting point, so it can help with Combustion In studying kinetics and the rate of chemical reactions, and just by common sense in general, as the temperature increases, the reaction speed increases, if there are catalysts involved, the reaction speed increases (and thus the time decreases), if the amount decreases, the reaction speed increases, and if the Surface Area decreases, the reaction speed increases Less particles means it takes less time for all of them to react with each other, and thus the reaction speed increases Less of a Surface Area means there are more different particles in one enclosed space than there are particles the same, so they react quicker, and thus the reaction speed increases Increase in Density Also Increases Reaction Speed The most important firework is in the form of a Shell, used to apply concepts of engineering 1. Fuse 1- So how a normal "Shell" type firework works, is that a fuse wraps around the cardboard of the shell, and in lighting the fuse, thermal or heat energy is conducted in the fuse, and the end of it is placed inside the shell, where it lights the "black powder", just the pyrotechnical name for gunpowder 2. Lifting Charge- This ignites the Lifting Charge, which lifts the firework shell into the sky at tremendous velocities and heights, and as soon as it lights or explodes, it heats a predetermined time-set, length-set, material-set Time-Delay Fuse, most likely a thermally and electrically conductive metal or other material 3. Fuse 2- The Delay Fuse is now up and lighting, and at the right time it lights the Bursting Charge 4. Bursting Charge- The Delay Fuse then ignites the Bursting Charge, and inside the Bursting Charge spherical compartment, there is another packet of gunpowder, along with the stars or metal salt dye, and all three chemicals- the dye, oxidizing agent, and mixture, is now going to explode in the air in the Bursting Charge chamber, which makes the rocket explode The exact color is determined by the cation of the metal salt The exact size and shape is determined by the size and shape of the stars, or the gunpowder chemical form balls inside the Bursting Charge chamber All this is inside a mortar There are 4 categories of fireworks 1. Indoor Fireworks (sparklers) 2. Garden Fireworks (viewed safely from 5 meters away) 3. Display Fireworks (viewed safely from 5 meters away) 4. Professional Fireworks (not for sale) The Chemistry of Fireworks, in which fireworks are made of certain compartments, and Fireworks contain 3 types of chemicals all mixed together in a certain compartment that make the firework what it is o Oxidizers are the Oxygen-rich compounds in the mixture that make it continually burst and blast throughout the sky that you need, and when heated separate into a salt of the cation and Oxygen Gas, which is used to oxidize the fuel to produce other chemicals, but also to produce tons of heat and light energy which make the firework what it is, which include the following Potassium Nitrate- Potassium Nitride and Oxygen Gas Potassium Perchlorate- Potassium Chloride and Oxygen Gas Strontium Nitrate- Strontium Nitride and Oxygen Gas, an example of a Dye and Oxidizer at the same time in a firework, since the cation of Strontium we see is of the color red o Fuels are the compounds that combust when combining with Oxygen to produce Oxides, but also to produce all that heat and light energy for the firework, all inorganic and cheap fuels that is, rather than expensive hydrocarbons, they give oxides instead of CO2 and water, certain fuels combine with certain oxidizers to produce a certain burning rate and heat output to obtain a particular behavior for a firework, these include the following Carbon Sulfur Magnesium Aluminum o Dyes are the compounds that may also combust and may act in the reactions as Fuels, or be the cations that ionize and form salts and thus may act in the reactions as Oxidizers, or they may just be added as Dyes, they are heated and the cationic counterparts are ionized and they give out a wavelength of color, and in applying the Photoelectric Effect, different cations give off different colors, and in applying the law of conservation of energy, when they are heated that energy is converted into light, a nice way of thinking about it, some of these chemicals include the following Copper Oxide- Heated to produce Copper and Oxygen Gas, which can also be used as an Oxidizer, and gives the color of a firework with Blue Strontium Chloride- Heated to give the color of a firework with Red Sodium Silicate- Heated to produce Sand and Sodium, heated to give a firework a color of Orange-Yellow (more Orange than Calcium Nitrate) Calcium Nitrate- Heated to produce Calcium Nitride and Oxygen Gas, which can also be used as an Oxidizer, and gives the color of Yellow-Orange (more Yellow than Sodium Silicate) Barium Acetate- Heated to produce a color of Green Aluminum Oxide- Heated to produce a color of White Potassium Oxide- Heated to produce a color of Purple Lithium Chloride- Heated to produce a color of deep, dark Red

Concepts Associated with Acids & Bases (All Concepts)

In the realm of Chemistry, there are many different names for certain reactions which are classified under the actual chemical reactions that exist as we know them represented by chemical equations. The reactions we know of so far are Synthesis Reactions- which we will discover in later chapters of have subdivision reactions of Combination Synthesis, Formation Synthesis, and Addition Synthesis; Decomposition Reactions which can also be of Normal Decomposition or Alternative Displacement Double Decomposition Reactions; Displacement Reactions which can either be single or double displacement reactions. The single replacement reactions take on a number of applications. The double displacement reactions include Precipitation (Chapter 10, and Neutralization which we will explore in a bit. There are also Oxidation-Reduction or Redox reactions which summarize all of the reactions considered since electron transfers are being made, and these are all chemical reactions instead of nuclear ones. Note we will be considering proton transfers metaphorically when summarizing the following reactions, and these are an exceptions since we are dealing with lone protons instead of multiple ones. There are also Equilibrium and Organic Reactions which we discuss in Chapter 31. Acids and Bases are fundamental in the understanding of applications of organic compounds. As you will learn, they are 2 of the 3 known electrolytes, the other being of salt. Acids and Bases are both electrolytes themselves and retain chemical properties to that of salts, therefore they are both ionic compounds and always will be that way. The electrical properties of Acids and Bases are also different depending on both the strength of the acid or base as measured and experimented on through certain systems such as the pH scale which we will discuss; and also depending on their dissociative properties. In this chapter, you will learn the second set of common applications of chemicals used in chemistry concepts- Acids and Bases. You already learned a little bit about Salts in the last two chapters, especially the most common of Sodium Chloride or Table Salt. We will also give you more applications and the chemistry of Salts as well as Electrolytes in this chapter just for the fun of expanding your knowledge on the chemical and physical properties of Acids, Bases, Salts, and Electrolytes. 3 scientists came up with early theories for thinking of actual Acids and Bases. The Arrhenius theory suggested by the Swedish mathematician Svante Arrhenius who discovered pH and pOH measurements and scales said that electrons are transferred like Redox reactions from an acid to a base. Although true, the Bronsted-Lowry theory, a team of scientists later corrected the theory saying that acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors, as this is the most widely accepted theory. But since this is a chemical reaction, how are protons being transferred is a question many students ask. If you understand the chemical reactions of ionic compounds, understanding Acids and Bases will be a lot easier. On a macromolecular viewpoint, a fundamental way of letting scientists experiment things they can see up close or right in front of them to determine the microscopic as is used a ton in Chemistry for defining and understanding things, so on this point is where every chemical applied to is shown to either react, indicate, or sense out something to define it or distinguish it from another kind of chemical. Reactions Rates and Speeds are discussed in Chapter 32, although catalysts speed up reactions and inhibitors slow down reactions, but do react entirely as themselves. Instead, they retain their properties and allow other chemicals to react and produce respectively. On a macromolecular level, you can use indicators of complex organic compounds that are more or less used as solvents that dissolve parts of acids or bases because they are polar and acids and bases are ionic as known of all rules of Solutions as discussed in Chapter 15. Therefore, Litmus and Phenolphthalein are two common substances that turn certain colors because they dissolve and/or experience energy transfers in atoms because of the acidic or alkaline (basic) power of Acids and Bases. These are one of the concepts you can determine chemicals as being acidic or basic from. All chemicals are acidic or basic in some way, as they are measured out to be. Acidity, Alkalinity (Basicness), and even things like Polarity or Electronegativity are all Chemical Properties or Physical Properties depending on how you look at them, and although are referenced to particular compounds such as those that are actually named "Acids" or "Bases", they are referred to as a property of all chemicals rather than just the common nomenclature assumed, as this fact is assumed when you read about the chemistry concepts of properties of organic and inorganic compounds later. Acids are chemicals or substances, which are Pure Substance compounds, just like Bases, Salts, Electrolytes, Agents, Bleachers, and more of those things. This is a common place to start defining the applications of a chemical because it could be a homogenous or heterogeneous mixture as well. After you determine the type of matter the chemical is, you can start to consider the macromolecular advantage properties of which I discussed you can use by experimenting with things at our size level or even larger than us, rather than the very small where tools like electron microscopes are needed, Cathode Ray beams focused on study systems to see the magnetic properties of the very small, and even some cells or many atoms hooked up together, amazing evidential science yes but it costs about a billion dollars to get one anyway, so let us accept the fact they even exist. After, there are many other ways of introducing chemicals such as their chemistry: what they react with, how they form or decompose, the reactions they undergo, the bonds they make up, their physical or periodic properties, and more. We will also state the universal definition as always proposed by some scientists we all go back to give credit to in Chapter 39. Acids and proton donors, meaning they give Hydrogen ions in any reaction they undergo. At a macromolecular viewpoint, indicators like Litmus turn red in the presence of an acid because of the energy or solubility transfers, and Phenolphthalein turn red in the presence of a base, and yellow for acids, a bit strange. Litmus is the more common and convenient indicator used. Acids can be Strong Acids if they dissociate in water well, meaning they release a whole bunch of Hydrogen ions or protons, and since all Acids are Hydrogen-Halogen or Hydrogen-Polyatomic Ion ionic bonds anyway. All Acids contain Hydrogen, or else it would not be an Acid. All Acids are ionic, and are also known to be electrolytes. Acids are unknowably solids, but are most commonly known as liquids because their solid form dissolves in aqueous solution, or solution of water, and they become liquid concentration solutions of acid, as discussed more in Chapter 15. Since Acids react with Bases in Neutralization as you now know, they form salts and water, so Acids, Bases, and Salts are just electrolytes reacting to produce different types of the same chemical being of electrolytes and water. Since Neutralization is a Double Displacement Reaction, and we already know how to balance it, we know that the Acid being of a Hydrogen ion and a nonmetal Ion will separate, and the two new ions will be placed on the other two separate ions, A and D, and B and C, unless it is a double decomposition reaction which is never used in Acid-Base Chemistry or Neutralization representations. Acids thus give Hydrogen ions when they react with bases, making them proton donors, since Hydrogen ions lose an electron and are considered to be protium, thus having only one proton left. Acids dissolve metals very reactively and put holes in them since metals and acids react to form bases and products like water. H-Cl, the Sodium Chloride of Acids so to speak, separates a strong acid and dissociates completely with metals like Iron to produce Iron Chloride and Hydrogen gas. Balance out the Equation and you will see it. Strong Acids dissociate completely in water while Weak Acids such as Organic Acids have saturations of Hydrogen in other places that are strongly bonded to the Carbon, Oxygen, or Nitrogen in Organic Acids, or acidic property based organic compounds like alcohols. Thus, the Acid does not dissociate very well and is weak. These include Ammonia, Hydrogens strongly attracted to the Nitrogen and the basis for Amines, Alcohols, and Organic Acids such as Acetic Acid, another weak Acid of Methyl Hydrogens and Carboxylic Hydrogens, where the Carboxylic Hydrogen snaps off, making it an Ester, and containing acidic properties, but not as strong as due the others because of its polarity and remaining Hydrogens stuck to the Methyl group of the atom. If that is confusing too you, go to the Organic Chemistry chapter for more information. Acids are formed when Water reacts with Nonmetal Oxides. Water and Sulfur Trioxide, Carbon Dioxide, and Silica or even Phosphorus Oxide reacts to produce an acid, most of the Hydrogens of the Water going to the acidity of the substance, and the Oxygen coming from the content of the nonmetal bonding and being raised because of an extra atom in water, naturally making it balanced as an equation. These new Acids formed are called Acid Anhydrides and are considered solids since water is not produced in the reaction. Acids taste very sour when you try them in a dilute acidic solution such as Citric Acid in oranges, or Acetic Acid in vinegar. Acids dissolve metals and react with them to produce Salts and Hydrogen Gas. Acids react with Bases to neutralize and form Salts and Water. Acids react with Water to produce Hydronium, in which all the protons being released from the Acid bond with the Water and make it a little more acidic, thus making a positively charged water ion called Hydronium, and therefore having less protons floating around in solution. Hydronium can bond with Hydroxide, the base representation to make 2 molecules of water, and Hydrogen ions and Hydroxide ions will make 1 molecule of water. Acids dissolve in water mostly as they are ionic and water is polar, but actually change the chemistry of the water into Hydronium. Sometimes, some water is a little more concentrated with acidic Hydronium and less Hydrogen ions, but these are constantly bouncing back and forth for water to retain its same chemical properties. And Water has some very interesting chemical properties unlike that of any other substance, as I will explain in a bit. Strong Acids or Weak Acids, They can react with Water to make Hydronium and Hydrogen Ions, They can react with Bases to make Salts and Water, They can react with Metals to make Salts and Hydrogen Gas, and they can react with other Acids to make more Acids obviously. Etching is a process of producing a design on metal. When you wax coat the surface of a metal and cut your design on the wax in the shape you want and you expose the surface along the lines of the design surface, acids will attack the metal and dissolve it instead of the waxy materials because ionic compounds especially those of Acids will not dissolve nonpolar oil cooled waxes, but the metal instead. In the process of pouring the acid over the metal on platform, you not only release Hydrogen Gas in the atmosphere, but the wax covering can be removed, and you can have a nice etched metallic design. Glass works the same way, as Acids can rip apart Glass, composed of fused metals after being melted and cooled at high temperatures as explained in the Earth Chapter, the Acid can rip up the component metals it is composed of and produce Hydrogen gas and nice etched coatings. Like Bases and Salts, Acids are electrolytes, or ionic compound based aqueous solutions that conduct electricity because they can dissociate into the respective ions. Since all Acid is made of Hydrogen Ions, they can dissociate as strong as they may be in aqueous solution and thus have a charge which may participate in electrostatically based reactions, attracting or repelling certain atoms or even electrons, thus automatically giving it electrical properties. This is why you can add electrodes to fruit containing Citric Acid like Lemons or Oranges, or Ascorbic Acid like Apples or Pears, so when charging the particles of Hydrogen in the acid, you can make them attracted to either of the electrodes as you can the other particle of the acid be it a Halogen such as Chlorine in Hydrochloric Acid. Other Acidic Reaction in the realm of Organic Chemistry, as well as Acid Nomenclature is discussed in other chapters relative to those topics. There are many applications of Acids, some of which include Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid, Organic Acids, Formic Acid, Acetic Acid, Carbonic Acid, Boric Acid, Lactic Acid, Phosphoric Acid, and Acid Anhydrides. Always remember that Acids react with water to form Hydronium and Nonmetal Ions, react with bases to form water and salts, react with metals to dissolve them and produce Hydrogen gas, and form from Nonmetal Oxides and Water. These are fundamental concepts in understanding the representation and applications of acids, and will help you consider their strength in Strong or Weak Terms. Bases are proton acceptors, since they react with Acids and accept protons from them as they dissolve in water, metal, or other bases and are formed. Bases are represented by the OH ion, or Hydroxide Ion, not to be confused with OH or Hydroxyl Functional group of alcohols. Hydroxide and Hydrogen can come together to form water, and so can Hydronium and Hydrogen. Hydronium and Hydroxide are both ions too, and when balanced, they can also form multiple molecules of water. Since bases accept protons from acids, they yield Hydroxide ions in solution, opposite to acids and thus less reactive, but still pretty reactive. At a macromolecular level, Weak Bases being of dilute instead of concentrated are considered to taste bitter and feel slippery, as commonly added to the ingredients of soap. Bases make Litmus Paper indicators turn blue and Phenolphthalein red. Bases will react with Water to form Hydroxide Ions as they normally and chemically yield, and also will produce lone metal ions, like Acids reacting to produce lone nonmetal ions. Bases will react with Acids to form Water and Salt as always. Bases will react with nonmetals to make them more basic, but do not produce any gases and do not react with metals since they contain metals and the chemical purpose of such reactions would be useless. So Bases still have the same reactions as acids, except they do not dissolve metal. Bases are formed from Metal Oxides dissolving in Water. Sodium Dioxide and Water react and balance out the equation to produce Sodium Hydroxide (Base). The Water molecules added are converted to Hydroxide ions which attract the positive Sodium since Hydroxide is negatively charged, thus making it a basic compound, and an ionic compound, and a basic ionic compound if you know what I mean. These lone Basic materials formed from Metal Oxides and Water produce lone Bases or Base Anhydrides. Anhydrides are substances with their water hydrates removed. Hydrates are molecules of water that measurably also come with the salts, bases, or acids that they contain. This is most important in Crystals where hydrates are common inhabitants of the crystal structure throughout. Bluestone, or Copper Sulfate and Hydrates are a good example of this as represented by a chemical formula. Anhydrous means without water. So Base Anhydrides are formed from Metal Oxides reacting with Water. And remember like Acids, Bases react with Water to produce Hydroxide ions and lone metal ions. Bases are also extremely corrosive or caustic. So Acids react with metals to form salts and Hydrogen gas, unlike Bases. However, Bases react with Hydronium to produce water and an Acid, unlike Acids! So Acids react with water to produce Hydronium and lone nonmetal ions which you can isolate if you wanted to, but Bases react with Hydronium to produce Water, and another Acid. Sweet, huh! Such Acids include Carbonic Acid from Bicarbonate Bases reacting with Hydronium to produce water and Carbonic Acid. Rare, cool, and overall significant in Acid Base Reactions. And just by looking above and knowing their chemistries on paper, Bases and Acids react to form a salt (which is a nonmetal bonded to a metal, the nonmetal from the acid anion and the metal from the base cation) and Water (From the Hydrogen ion Proton and minus Hydrogen Hydroxide accounting Hydroxide ions). Like Acids, if Bases dissociate well in Water, they are considered strong bases, and if they do not dissociate very well because they are either organic, contain other Hydroxides, or do not contain Hydroxide at all but retain the physical properties of bases, they are said to be weak. This would include Ammonia. All the strong bases are caustic or corrosive, including lye, and soda. These are of Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide, Lithium Hydroxide, Beryllium Hydroxide, Magnesium Hydroxide, and Calcium Hydroxide, Barium Hydroxide, Strontium Hydroxide, Cesium Hydroxide, and Rubidium Hydroxide, which of course can all be balanced using Redox methods. Other than Ammonia, pretty much every base is Strong. Ammonia also has ties with Amine functional groups, weakening its chemistry for being of a base. Acids are Acidic, and Bases are basic, but what about water? Water is considered atmospheric or neutral meaning it contains properties of both being Acidic and Basic. As discussed in the Water chapter, it is the universal polar solvent, is neutral, has a pH of 7, and is only more or less of 7 if it contains Dissolved Salts or Soap Scum bonds (Basic), or if it contains high Hydronium concentrations and can even be Saturated with Hydronium over the content of lone Hydrogen ion protons. Hydronium determines acidity and alkalinity in acidic solution, but we need much larger terms for Basic Solution Nonmetal Oxides will react with Bases to form Normal Acids and Water Metal Oxides will react with Acids to form Normal Bases and Water Acid Anhydrides will react with Base Anhydrides to produce a Salt The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases defines what each yield in solution, Acids yielding Hydrogen ions and Bases yielding Hydroxide ions The Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases defines what each do to each other, Acids are proton donors and Bases are proton acceptors When Acids react with water, they dissociate into ions and form Hydronium, Hydrogen ions (protons), and nonmetallic monoatomic ions, so Acids are considered electrolytes When bases react with water, they dissociate and form Hydroxide Ions Usually, the Hydrogen released from Hydrogen-containing Acids forms Hydronium with other molecules instead of floating protons in the solution In writing the formulas of non-ionic acids, one Hydrogen atom may be written out of place to indicate it is an acid instead of a chemical like a carbohydrate Strong Acids are those that completely dissociate in water or solution and are normally ionic compounds Weak Acids are those that do not completely dissociate in water or solution and are normally polar or nonpolar organic compounds such as Organic or Amino Acids and Mineral Acids as exceptions and exceptions to the rule stated in the next segment Acid Strength is inversely proportional to the strength of the bond between the Hydrogen and the remainder of the molecule, as such Strong Acids have weak bonds and Weak Acids have strong bonds Macromolecular and Experimental Evidence has shown that Acids are stronger as the elements contained in them are of an element with more of an electronegativity, in other words is further down a period or row in the periodic table than another element when bonding with Hydrogen to make the Acid a certain strength so PH3 (Phosphine Gas) is weaker than H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide Gas) as an acid Macromolecular and Experimental Evidence has also shown that Acids are stronger as the elements contained in them are of an element with more of an electronegativity this time in other words as further down a family or column in the periodic table the Acid Strength is greater, so HI (Hydrogen Iodide) is greater than HF (Hydrogen Fluoride) Longer bond lengths imply weaker bonds, thus stronger Acids Shorter bond lengths imply stronger bonds, thus weaker Acids Mineral Acids are Oxoacids are Don't let the Molecular Structure of an Oxo-Acid, a Ternary Acid of Hydrogen, Oxygen, and another element such as Sulfur in Sulfuric Acid, also known as an Acid to contain a polyatomic ion which is nonpolar covalent bonded, fool you or confuse you! The Sulfate is actually a nonpolar bond as represented by the molecular structure, but the Hydrogen is really ionically bonded with the Sulfate since it is an ion or polyatomic ion as a whole but drawn to look nonpolar covalently bonded Acids are stronger if more Oxygen atoms are added per Hydrogen atom, if more Hydrogen atoms are subtracted per Oxygen atom, and/or if the electronegativity of the central reactivity element increases, the Hydrogen bonds or Ionic bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen gradually get weaker, thus making the Acid stronger according to the rule So Perchloric Acid is stronger than Hypochlorous Acid because it contains 4 oxygen atoms which depolarize the Hydrogen into not bonding with them, making the bonds weaker and the Acid stronger, and Sulfuric Acid is stronger than Selenic or Telluric Acid from Selenic or Telluric Polyatomic Ions of the Periodic Table Also, the addition of Halogen atoms or extremely electronegative elements such as Chlorine to Organic Acids will withdrawal the electron densities around Hydrogen bonding with Oxygen and thus make the bonds weaker and Acid stronger Strong Bases include Hydroxides which completely dissociate at certain rates Weak Bases include Ammonia and Amines which do not dissociate very well at any rate Acid Anhydrides are produced when nonmetal oxides react with water to form an Acid that has water in it but it dry or "without water" as the name suggests Base Anhydrides are produced when nonmetal oxides react with water to form a Base that water in it already too And when Bases decompose they produce Metal Oxides and Gases such as Carbon Dioxide And when Acids decompose they produce Nonmetal Oxides and Hydrogen Gas When an Acid reacts with metal, it produces metal ions and Hydrogen gas in a single-replacement reaction When an Acid reacts with a base, it produces a salt and water Acids react with Metals to produce a salt and Hydrogen gas, since chemically as a Single-Displacement Reaction, the Alkali or Alkaline metal will kick out the Hydrogen if the equation is balanced properly and it has a higher standard reduction potential or wanting to gain electrons, it kicks it out to make the salt with the nonmetal element bonded with the Hydrogen Remember also, Acids can react with Metal Oxides to form Salts and Water too, but the equation is balanced a little differently than default cancelling of an empirical formula since the water produced needs an extra Hydrogen atom from the Acid that reacts Acids can also react easily with Sulfides and normally produce a Metal since the metal was apart of the sulfide, which pretty much blends into the state of the reaction, thus all that is macromolecularly given off is Hydrogen Sulfide, aka a "Bad smell" So When Hydrochloric Acid reacts a pyrite to rip it apart, it gives you a hidden salt and the smell of rotten eggs, unpleasing even if you are a chemist Acids can also react with Carbonates and Sulfites to produce Carbon Dioxide or Sulfur Dioxides depending on the compound and the simple chemistry, as long as you balance the equations of course Unlike Monoprotic Acids, Polyprotic Acids dissociate in steps since they contain multiple Hydrogen ions and stoichiometrically awaits a base to neutralize it so it can produce Hydrogen ions in solution So taking Phosphoric Acid, it requires 3 moles of some Hydroxide base to reduce it to monoprotic Phosphoric Acid or Hydrophosphoric Acid, and thus all reacts are in equilibrium since the ions produced can react again to produce the products that decomposed into such ions since they are equal of both sides of the equation and maintain properties of equilibrium When adding 3 moles of Hydroxide though, you are producing monoprotic Phosphoric Acid (Hydrophosphoric Acid), which contains Phosphate polyatomic ions and also releases or produces to balance the Hydroxide in the equation producing 3 moles of water Amphoterism is the property given to substances such as Oxides or Water which has a neutral pH 7 and can react as an acid or a base with another substance, Amphoteric measurements are thus conducted Water, Copper Oxide, Zinc Oxide, Sulfur Trioxide, Sodium Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide, and Iron Oxide are all Amphoteric "Species" Amphoterism depends on the Oxidation State of the Oxide if of an Oxide Also, Amphoprotic Ions are able to accept or donate a proton while still transferring electrons are considered to be macromolecules like Amino Acids or Nucleic Acids which are referred to as Acids but are really Amphoprotic with few primary acidic properties because it can also accept a proton Some other elements which form amphoteric oxides are gallium, indium, scandium, titanium, zirconium, vanadium, chromium, iron, cobalt, copper, silver, gold, germanium, tin, antimony and bismuth, tellurium, aluminum (hydroxide), aluminum (oxide) lead (oxide), and Beryllium (Hydroxide) Remember, not all Amphoteric Species like Water, Oxides, and even some Hydroxides listed above are always Amphoprotic!!! Although most Acids are Ionic, Organic Acids are Polar, and Amino Acids are Nonpolar Like Phenolphthalein, some indicators are colorless acids which can react with bases or alkalis and rearranging their molecular structure as in all chemical reactions, it actually also changes the color since it may turn into water and a salt, or two ions which atoms being ionized usually have their own color due to the overall applications of the Photoelectric Effect, and as such these ions which will soon form the salt now color the indicator, and it turns a certain color dependent on how acidic or basic the substance is and what it formed and how it interacts with light The reason placing an alkali metal (base) into water with indicator changes dark pink-red color shade is because through the chemical reaction described above, the structures of the alkali and acid, particularly the acid, change, the energy levels of the electrons within the molecule also change and then absorb visible light In the case of Rubidium in Phenolphthalein, it looks red because it is absorbing higher energy light, and lower energies along with it in transmitting and absorbing blue light, of a higher energy Acids will most likely burn your skin because they are very ionic and separate things very easily. Acids cause indicators to turn red; some acids are edible and very sour while others are poisonous or toxic. Acids, like bases with acids, neutralize with bases and undergo a neutralization reactions, classified as being chemical, redox, double displacement, and neutralization reaction classifications. Acids are also very good at dissolving metals, and through electrolysis, are soluble in water. Although most normal acids are not soluble in water, organic acids such as carboxylic alcohol acids can be dissolved into water easily. Bases taste bitter, cause indicator dyes like litmus due to turn blue, and can't burn your skin, but instead feel slippery on your skin in some sort. Acids are identified as substances with Hydrogen ions combined, and if they easy to identify, they are strong acids. Those with Hydrogen in different places of the condensed structural formula tend to be more challenging to identify as an acid or another substance, and are considered weak acids. Since these condensed structural formulas reflect the properties of the acid, if the acid partially dissociates ionically in water it is a weak acid. If the acid completely dissociates ionically in water, Hydrogens identified, it is a strong acid. After studying (and memorizing) more complex acidic substances, the terms start to intervene with each other, but overall the substance is acidic. All Acids are ionic because they contain Hydrogen ions and some nonmetal element or substance. Acids are defined as giving a Hydrogen ion away to another substance, or since Hydrogen ions are protons, they are said to be proton donors, thus protonating another substance. They give protons to certain substance to make them acids. In Neutralization Decomposition Reactions, a special classification of a decomposition and soluble displacement reaction, Table Salt breaks down with water through electrolysis, yielding a sodium cation and Chlorine anion. Water is quite universally unique, in which case it yields a proton or Hydrogen ion, and a Hydroxide ion. Since it contains both Hydrogen and Hydroxide, the identifications that determine whether a substance containing it is an acid or a base, it is said to be neutral, or atmospheric. Therefore, the water is an acid and base. Splitting up, it gives the Hydrogen to Chlorine to make Hydrogen Chloride or Hydrochloric Acid, and gives the Hydroxide to the Sodium to make Sodium Hydroxide, commonly known as a lye or caustic soda. Thus, the chemistry proves that water decomposes two produce a salt and a base. In synthesis reactions or combination reactions, a catalyst is needed to speed the reaction rate of an acid's reaction with a base, thus neutralizing the two to make water and a salt. Acids are usually synthesized when a Nonmetallic Substance or Nonpolar Covalent Substance such as a Nonmetal Oxide reacts with water. All Bases are ionic as well because they participate in the same kind of neutralization reaction classification as acids, and react with them to make water another ionic compound or salt. Interesting, how two ionic compounds react to make one ionic compound and a polar solvent, or water, don't you think? Bases are said to be Hydroxide donors, in which they give Hydroxides to metals, and make them bases. Acids on the other hand give protons or Hydrogen to nonmetals, and make them acids. Acids will never have metals, and Bases will never have nonmetals other than the Hydroxide polyatomic ion that composes it's chemical identification. Bases accept protons from Acids. Water can act as a base, accepting a proton from a certain acid, thus making Hydronium, or water with 3 hydrogens and a plus positive charge marked. Like Acids, Strong Bases have identifiable Hydroxide groups, while Weak Bases have hard to find hydroxide groups, or in some cases such as Ammonia or NH3, it has no hydroxide groups at all. Bases can synthesize to decompose like Acids to form Water and a salt. Bases can be synthesis when metallic substances or ionic bond preferred substances such as a Metal Oxides react with water to produce the base. These are synthesis reactions for acids and bases, which can also react to form water and a salt, usually when electrolysis occurs, or electrolytes have already filled the solution. All Acids are measured by how much Hydrogen ions they contain, thus measured in pH or power of Hydrogen. Based on Stoichiometry, the higher the pH the more basic a substance is, and the lower the pH the more acidic a substance is. You would think it is the other way around, but IUPAC and Stoichiometric Contributing scientists love to fool around with your brain and math likes to make things look stranger than they really are too. Thus, a good example of something acidic would be Citric Acid, found in citrus fruits such as oranges, and is a little sour but edible and doesn't burn your skin unless it touches blood or exposures such as the inside of your fingernails when cutting it and ripping the tissues apart. Either way, it is a very insignificant solution of acid. If you go through Algebraic Applications of Science using formulas, you will find there are a whole bunch you can use for calculating the concentration of solutions to determine it's properties. Low percentages yield inaccurate results, as thus high percentages yield accurate ones. Therefore, a 4% citric acid is edible and can be tasted and even touched on exposed skin, but it will only burn slightly compared to ripping it right off as would be a 96% type Citric Acid solution. Citric Acid has a pH of 4, and bases such as Milk of Magnesia has a pH of 12. Water is neutral or atmospheric, thus it has a pH of 7. The most acidic a measured substance can be is a pH of 1, and the most basic a measured substance can be is a pH of 14. This is how we can measure acidities, basicness, and neutralization properties of elements. Applications for Acids include the macromolecular neutralization type, are they Strong or Weak, as do Bases too. Some Acids in the realm of reacting with organic functional groups like carboxyls can make Organic Acids, and others can make complex Amine Organic Acids, which make up proteins called Amino Acids. Organic and Amino Acids are all weak acids, thus they have a lot of Hydrogen since we talk Carbon and many different isomers and structures of Carbon bonding together, and each Carbon needing 3 to achieve a full octet as Carbon's valency properties suggest and contribute to in the realm of organic chemistry, thus making many organic things acidic. As for Organic and Amino Acids though they are mostly weak acids because if they were strong they would burn your skin and some of your organs, yet they make up your hereditary material. More organic, inorganic, and biochemical applications of Organic and Amino Acids are applied and discussed in later chapters. There are also some Vitamins that are Acids, also discussed later. As for other kinds of Acids and Bases, be they strong or weak, be they needed for micromolecular or macromolecular purposes, these can include as follows. Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid, Phosphoric Acid, Lactic Acid, Acetic Acid (Vinegar), Carbonic Acid (Soda), Boric Acid (Eyewash), and Hydrocyanic Acid are all good examples of Acids. Other than those in parenthesis, these acids apply to various applications and will always neutralize to synthesize water and a salt, or decompose to produce ions that can trade charge with each, and in the end balance out and form new substances in the presence of a catalyst. Some common Bases include Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda, Lye), Potassium Hydroxide (Ore), Lithium Hydroxide, Calcium Hydroxide, Magnesium Hydroxide, and the lone weak base- Ammonia (Bleach, Cleaner). Some Bases are also classified as antacids, drugs of low pH and high pOH (power Hydroxide, basicness),that as their name suggests relieve acidity throughout organisms such as you. So, we went over the definition of Acids and Bases, the chemistry and reactions of Acids and Bases, and some common Acids and Bases as chemicals in the stores and commercial places. You should also know for the overall understanding of Acids and Bases how to balance equations, and also how to balance equations in Acidic or Basic solution by balancing atoms and charge altogether. It is also important to know how to identify acids and base sin a chemical equation, and the water and salt produced. These skills, along with what we discussed will make you genius at Acids and Bases (other than those nasty pH calculations). Now, we will take a look at two other kinds of chemicals that go together, oxidizing and reducing agents. Common Applications of Acids include as follows

Concepts Associated with Plasma (All Concepts)

Plasma is the 4th known state of matter, the 5th and final being Bose-Einstein Condensates Plasma comes from the Greek word "Plasma" meaning "Anything formed" Plasma occurs if you heat a gas or subject a gas to a strong electromagnetic field Plasma applies to Lamps and Lasers, specifically Gas Discharge Tubes filled with inert gases like Neon or Argon, in which when you heat the gas, or you pass electromagnetic energy through it, the electrons of the gas atoms move out of their shells because of the electromagnetic field, heat energy moving electrons out of their shells caused by the Photoelectric Effect, and they as move back down, they refract certain color distinct of the difference in energy levels of a certain atom, emitting a certain wavelength dependent on how many shells they move down, so for Neon, it refracts or reflects red light, and Argon refracts blue light Plasma applies to Lamps and Lasers like these because as the electrons move out of the shells of otherwise octavalent elements, they become ions as well, and thus all the gases become cations (not anions) or positively charged ions, as well as electrons, so a material environment in which ions and electrons coexist together but do not electrically react because of repelling strong electromagnetic fields, extremely high energies of heat and or light, and other forms of energy, they can coexist without reacting as plasma, lightning is another form of plasma since electricity is being passed through gases in the form of high energy, exciting the electrons of gases, making its electrons refract purple light we see as lightning, and also making both the ions and electrons coexist together without reacting, this is known as Plasma This makes Plasma extremely electrically conductive, and sort of acts like a metal in metallic bonding where all electrons float around with the metals, however this is because the metals are in their natural state of formal charge, and are not actually ionic, no electrons are actually coming out of the shells, thus Plasma occurs due to the dissociation of molecular, chemical bonds, and overcomes the chemical energy (and sometimes the Binding Energy of nucleons), and thus Plasma occurs in stars since Hydrogen and Helium, primary gases of stars like our sun, Hydrogen is fusing by nuclear fusion, generating lots of heat, and their nuclei are fusing, so it is a nuclear reaction, not a chemical one Thus, all the electrons are left over, and the nuclei about to fuse are considered ions, and all the electrons are excited and come out of the Hydrogen atoms and refract red, orange, and yellow light as well as some invisible forms of light in the form of Solar Wind, or Radiation, so all the Hydrogen ions, as well as its electrons, make up Solar Wind, and thus the products of the sun at work at high pressures and temperatures exciting electrons out of Hydrogen atoms, thus making them Hydrogen ions or protons, the Hydrogen atoms being common isotopes, Deuterium and Deuterium, or Deuterium or Tritium fuse together, however not all fuse, and thus after Nuclear Fusion, large amounts of energy are released withholding the production of Helium, in the form of radiation including UV Rays (absorbed by the Ozone in our atmosphere), Infrared Rays (which go right through our atmosphere that we feel as heat on our skin, but is absorbed by our skin), and Gamma Rays (as a result of the nuclear fusion process and the energy released), so as a result the sun produce protons (Hydrogen ions), electrons (excited by the heat and taken out of the atoms), and neutrons (from Deuterium and Tritium fusing and leaving a neutron left over) However, the neutrons are recycled to begin the process, and the leftover protons, electrons, and radiation in the form of Infrared, UV, and Gamma Ray electromagnetic energy, or electromagnetic particles is carried throughout space, accelerating at enormous speeds because of the massive amounts of energy produced after nuclear fusion was carried out, as well as radiation, makes up Solar Wind and thus demonstrates Solar Weather These high energy protons and electrons, as well as Radiation accelerates at such high speeds, they make the coma of comets, or tail of ice and dust face away from the sun, so the burning cold comet of Carbon faces the sun, and the coma away from it, thus always following its elliptical orbit Also apply to Plasma TV's, the Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis), and is different than Neon Gas, where the electrons are bound to the nucleus, the energy breaking them apart, be it thermal of electromagnetic, is higher than the ionization energy, thus exciting it, and converting it from Neon Gas into Neon Plasma

Concepts Associated with Redox Reactions (All Concepts)

Redox reactions are the general term for all chemical reaction classifications, not nuclear reactions, and have to do with the transfer of electrons. Redox literally sums up two terms, Reduction and Oxidation. You commonly apply oxidation when something is burning or when breathing. Interesting how the two counter with each other, since you can't breathe when fire is all around you. The chemical properties of air and fire are different, and therefore apply in different ways. Reduction occurs whenever a reactant gains electrons, gains hydrogen, and loses oxygen. Oxidation occurs whenever a reactant loses electrons, loses hydrogen, and gain oxygen. When oxygen is applied to oil, it undergoes a chemical reaction, which makes it burn and give off gas or water depending on the substance. The oxidizing agent, which is reduced then, is oxidizing the substance undergoing the addition of Oxygen, loss of electrons, or loss of Hydrogen, and the reducing agent is the substance being oxidized. Oxygen is the most common oxidizing agent, but other substances such as wood, which is made of cellulose and lignin carbohydrate polymers conducts heat really well, and oxygen where it burns and leaves Carbon around to be picked up by whoever in the forms of ash. Normally, if you have a chemical reaction, you can point out the substance undergoing Oxidation because Oxygen adds onto it to make a product such as an oxide or oil or energy source. And if a substance starts out with Hydrogen, and loses it to give to the product such as an Acid or Oxygen, sometimes to make some sort of base. And if a substance starts out with Oxygen, and loses it to give to the product such as a Base or Hydrogen, it would always make a base, for acids don't contain excessive amounts of Oxygen, and it always undergoes reduction. So if you had Ammonia react with Oxygen, you would get Ammonium Oxide or something like that. Ammonia loses one of its Hydrogens, and Oxygen gains the Hydrogen. Ammonia becomes Amine, and that's it. Acids and Bases relate to Redox, where Acids can undergo Oxidation, giving up Hydrogens and losing pH levels, which indicates whether or not the acid is oxidizing. If an Acid is being reduced, the pH level thus goes up of the power of Hydrogen, the more Hydrogen, and thus more acidic. But, through the math you discover in the last chapter, this means if it is more acidic, the number on the pH scale is lower, and if it is more basic, the number on the pH scale is higher. Bases, which undergo oxidation, aren't bases anymore because it isn't so much Hydroxide ion, and if bases undergo reduction, they tend to not be bases anymore because they lose that Hydrogen, but these definitions are beginning to falter. Reduction of one substance cannot occur without another substance being oxidized and vice versa. The substance being reduced allows the other substance to be oxidized, thus chemicals undergoing reduction are oxidizing agents. Oxidation of one substance cannot occur without another substance being reduced as we stated vice versa just now. The substance being oxidized allows the other substance to be reduced, this chemicals undergoing oxidation are reducing agents. Although these acid-base definitions are somewhat clear, we can get a fulfilling definition by looking just at the electrons and then why are redox reactions double-displacement reactions? They're double-displacement reactions because electrons determine and define whether or not something is oxidized or reduced solely. And they displace 2 reactants and later yield 2 products, so you need to sort of know the locations of the electrons in a chemical way, not so much quantum physical. Thus, we use Oxidation Numbers. There are some rules that apply for oxidation states or the numbers you write to pinpoint the state. The first is that all lone atoms and molecules, not ions, all have an oxidation state of zero. Whenever they gain an electron as an anion, they have an oxidation state of -1. It's pretty much their formal charge. When Oxygen gains 2 electrons to be isoelectronic with Neon, it has an oxidation state of -2. Whenever Sodium loses its electron to become a cation, it has an oxidation state of +1. Whenever iron (II) loses both of its electrons to become a cation, it has an oxidation state of +2. I think you are getting the idea. Also, some oxidation states of atoms may be different than the formal charges of the elements they represent to balance the formula and cancel charges. Hydrogen may have a positive or negative oxidation number of 1 depending on whether or not it bonds to an atom with a formal charge or oxidation state that is positive, therefore it would be -1, or if the formal charge or oxidation state that is negative, this Hydrogen is +1. Because Cl has a formal charge of -1 when it turns to an ide or ic and bonds with Hydrogen, the Hydrogen thus has a +1 charge, and the two cancel out. When Hydrogen bonds to a less electronegative element with a positive charge like Aluminum, it tends to have a negative charge. In other words, this means that Hydrogen has a -1 charge with metals and +1 charge with nonmetals. Also know the special case of Oxygen being -1 in Hydrogen Peroxide, only in that substance though. Also note the actual oxidation number or state is notated for an individual atom, rather than the number of atoms the superscript indicates, that is there to help you visualize how many atoms there are and its total oxidation state or charge in the formula. Let's do some examples. Calcium (Di) Hydroxide has 2 Hydroxide ions, which if you look up to memorizing and compiling them you can, but polyatomic ions are always best to search online anyway. 2 Hydroxide ions have an oxidation number of -1, or just -, because although it has 2 Hydroxide ions which account for a 2- charge like Oxygen, we only account for the individual atom. Calcium has a 2+ oxidation number, so it wants to give up 2 electrons as Hydroxide wants to gain 2 electrons, thus making the famous base that inspired antacids for stomach problems controlling hydrochloric acid content. But these are just the oxidation numbers of formulas. Can't we do some for equations too? Sure, thing! Redox Reactions apply to Electrochemistry and Galvanization as well, where certain metals that are more reactive than others can strip electrons and become reduced, oxidizing one metal and reducing the other although they are both metals. Galvanization occurs when you coat zinc through an electrochemical cell of Zinc Sulfate and Copper Sulfate, and because of Zinc's quantum physical properties, it is more reactive than the Copper, replacing it and losing its electrons to represent not only a redox reaction as a single-displacement reaction, but also the Zinc is being oxidized because it loses 2 electrons, and the Copper gains 2 electrons and is reduced. Thus, the Copper is the Oxidizing Agent, and the Zinc is the Reducing Agent, allowing the Copper to gain 2 electrons as it loses its two. The Zinc has a formal charge and oxidation number of zero as the Copper has +2, so they react and Zinc loses the two electrons, so Copper sort of steals the electrons, but Zinc steals the polyatomic ion. It's like a trade, you get a candy bar and your friend gets 2 juice boxes from you that you lose when you gain the candy bar. So your friend is the Copper, and you are the Zinc, so your friend is being reduced and you are being oxidized. Ahh! This process works in solution when Zinc replaces Copper and attaches to the polyatomic ion, or gets the candy bar, the blue Copper Sulfate, now being Zinc Sulfate. Electroplating and Galvanization are two techniques or experiments used to describe these redox electron transfer reactions. For more, see electrochemistry. Copper isn't the only oxidizing agent as it is reduced, nor is Zinc the only reducing agent as it is oxidized in electrochemical reactions. Oxygen itself is a good oxidizing agent, as is Hydrogen a good reducing agent, for a part of the definition. Substances that can easily be oxidized and taken in are oxidized, therefore they make good reducing agents. These substances may include wood, some metals, gasoline for combustion into fuel to power cars as explained by principles such as Diesel's, and even the Oxygen we breathe in to take out Carbon Dioxide and help digest the foods we eat to be converted into energy as explained in Biochemistry. Bleaches are good oxidizing agents too as well as Hydrogen Peroxide, Potassium Dichromate, Benzoyl Peroxide, Iodine, Chlorine, and Iodide. Some reducing agents which are oxidized and usually undergo exothermic reactions where they give off heat include Coal, Coke or Carbon, Hydrogen as we explained, Aluminum, Tungsten because it has a high melting point, Nickel and Iron because these metals are hard to liquefy at normal temperatures, Silver Bromide in photography, and antioxidants as the name suggests such as Vitamin Carbohydrates which are hard to break down and emit Carbon Dioxide such as Ascorbic Acid, an ionic compound that uniquely normally doesn't always bond with Oxygen. Remember that not all vitamins are organic polymers, some can be acids that are always ionic like bases. Let me do a few more examples on Redox Reactions, as there will be more on the notebook and worksheets attached to the back of this Book. Also note that Redox significantly applies to Electrochemistry and Stoichiometry, as you will see in the latter chapters - The last two types of chemical reactions are: - Oxidation: When something is oxidized, it gains Oxygen and loses Hydrogen and its initial electrons - Oxidation: When something is oxidized, it may burn if it reacts with Oxygen in the air - Reduction: When something is reduced, it loses Oxygen and gain Hydrogen as well as unintentional or initial electrons, and doesn't usually burn but rather simplifies if reacted with the air - You can't have one without the other happening immediately after in the reaction - When Lead reacts to form Lead Oxide, its obviously oxidized undergoing oxidization - But when Tin Dioxide reacts to form Tin Oxide, its obviously reduced undergoing reduction because 1 oxygen atom has been reduced [Gain & Loss of Oxygen] - When certain Hydrocarbons chemically react to form and result with less Hydrogen- they're oxidized [Gain & Loss of Hydrogen] - When Zinc reacts to form Zinc (II) it loses 2 electrons to become positively charged and therefore is oxidized because it lost electrons [Gain & Loss of Electrons Part I] - Meanwhile, Iron (III) reacts to form Iron (II), it gains 1 electron to become negatively charged from its initial state of being positively charged, therefore undergoing reduction because it gained electrons [Gain & loss of Electrons Part 2] - When Sulfur (II-) reacts to form Sulfur, it loses 2 electrons & since it didn't gain electrons, and lost them it underwent oxidization to become oxidized - The reducing agent is the substance being oxidized causing the other to be reduced - The oxidization agent is the substance being reduced causing the other to be oxidized - When Copper Oxide reacts with Hydrogen gas, the Hydrogen gas is the reducing agent since it rearranged its molecular structure to chemically bond with the Oxygen leaving the Copper alone and oxidizing itself by gaining oxygen - When Copper Oxide reacts with Hydrogen gas, the Copper within Copper Oxide is the oxidizing agent since it rearranged its molecular structure to break away from chemically bonding laving itself alone and reducing itself by losing oxygen, as the oxidizing agent it oxidized Hydrogen - Electrochemical Reactions: Occur when electricity produces chemical change or energy by generating electric fields or ionically set-up magnetic fields by processes of electrolysis- which is the splitting of compounds in water by electricity - The electrolytes are the substance which are separated by the electrolysis process & can conduct electricity molten in water, while electrodes can be reshaped to conduct electric current in water, usually measured in volts or amps & redefine early experiments earlier discussed - Molten salt will react undergoing the electrolysis process to produce sodium metal and chlorine gas after passing an electric current through it - Dry Cell Batteries: Chemical changes ionize running particles through the current through ionic and metallic bonds to produce electricity which has already been divided in the processes of electrolysis in wet cell batteries - When a zinc metal strip is dipped in a solution of Copper (II) Sulfate to form a rearrangement of the reactants as products by transferring the 3 electrons of the zinc metal to the copper ions in the copper solution - The Zinc Metal dissolves going into a zinc sulfate solution as zinc ions and the copper ions come out of the solution as copper metal, therefore the zinc is oxidized because it lost electrons and is the reducing agent, while copper is reduced because it gained electrons and is the oxidizing agent - Putting both substances in separate containers and attaching a metallic wire which conducts electricity or simply ions, it can generate electrical power from the zinc ions in the zinc sulfate solution to the copper ions in the copper sulfate solution and results in an overall electric current while both solutions are separated by a porous partition substance - When electrical Zinc ions go over to the Copper Sulfate Solution, the zinc metal dissolves and the bulb of light and energy stops glowing, unless more zinc is used to power the current or another reactively ionic substance like zinc - This process creates a wet cell battery - In the end, the copper sulfate solution turns to copper as the sulfate passes by the porous substance separating the two within the cell and goes to the zinc sulfate solution- with more sulfate now than the copper solution - Each time a copper atom gains 2 electrons from a zinc ion, one sulfate molecule moves through the porous partition into the zinc sulfate solution - Anodes are positively charged electrodes or metal strips & undergo oxidization- losing electrons to become positively charged - Cathodes are negatively charged electrodes or metal strips & undergo reduction- gaining electrons to become negatively charged - Zinc gives up electrons, oxidizing, and is therefore the anode e - Copper gains 2 electrons, reducing, and is therefore the cathode - So those are wet cell batteries, but dry cell batteries react the same way only while zinc acts as the anode, the cathode is in the form of a solidified paste which gains the zinc electrons in the following formula on pg207 - Batteries are a storage series of electrochemical cells that are dry - Cells include Wet & Dry Batteries, Lead Storage and Main Batteries, & Fuel - Corrosion is the reaction between metal and unfixed gases not surrounded around solutions such as Rust, Aluminum Protection, & tarnishes of Silver - Common Oxidizing Agents: Pure Oxygen (O2): Oxidizes wood for campfires, gasoline for automobile combustion reactions earlier discussed, converts food we eat into energy to move and think as well supplementing wielding torches respirators - Other Common Agents of this type include Hydrogen peroxide, Potassium dichromate, antiseptic compounds, Benzoyl peroxide, Iodine, Iodide, & Natural (Pure) Chlorine as used in swimming pools at around 7.5 pH - Common Reducing Agents: Coal, Coke, Carbon, Coke (metallic kind), Hydrogen, Aluminum, Tungsten, Nickel, Iron, Silver Bromide salt applied in photography, & antioxidants or nutritional vitamins- A, B, C, D, E, K, etc. - Vitamin C-Ascorbic Acid found in oranges and applies to prevent browning of fruit, or Vitamin E- tocopherol - Oxygen also helps conversions of nutritional values and metabolism in biology in order for animals, humans, and plants which undergo photosynthesis in order to survive All chemical reactions are classified as being Redox, where electrons are transferred. Special reactions denote other types of particle transfers in chemistry such as proton transfers in protonation of Bases and deprotonation of Acids (deprotonation is discussed in Part 25). Of these, a special name is given to things that undergo oxidation or reduction; therefore they are oxidized or reduced. Most reactions that occur with Oxidizing and Reducing are of simple or Basic Redox Reactions, Combustion Reactions- where substances like Carbohydrates or Nonpolar Oils, Fats, or Fuels can be oxidized to produce water and Carbon Dioxide, Advanced Redox Reactions in Acidic or Basic Solution determined by Balancing of Atoms and Charge in Reactions, and even a little double displacement reactions here and there. Remember, Displacement Reactions usually involve ions only, Synthesis and Decomposition reactions can involve nonpolar, polar, and ionic substances, and Combustion involves nonpolar and polar only, meaning salts or minerals cannot combust. Rocks can, if they contain large amounts of Carbon though. One other type of reaction Redox creates are electrochemical reactions, whether they be balanced in acidic or basic solution doesn't necessarily matter. Oxidation occurs when substances are oxidized, meaning they gain oxygen, lose Hydrogen, or lose electrons. Therefore, there oxidation number increases, as we will discuss in a little bit. Reduction occurs when substances are reduced, meaning they lose Oxygen, gain Hydrogen, and gain electrons, allowing their oxidation numbers to go down, the number line, as we will discuss shortly. The two cannot happen without both happening together, oxidation occurs while reduction occurs. The substance being oxidized allows the other substance to be reduced; therefore the substance undergoing oxidation is the reducing agent. The substance being reduced allows the other substance to be oxidized; therefore the substance undergoing reduction is the oxidizing agent. Something else you should know about Redox reactions are that they can be any type of chemical reaction really, since electron transfers, rearrangement of molecular structures and the linkage of atoms are all occurring at once. These types are all the types of chemical reactions there are like Double Displacement Neutralization or Precipitation to Synthesis reactions to Combustion reactions. You also need to be able to balance Redox like you balance Acidic and Basic reactions, using half reactions. Here are the steps to balancing Redox Reactions, whether they are Acidic or Basic solution as Chapter 7 suggests is as follows

Concepts Associated with Stoichiometry (All Concepts)

Stoichiometry is the study in which you can apply the necessary proportions of chemicals to undergo a reaction for study by converting from the microscopic to macroscopic scale using methods of conversion factors or dimensional analysis, and therefore dimensional analysis is ultimately the best method mathematically for figuring out these kinds of chemistry problems involving math. Amedeo Avogadro was the first to suggest that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules, and if one were to weigh the two (or more) gases, the ratio of their weights should be the same as the weight ratio of the molecules themselves. So, using the weight ratios of atoms by determining the weight of an atom, relative to another, there should be that many molecules in proportion as well. Going way back in Joseph Proust's days, we can apply the Law of Definite Proportions, in which substances such as gases will react in certain proportions, and that anything that didn't match up would be left over. If 14 grams of Nitrogen were to react with 16 grams of Oxygen, we should get 30 grams of Nitrogen Oxide. The same number of atoms, both in Nitrogen and Oxygen, equals the number of molecules of Nitrogen Oxide. Then, we can assume both gases contain the same amount of atoms, since they both reacted with each other in those certain proportions, and in not having too much more gas in grams of each element, there would be no leftovers. The gases would have had to contain the same number of atoms reacting with each other, for if one gas had more atoms, due to more grams of the gases added on a macroscopic viewpoint, then there certainly would be leftovers, and the necessary amount of relative gases would have reacted with each other. Scientists from Proust to Avogadro have spent their life work finding the right proportions of gaseous elements needed to react with each other, and it got easier for scientists to work with these proportions when applying math instead of experimentation, once they knew such weights. In 1865, Joseph Loschmidt was credited for measuring the amount of atoms in a gram of such a substance, and Avogadro's number is named and gives credit to Avogadro for all of his work in chemistry, although Loschmidt independently figured the math out. There is one important rule which acts as a relationship or equation, and can be used as a common stoichiometric conversion factor when converting from the microscopic to macroscopic scale, and was later modified from Avogadro's original statement that in weighing gases and experimenting to see how much of each gas was needed to react and form a new gas, leftovers or not, you already knew the relative weights, and that it was that relative weight of atoms (or molecules) of gaseous substances to react with each other. The rule states that 1 mole (6.02 x 10E23) of any atom is equal to the molar (or molecular) mass expressed in grams of any element. This is the number scientists after Avogadro such as Loschmidt are credited for enabling us to understand such large conversions. For instance, 1 mole of Hydrogen atoms is equal to 1 gram of Hydrogen Gas, or 1 mole of Carbon atoms is equal to 12 grams of Carbon, or 1 mole of Chromium atoms is equal to around 51 grams. Therefore, Moles of Atoms of an Element is equal to the Molar mass (in grams) of an Element. When working Stoichiometry, there are a couple different types of calculations you should remember, and these are summarized by type on flashcards attached so you can better understand. · Calculating (Molecular) Molar Mass · Balancing Chemical Equations · Converting between Atoms and Moles · Converting between Molecules and Moles · Converting between Moles and Atoms · Converting between Moles and Molecules · Converting between Grams and Moles · Converting between Moles and Grams · Converting between · Ratios and Proportions These are all worked out on the Flashcards as example problems, and there are worksheets attached for extra practice as well. Here are some steps to make sure you are doing everything correctly: 1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. 2. Determine the molar masses of the substances involved in the calculation for the reaction. 3. Write down the quantity that is given and use the molar mass to convert that quantity to moles. 4. Use the balanced chemical equation to convert moles of given substance to desired substance. 5. Use the molar mass to convert moles of desired substance to grams of desired substance. In other words, after figuring out the balanced equation and molar masses of your substances, you are converting your given quantity to moles, to grams, and back to moles, or from grams, to moles, and back to grams for your reaction.

The Chemistry of Bleaches and Chromophores (All Concepts)

Bleaches removes or lightens color based on being an Oxidizing Agent which oxidizes the material Different bleaches contain different chemicals, Chlorine-based bleaches contain Sodium Hypochlorite and Oxygen-based bleaches contain Hydrogen Peroxide, which is also used as a disinfecting agent, and converted to a bleaching powder, what's created is Calcium Hypochlorite Other bleaching agents include sodium persulfate, sodium perphosphate, sodium persilicate, their ammonium, potassium and lithium analogs, calcium peroxide, zinc peroxide, sodium peroxide, chlorine dioxide, bromate, and, benzoyl peroxide A chromophore is a region in a molecule where the energy difference between 2 different molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum. Chromophores are the parts of molecules or chemical compounds responsible for their color, and some compounds' chromophores are simply dyes and dyestuffs, and since Chromophores can be considered Organic Polymers which can be oxidized just like Carbohydrate Organic Polymers can be oxidized from Monosaccharaides to Di or Polysaccharides and the color participates in the photoelectric electromagnetic effect, in other words absorbing certain wavelengths of energy at certain frequencies, while reflecting others of a higher/lower energy and Chromophores transmit Visible Light Energy which also excites electrons out of their states and makes them more reactive, the reason why most chemicals should be kept away from strong sources of light for they may react when their electrons are pulled out of their shells, and why many plants are colored and are extracted for dyes and dyestuffs for they need electromagnetic light energy in order to create food in photosynthesis as a catalyst, and their chlorophyll have chromophores which absorb that energy and reflect off other energy, such as green which is obviously usually reflected Oxidizing Chromophores changes the electromagnetic transmission properties of the Chromophores and oxidizes it into a molecule with no color or that transmits colors at energies higher or lower than the Visible Spectrum Other bleaches oxidize Chromophores with reactive Hydrogens to create water, in other words reducing double bonds to single bonds as most dyes are thus reduced, and this bond reducing requires an Oxidizing Agent, and thus it has less electrons floating around the molecule as it would have with double bonds, having single bonds the electrons are taken out of their ground state into their excited state, and do not transmit, absorb and reflect light as well as if they were in their ground state or having double bonds in their compounds See, the more electron fields or bond fields in molecules, the more light it can absorb, transmit, and reflect, and eliminating those double bonds by oxidizing them to single bonds reduces the amount of free, floating electrons in certain states to transmit electromagnetic energy or color, and thus removes the color from the substance you are oxidizing The chemicals it contains chemically react with the substance to oxidize it and decolorize it Bleach works be releasing Oxygen Gas and oxidizing the chromophores by breaking up their chemical bonds from double bonds to single bonds in order to reduce the color or get rid of the color Think of it like the Reduction of Hydrocarbons, from Alkynes to Alkenes to Alkanes, each being reduced when Hydrogen Gas is added, it bonds with the Carbons to reduce the triple bonds to double bonds to single bonds, known as making them more saturated hydrocarbons and also converting the actual chemical, such as from Acetylene to Ethylene to Ethane Only this time, we are oxidizing chromophores from double bonds to single bonds, changing their chemical structure and properties as well as reactivity and relationship in the transmission of light Also, when you place fabric in the sun it tends to lighten and remove some of its color, but the sun doesn't contain bleach rather it emits UV light which is absorbed by the multiple amounts of electrons in the double bonds of chromophores which makes them move out of their electron shells and break up the chemical bonds holding the molecule together Since most objects such as your clothes aren't naturally colored, and dyes, dyestuffs, pigments, and some paints are added to your clothes or other everyday objects, even food, they have precise chemical formulas or molecular structures which can each be broken apart in certain ways Chlorine bleach is actually more effective as a disinfectant when it is diluted rather than when used at full strength, at about 1/9 dilution to water Substances like blood and protein tend to neutralize the compounds in bleach Adding Chlorine-based bleaches such as Sodium Hypochlorite after the wash cycle has filled with water is better than doing so before because adding it with detergent because it may react with the enzymes added in detergents and make them not effective to washing clothes, however adding Oxygen-based bleaches such as Hydrogen Peroxide are okay to use before washing because it doesn't always react with detergents Sodium Hypochlorite dissolved in a water solution actually produces Hypochlorous Acid, and when either react with other chemicals such as Acetone, Alcohol, Vinegar, and Ammonia, through some easy to learn chemical reactions, usually produces gases and other harmful fumes like Chlorine Gas When dissolved in water as Hypochlorous Acid, it gives in to the properties of the corrosion of metal, only it may not necessarily produce hydrogen gas There are bleaches that oxidize, but there are also bleaches that reduce or undergo reduction to remove color To produce Household Bleach, you can mix Lye or Caustic Soda, Chlorine, and Water to make Sodium Hypochlorite or Hypochlorous Acid The Chloroalkali Process is the best way to produce bleach industrially, and its vague history doesn't nearly resemble its chemical significance, in which electrolysis of brine in aqueous solution produces Sodium Hydroxide, and Hydrochloric Acid, and further electrolysis of aqueous Hydrochloric Acid, produces Chlorine and Hydrogen Gas in which the Hydrogen Gas is driven off, and the Chlorine Gas can be obtained for use in reacting with Sodium Hydroxide to produce Sodium Hypochlorite which can be dissolved as an aqueous solution to produce Hypochlorous Acid The History and Production is as follows As a bleaching agent, Chlorine is used in many different compounds, particularly in Sodium Hypochlorite, which is produced by putting Chlorine Gas in a solution of Sodium Carbonate, and thus creates Bleach, or Sodium Hypochlorite and the resulting liquid is a weak solution as this was discovered by French Chemist Claude Berthelot in 1785 As a bleaching agent, Chlorine could "chlorinate" or react with all these Oxygen atom quantities, as well as itself and with Hydrogen and metals, be they alkali, alkaline, or inner transition metals, and can also react with Oxygen as an overall ion and then react with metals, such as in Sodium Hypochlorite, and as such it could react with Calcium Oxide as a Hypochlorite Ion to produce Calcium Hypochlorite to make a bleaching powder when in its anhydrous form, as this was discovered by Scottish Chemist Charles Tennant a little later after 1785 One method that was discovered to produce Sodium Hypochlorite was by the process of the electrolysis of brine or a solution of Sodium Chloride not to produce Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen Chloride or Hydrochloric Acid, but to produce Sodium Hydroxide, but Chlorine and Hydrogen Gas separate, driving off the Hydrogen Gas so Sodium Hydroxide and Chlorine Gas remained, and then putting the Chlorine Gas into Sodium Hydroxide as a solution of Sodium Hypochlorite, and Potassium or Calcium Hydroxide could also be used, driving out the Hydrogen Gas produced to form Potassium or Calcium Hypochlorite, this is known as the Chloroalkali Process and it was discovered by ES Smith whose origin to the world is unknown and which the company of Hooker Chemicals closely resembled the Hooker Process, industrially initiated in 1892 who are to this day responsible for Sodium Hypochlorite Production, Sodium Chloride and Water are possible byproducts Bleach is also known for having a shelf life, in other words the older it gets when it is open to the air, the less effective it becomes since it is reactive and Oxidizing Agents like Oxygen itself tend to be somewhat reactive overall, so the concentration of Sodium Hypochlorite goes down after a certain period of time Since it is an Oxidizing Agent, you cannot drink it, as it is a myth that bleaches test for drug use, they will only oxidize the tissues in your body until they burn, irritate, or eventually die out Clorox says their bleach contains water, sodium hypochlorite, sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium polyacrylate. They also make scented products that include fragrances Bleach also contains small amounts of impurities, which aren't a big deal when you're using the product for disinfection or cleaning, but could prove toxic if ingested None of these ingredients binds to drugs or their metabolites or inactivates them such that you would test negative on a drug test The reason people mix Vinegar into Sodium Hypochlorite may have to do with the reason if lowering it's extremely basic pH and thus making it a move convenient disinfectant, even though it produces Chorine Gas Fumes through a chemical reaction as follows When Vinegar (Acetic Acid) reacts with Bleach Solution (Sodium Hypochlorite in Water, or Hypochlorous Acid), so when producing Bleach, you sort of have an alkaline solution or basic solution since Sodium Hydroxide and Hypochlorous Acid are produced We can now conclude that when mixed in solution, Chlorine-based bleaches are really Hypochlorous Acid with some Sodium Hydroxide or Sodium ions and Hydroxide ions When mixing Bleach with Acid, Water and Chlorine Gas are produced as well, and Chlorine Gas attacks the membrane of the mucous in your body Therefore, when mixing Bleach with Hydrochloric or Acetic Acid, you still produce Water and Chlorine Gas, which continuously attacks organs inside your body, as well as Acetate Ions, and thus no Sodium Acetate since there is no Sodium, as it is driven off when the Sodium Hypochlorite Oxidizing base is driven off when Sodium Hydroxide is created and the Sodium Hypochlorite enters water as a solution of Hypochlorous Acid, so yes, bleach is an acid, and when reacting with another acid, produces water as most acids reacting cancel out with, but uniquely produces Chlorine Gas These 3 chemical reactions can be ordered and illustratively represented as follows NaOCl + H2O ↔ HOCl + Na+ + OH- Then HOCl + HCl ↔ H2O + Cl2 And then 2HOCl + 2HAc ↔ Cl2 + 2H2O + 2 CH3COO~

Concepts Associated with Inorganic Chemistry & the LITHOSPHERE (All Concepts)

In order to understand the Chemistry of the Earth, we have to understand the Earth's position in Astronomical and Geological Perspectives and how the Earth is divided into parts of the planet Earth Composition First of all, the Earth is composed of three parts: Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere The Atmosphere and Hydrosphere are discussed in later chapters Lithosphere Composition The Lithosphere is composed of Crust (Oceanic and Continental), Mantle (Upper and Lower), and Core (Outer and Inner) The Inner Core is made of Solid Iron and Nickel due to High Pressure and Temperature The Outer Core is made of Liquid Iron and Nickel due to Lower Pressure and Temperature The Inner and Outer Mantles provide inaccessible metals and silicates, which are lighter elements that arose from the core during the Earth's formation to be present in the mantle, and lighter such as Nitrogen in the air and deeper such as Uranium in the core Crust Composition Crust Types: Oceanic Crust (thin), Continental Crust (thick) The crust also contains many different elements of abundance, starting with Oxygen around 50%, Silicon at 26% (both make Silicates), and Aluminum (8%) The crust has less than the percentages of these metals more abundantly found in the mantle which include that of basic Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals (Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Calcium) The crust has even less than the percentages of these metals more abundantly found in the core which include Hydrogen (a light element produced when elements fuse into heavier ones in the Earth such as the other elements it is composed of such as Iron, Nickel, Uranium, Cobalt, and others) The Crust is made of many Rocks and Minerals and is the basis of all Network Covalent Crystals (Rocks) and Ionic Crystals (Minerals which make up Rocks) of Ionic Bonds in Geological Identification of them which you can find in the Official Geology Journal, and all the different types of Minerals Inorganic Material of the Crust, How it is Formed Some of these minerals and rocks found in the Continental Crust and even Oceanic Crust are formed from heat and pressure subjections in the convection currents produced from the magma from the core and other productions of rocks and minerals considered as follows These Minerals and Rocks produced and formed this way include that of Silicates (Silicon and Oxygen), Carbonates (Carbon and Oxygen), Oxides (Metals and Oxygen), and Sulfides (Metals and Sulfur) which are all Inorganic Minerals Organic Material of the Crust, How it is Formed, Applications Organic Material such as those found in Fossil Fuels made from the heat and pressure in the crust and core squeezing the carbohydrates and oils of simple Hydrocarbons out of dying and decaying animals where the hydrocarbon oil fuels are leftover for combustion in energy production and production of Carbon Dioxide and Water, the fossils of the animals that died, and Carbohydrates absorbed by the bacteria in the soil which undergo Nitrogen Fixation chemical processes to make the Carbohydrate useful to them as a part of the Atmospheric Nitrogen Cycle discussed in the next chapter So Organic Material such as Oil (Fuel), Petroleum (Gasoline, Synthetic Polymers), and Natural Gas (Fuels) are other things found in the crust to the decay of organisms dead or alive as plants or animals in the Earth's continental crust, mantle, and overall upper Lithosphere In the radioactive and bacteria absorptive processes of decay, Carbohydrates, Hydrocarbons, and Fossils are the products, and hence the name "Fossil Fuels", which are used to make Oils and Fuels as well as Petroleum The Organic Part of the Lithosphere is discussed more in Chapters 3 (Atmosphere), and 6 (Energy) Inorganic Material of the Crust, Compounds, Applications Calcium Carbonate is one of the main ionic crystalline minerals which cover so many geological formations such as the Barrier Reef, the Taj Mahal, the Roman Colosseum, and the Mammoth Caves are examples of grand uses for Calcium Carbonate and/or natural processes Calcium Carbonate is involved in Calcium Carbonate is also associated with the production and natural processes of calcite, lime, coral, chalk, aragonite, marble, and stalactite and stalagmite formations in caves Earth Processes and Origins Tectonic Plates Since the crust's density is less that of the mantle, it floats on the mantle, and doesn't sink and the mantle is subjected to less heat and pressure than the outer core, giving it both solid and liquid properties Crust is broken up into tectonic plates which move or float on mantle, driving continental crust outwards and making land move, powered by heat from the core and the liquid properties of the mantle This heat causes convection currents of the liquid properties of the mantle to flow The heat starts to rise to the surface and the crust or magnetic rock pushes on the liquid causing the plates to slide around at a grander scale of about 1cm per year (very slowly), your fingernails grow at about the same rate But millions of years ago, the continents were in different places then they are now Volcanoes In some places, there is less densities of crust, such as in oceans where land has split apart where oceanic crust is all that lay, so the liquid magma in the mantle can push its way through the small parts of the crust or no parts erupting onto the surface as a Volcano Hot material from the mantle may launch itself right through land masses to create volcanoes as well which are called hotspots As material from the core wells out of the mantle, it creates new land such as mountains and masses of air after the eruption such as chemicals like Greenhouse Gases, Ammonia, Water, and Hydrogen and Helium, such Greenhouse Gases as a part of Earth's atmosphere were supplied by volcanoes Origins of Heat in the Core of the Earth The heat in the core came from leftovers of the Earth's formation billions of years ago, 4 billion actually, As Earth gained mass, it began to contract due to gravitational pull and also stored all that heat energy inside its core, as well as heating up from an entire planet being squeezed, as well as the radioactive decay of deep and heavy rare Earth elements formed from the expansion of the Universe such as Uranium, as well as Nickel and Iron squeezing inside the core between the layers of formation of Earth creating heat from friction Summarized, the core obtains its heat from leftovers of Earth's formation, Radioactive decay of Rare Earths like Uranium, Friction of Iron and Nickel, and Gravitational Squeezing and these four concepts add up to a lot of heat which makes the core still hot as the sun's surface today Earth's Atmosphere in relation to Lithosphere The Chemistry of the Atmosphere on Earth is discussed in the next chapter Because of the components of the atmosphere, we get convection in the air as well since we are warmest at the bottom of Troposphere creating currents of rising air, which carry evaporated water, condense it, and precipitate through the Water Cycle, ALL OF THIS IS WHY WE HAVE WEATHER AND CLIMATE CHANGE DUE TO NATURAL PROCESSES The components of the Atmosphere, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water Cycles are further discussed in the Atmosphere Chapter next up Ozone in the Atmosphere O3, good at absorbing solar ultraviolet light/electromagnetic radiation Magnetic Fields not only protect us from Solar Wind, but at the poles where incoming solar wind is the weakest, these particles of energy slam into particles of the atmosphere and as they absorb unknown solar energies from the sun and transfer heat and light energy in their atoms as the electrons move up the shells at certain wavelengths and produce certain colors, the Aurora Borealis the North Pole sky is formed, as well as the South Pole Air Pressure vs. Internal Pressure (Balance) Water flows down because of its potential energy to fill the huge gaps where the thin oceanic crust is nothing but water while the thicker continental crust has no water but land instead Water came from terrestrial and extra terrestrial sources and is still unknown to scientists whether more or less came from meteors and comets, or from the combustion of fuels in the Earth created from heavy elements as well as electromagnetic radiation during the formation of the Earth 4 billion years ago, but scientists do know these are the 2 processes which made water on earth and no other planet possible to support life Silicates can be of Quartz, Micas, and Asbestos Quartz is Trigonal Planar Silicate Micas are Tetrahedral Silicate Asbestos is a Tetrahedral Stereoisomer Silicate Quartz is colorless, although impurities used for gems include that of Quartz and colors such as Amethyst (Purple), Citrine (Yellow), Rose Quartz (Pink), and Smoky Quartz (Gray, Black), and they are hard rocks which break upon cleavage with hammer, Quartz is arranged in hexagonal strcutures but form random shatters upon cleavage Micas are of the same color properties as Quartz but are Allotropes of the tetrahedral Silicate Family and upon cleavage with hammer spread out into thin sheets, Micas are arranged in hexagonal strcutures as well but form sheets upon cleavage Asbestos is a fibrous Magnesium silicate (Chrysotile) and was used for electrical and thermal (heat) insulation, as the Oxygen bears a negative or electronegative charge, the Magnesium ions can just be placed in like all cations of geological molecular structures sitting in spots where they are attracted to the electronegative Oxygen or Oxides throughout the molecule but they aren't necessarily bonding as shown by Lewis sticks, so they sit in spaces of the molecule where electron densities are probably high like Magnesium Silicate as Asbestos and are formed in hexagonal lines like polymers Asbestos has now been banned by most companies because of its carcinogenic and synergetic effects These three forms are all Natural Silicates Sand is primarily made up of Quartz and Silicon Dioxide Limestone is primarily made up of Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide Clay is primarily made up of organic material in the Earth's crust When Sand, Limestone, and Clay are heated at high temperatures and mixed, they form new substances in proportions rock and sand as modified Silicates and Carbonates of Inorganic Material This is usually done at high temperatures with substances such as fire, one of the best agents for chemical reactions When Metals are heated at high temperatures and mixed to create alloys, you are entering the science of Metallurgy, as explained at end of the chapter Clays such as Aluminum Silicates are heated and mixed or fused to form Ceramics, and when Clay is mixed with water it can form any shape, but when firing it leaves, a hard, resistant yet porous product unlike that of ancient clay called ceramic clay Heating Silicon Dioxide, Sodium Carbonate, and Calcium Carbonate and mixing the chemicals together produces an unlikely amorphous yet crystalline product called glass which is delicate because although it is tough and hardens after being cooled as a liquid, it is still made of ionic and/or molecular crystals that can shatter upon cleavage because repelling charges of the ingredients meet up as large-small ratios and meetings of atoms in the glass are met, also transparent All of the homogenous liquids soon cool to form various types of glass or glassware dependent on the mixture of composition or ingredients in the glass A unique property of glass is when it is heated, it softens Glass can be molded, formed, pressed, rolled, and blown into any shape The reason it gradually softens and can be reformed into any shape is because as irregular Silicate tetrahedra are not equal or lined up because it is a mix of ionic crystals all bunched up together as a solid solution or glass, the fact that crystals mixing together do not bond evenly make melting glass able to be reformed, in other words malleable because the bonds holding it together are uneven and weak, and therefore makes glass delicate as well and a great conductor of heat because those electrons between the bonds are moving, but not so much electrically conducting is glass Different proportions of ingredients in glass give it different physical properties and is used for different applications as follows o Soda-Lime Glass made of Sodium and Calcium Silicates is used as Ordinary Glass for Windows or Bottles or Glass Cups o Aluminosilicate Glass made of Aluminum and Calcium Silicates, Calcium Oxides, and Silicon Dioxide is used as Cookware and Fiberglass o Lead Glass made of Lead Oxide and Silicon Dioxide is used as Optical Glass and Optical Fibers o Colored Glass made of Sand, Soda, and Lime elements as described above, Calcium Oxides, as well as colorful compounds added with extra Selenium (Red) and ions of Cobalt (Blue), Chromium (Green) , and Manganese (Purple) o Colored Glass made of Cadmium Sulfide (Yellow), Carbon and Iron Oxide (Brown) too o Alabaster Glass made of Sodium Chloride salts added with Soda (Carbonates), Lime (Carbonates), and Sand (Silicates) make opaque white and creamy glass o Photochromic Glass of Silver Chloride or Silver Bromide added to the Soda, Lime, Sand mixture used as light-sensitive glass with some flowing electrons which change color based on sunlight and are used in lenses for glasses that change the vision if you walk outside or stay inside o Laser Glass which contains Neodymium added to the Soda, Lime, Sand mixture used for powerful mixtures and optical fibers Cement is made up of Ingredients of Ceramics and Glass combined, Aluminum Silicates and Calcium Carbonates, and also contain different proportions of rock and sand compared with Concrete When Cement is heated and the proportions are added, and it cools, it creates concrete Metals and Ores discussed in the Metallurgy Introduction are also essential to that of the Lithosphere's chemistry of inorganic material and use of application in products we use today These are all Synthetic Silicates or Modified Silicates The science of spaceship Earth continues in another branch called Metallurgy or Electrometallurgy

The Chemistry of Cleaning Agents (All Concepts)

When an Acid reacts with a Base, it produces a Salt and Water If you have grease, fats, or fatty acids produced from making something in the oven or sink, and you want to use an Oven or Sink Cleaner, you can use a base which will chemically react with the acid to produce a salt and water, and then you can dry up the water This is why making messes with Grease in the Oven means you can use Baking Soda, it is literally "Washing Soda" for baking something, so it is called "Baking Soda" and is a Sodium alkali base, or Sodium Bicarbonate naturally and chemically And if you put too much baking soda on, you can neutralize that with Vinegar (Acetic, Ethanoic Acid), which will then produce a salt and water and some gas Although you can dry the water, you still have that stinky salt, so then you can use a solvent to dissolve the salt and wipe it off from your mess, and the solvent has to be hydrophilic or polar, so the polarity difference between it and the salt will be small, and like dissolving like, the Solvents works

Concepts Associated with Chemical Nomenclature (All Concepts)

As you will learn in Chapter 5, Chemical Nomenclature is derived from the polyatomic ions of Acids Acids with one atom of Hydrogen are called monoprotic, and as the name suggests, Acids ions or Hydrogen ions are electron free, so monoprotic acids contain polyatomic ions and protons and polyprotic acids contain multiple protons or multiple Hydrogen ions in the formula Although Organic Acids have multiple Hydrogen, only 1 Hydrogen can ionize, so Organic Acids are Weak, Monoprotic Acids If the Acid of the substance with a metal and a polyatomic ion nonmetal has an -ic ending, the polyatomic ion would end in -ate, as for All -ate containing Acids start with Hydro- and end with -ic if they contain Hydrogen and one other element and are known as Binary Acids, but if they start with -ate and end in -ic and have more than two elements, they are known as Ternary Acids If the Acid of the substance with a metal and a polyatomic ion nonmetal has an -ous ending, the polyatomic ion would end in -ite, as for All -ite containing Acids start with Hydro- and end with -ous if they contain Hydrogen and one other element and are known as Binary Acids, but if they start with -ite and end with -ic and have more than two elements, they are known as Ternary Acids Thus, in the nomenclature of chemicals as derived from Acids, -ite may have 2 Oxygen atoms and -ate may have 3 oxygen atoms, or one unit higher may be the case depending on the Acid it is derived from, but -ate is always higher than -ite, thus -ous is always higher than -ic in Acids, and the prefix per- that comes before a polyatomic ion with Hydrogen as Acid indicates that that as derived from an -ic to form an -ate, it contains the maximum amount of Oxygen and cannot bond with Oxygen anymore as a chemical content Organic Acids have an -oic as their suffix ending in naming based on Organic Prefixes such as those demonstrated in the Methane Homolog Series or Homoglous Series as explained in the Official Organic Chemistry Journal All Bases are addressed with the Metal, and then "Hydroxide" Chloride Salts of Ammonia as derived from Ammonium Chloride make such chemicals such as hydrazine hydrochloride

Methods Concerning Balancing the Different Types of Chemical Equations (All Equation Types and Methods)

Balancing Equations for every reaction is the same, unless you are dealing with reactants in solution that is not the same pH, thus the solvent is not water There are a couple rules for balancing equations of all the different types of chemical reactions, synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement The only difference are the variable formulas for the equations of the reaction and the methods for balancing certain equations in easier ways These formulas are shown in the section, "Basic Overview of Each Chemical Reaction" For Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions: In these reactions, you are mainly accounting for atoms and balancing them, and accounting for balanced charges seems pointless, but is included because, although you can forget about doing so and be fine in the reaction balancing, it is best to do so for future balancing of equations For the easier method, skip steps 1 & 2 Easier methods for the rest of the reactions do not exist By understanding the entire concepts of Redox, rather than just the basic chemical reaction, you know what oxidation, oxidation states and numbers, reduction, agents, electrochemistry, corrosion, and electron transfer is/are, therefore you can begin balancing such reaction and the steps are as follows: 1. Assign oxidation numbers of the oxidation states of the atom or atoms on the left side of the equation for both reactants 2. Assign oxidation numbers of the oxidation states of the atom or atoms on the right side of the equation for both reactants 3. Count the number of atoms of each element of each reactant on the left side of the equation 4. Count the number of atoms of each element of each reactant on the right side of the equation 5. Place coefficients in front of atom shortages based on determining how many atoms are needed, you should check that it is right by multiplying the coefficient by the subscript of the atom you are counting to have the same number of atoms as on the left 6. Make sure that the coefficient multiplies one or any other atoms included with in the equation, which may include polyatomic ions, and account that all the atoms of the products equal the reactants when multiplied by the new coefficient 7. Sometimes, coefficients are not needed as some examples are shown in the chemistry help folder 8. Check the balance of charge by assigning oxidation states and making sure they are even with each other, and are of the same number as the new oxidation numbers you will assign to atoms on the left side of the equation which may have underwent oxidation as it gained value in the coefficient 9. Remember that 1's in oxidation numbers, coefficients, and subscripts are omitted For Single Replacement Reactions: 1. Recall that these reactions involve the replacement of A BC to AC B, where A replaces B because it is more reactive as quantum hybridization proves, so AC and B are formed, know that the reaction occurs between a compound and another element or ion 2. In Cation Replacement, a more reactive cation replaces a less reactive cation, or more reactive anions replaces less reactive anions 3. Assign Oxidation numbers to A and C, then to B 4. Assign Oxidation numbers to A and C, then to B 5. Write potential nonpolar gases or oils as their diatomic forms in real chemical reactions, add coefficients thus to the kicked out gaseous element or the element that once was with C 6. Finishing up the balancing of atoms and coefficients, and subscripts if necessary to balance charge by assigning Oxidation numbers 7. Sometimes, A may kick out C instead of B 8. Remember that diatomic gaseous forms may be produced, and that you need to balance those as coefficients 9. For any displacement equation, keep the subscripts of the atoms you move as displace 10. For Double Displacement Reactions: 1. Recall that these reactions involve the replacement AB to CD, where D replaces B, and B replaces D, in other words, AD and BD are formed, know that the reaction occurs between a compounds and another element 2. Assign Oxidation numbers to the two about-to-become AD reactants 3. Assign Oxidation numbers to the two about-to-become BC reactants 4. Rewrite the products with the displacement shown, and assign Oxidation numbers to the products of AD and BC 5. Balance the charges by rewriting and changing subscripts of A and B, to even out with the monoatomic or polyatomic ion charges of C and D 6. Place coefficients in front of substances without coefficients at the beginning which you changed the subscript of as a product, to the number of that atom on the right side of the equation 7. Make sure that if there is another atom, monoatomic, or polyatomic ion the coefficient affected, that the even count of atoms on the right side of the equation is valid, if not you may need to raise the value of your coefficient or subscript anywhere in the equation 8. As examples show on the back of this packet, you can also remove subscripts and replace them with equivalent coefficients shown on the left side of the equation, or vice versa on the other side of the equation 9. If you change the subscripts of the reactants or products, and they constitute of the same number subscript, reduce it to empirical terms, making the numbers of the lowest whole number ratio, and then placing the number the two reactants or products subscripts' changed to as your coefficient!!! 10. Remember that changing the subscript and coefficient doesn't change the oxidation state of the atom, but changes the number when multiplied out 11. Remember that when polyatomic ion oxidation states disturb the normal evening out of ions in such reactions, you must account for the charge imbalance in your final equation, or your equation will not be completely balanced

Phenols (All Concepts)

Represented by Hydroxyl Benzoyl and even Alkyl functional groups, Phenols are Benzene rings attached to Hydroxyl functional groups, and some Alkyl functional groups as well. When attached to one Hydroxyl, it yields a phenol. When attached to two Hydroxyl groups, it yields a substance called Hydroquinone, a common product used in the development of photographs from film, which you can easily obtain at a photo shop. These despite having alcohols are also multifunctional because of the Benzoyl properties that most of them primarily retain. Used as a disinfectant for floors and furniture, it used to be used by Joseph Lister in 1967 with using it as an anesthetic, but that was banned because it was very harmful later on. That's all that Phenol really applies to, but there are many because of base benzene rings and various hydroxyl combinations

Concepts Associated with Chemical Reactions: Chain Reactions/Equilibrium and Chemical Clock Reactions (All Concepts)

So, the reaction pathway describes general Chemical Reactions, those being of Synthesis, Decomposition, Displacement, and Redox, although Redox Chemistry is a little different and requires a little more steps than the normal Reaction Pathway, necessary quantitative steps to describe the reaction, which is explained in the final section Chain Reactions are applied to gaseous and nuclear reactions and explosions, most popularly Nuclear Fission, as well as electromagnetically with lasers, combustion processes, and smog formation Chain Reactions consist of three steps, Initiation, Propagation, and Termination Chain Reactions usually begin when a particle interferes with an atom or reactant, and changes the properties of that particle, such as when a photon comes in contact and ionizes it (lasers), or when a neutron comes in contact and makes it less stable in the case of high mass nuclei (fission bombs) or simply synthesizing otherwise very reactive elements and putting them together (Hydrochloric Acid Production) So since gaseous Hydrogen and Chlorine, both nonpolar covalent bonds are unreactive, energy, activation energy still needs to be used to break the bonds, specifically using Photolysis and a certain amount of radiation characteristic of the substance's properties in terms of absorbing or emitting the energy being decided to use Thus, the Initiation is when Chlorine absorbs light or electromagnetic energy, thus breaking the nonpolar covalent bond and not ionizing it, but instead since it is a covalent bond, creating 2 free radicals, so with ionic and polar bonds it ionizes the reactants, however with nonpolar and network covalent bonds, it creates free radicals, lone electrons stripped from their pair with high energy in an atom, and thus Chlorine Gas turns into 2 Chlorine atoms with a Free Radical in them Thus, the Propagation occurs when Hydrogen Gas reacts with this extremely reactive free-radical containing Chlorine, and undergoes a single displacement reaction, making Hydrochloric Acid and a Hydrogen with a free radical, an electron in high energy, and thus quickly reacts with Chlorine Gas and makes Chlorine a free radical like Chlorine ions did to the Hydrogen before, and thus after the initiation of the light being absorbed by the Chlorine, the propagation is the fact that the Chlorine free radicals are reacting with Hydrogen, making Hydrogen free radicals which react with Chlorine, and create more radicals reacting with more diatomic molecules until termination Thus, the Termination occurs when all the free radicals are used up, and when Hydrogen free radicals and Chlorine free radicals come in contact after awhile, also forming Hydrochloric Acid Another factor to discuss in chemical reactions is if there is energy absorbed or left over inside the products, how much energy is in there, and in knowing the answer there may be enough to break and reform the product bonds to remake the reactants and thus, in equilibrium, the reactants react to form products at the same time that the products are reacting to form the original reactants

The Chemistry of Surfactants (All Concepts)

Surfactants are "Surface Active Agents" or "Wetting Agents" which physically and chemically react to lower the surface tension of liquids like water and allow to spread the liquid more, and can either be 2 liquids together, or a liquid and gas together working as a Surfactant Stain Removers may work in a number of different ways Stain Removers can be Solvents, in which it will dissolve any substances with the polarity of that solvent, so Polar Solvents like water may dissolve salt and sugar, but it would take Hydrocarbon solvents or Nonpolar Solvents such as Gasoline, or Organic Solvents such as Carbon Disulfide to dissolve oil, dirt, soil or grass stains, Alcohols are the best Organic Solvents, which can be used to dissolve both water and oil based stains Stain Removers can be Surfactants or Detergents or Soaps, in which it will act as both an Emulsion, lifting the stain off of its surface, and decreasing the surface tension or intermolecular forces of the stain, thus removing it or increasing the wetness properties of most stains, Ancient Natural Soap, as well as Artificial Modern Soap are both very useful surfactants, as soap is historically made from Animal Fat (Hydrocarbon Acids and Triglycerides) and Lye or Sodium Hydroxide, which react to produce a soap substance as well as Glycerin, modern soap uses Sulfonate though in substances like Sodium Laureth Sulfate or Sodium lauryl Sulfate, both derived from Lauric Acid Stain Removers can be Enzymes, in which proteins called Enzymes sort of digest or break down molecules in stains, be they of fats or proteins or other substances which can be degradable, digesting proteins and fats in the same way you digest your own food, especially on biologically familiar stains like blood stains Stain Removers can also be bleaches, which whiten or remove the color of the stain but not the actual stain itself, using Oxidizing Agents and Bleaching Agents

The Chemistry of Water (All Concepts)

Water is perhaps the most common, interesting, intense, complex, and boring compound in all of chemistry Water is quite abundant as the air and earth, the atmosphere and lithosphere that is, and the hydrosphere is pretty much composed of nothing but water, unless impurities such as minerals, metal ions, or alkalis may get in the way, for thus water purification, as discussed conclusively, is necessary Before we can discuss water's properties, reactions, and applications, we must understand the unique chemistry of water different than that of any other liquid Water is inorganic nonetheless, for it doesn't contain Carbon, and thus has its own uses in the chemical, food, industrial, mechanical, and agricultural industries, and thus has its own cycle and purification process we will discuss conclusively To start, Water is composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen, which react to form a type of bond called a polar covalent bond, the strongest of a series of physical forces called intermolecular forces, which also has two other names based on intermolecular forces' applications being cohesive forces and adhesive forces It is sometimes confusing to distinguish between solids and liquids at the same time your distinguishing between intramolecular and intermolecular forces, the key is, a substance cannot be a solid or liquid at the same time, but while occurring as one of the two, can exhibit intramolecular and/or intermolecular forces at the same time Water is usually a liquid, not solid ice or gaseous vapor, and is usually studied as a liquid, so as a liquid it is still a polar covalent bond- an intramolecular force, but water molecules exhibit dipole-dipole forces- an intermolecular force, acting at the same time as the polar covalent bond holding the water molecule together The actual intramolecular force is what is holding the molecule together, and the intermolecular force is what is allowing all the molecules to connect in certain ways unlike that of normal intramolecular bonding Also remember that in most liquids, the molecules are sliding over each other, rather than vibrating as a solid, in part because of the interactions of these intermolecular forces The forces bonding the atoms together are intramolecular, and occur in the same way for the same substance as a solid, liquid, or gas; so water is always polar covalently bonded, be it a solid, liquid, or gas The forces connecting the water molecules together are intermolecular, and usually occur in the same way for the same substance as a solid, liquid, or gas; so water molecules are always connected because of the dipole-dipole force The dipole-dipole force or so-called "Hydrogen Bond", whereas a Hydrogen atom bonds with an extremely electronegative Oxygen, Fluorine, or Chlorine atom; is one of 4 intermolecular forces, which can explain water's properties, and its cohesive and adhesive force nature In order of least to greatest strength, these forces are the induced dipole-induced dipole force (also known as London dispersion forces), the dipole-induced dipole force, the dipole-dipole force, and the dipole-ion force, all of which can be exhibited by both nonpolar and polar covalent compounds, but never by metallic or ionic compounds unfortunately The polarity of these forces depends on the electronegativity difference of the atoms, specifically Hydrogen and Oxygen, which just happen to be less of a differential than ionic bonds, and far greater of a differential than in nonpolar covalent bonds, which sometimes are bonds between the same atoms, and thus no differential is found o Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole forces can be explained by considering the fact, and all of these forces, and all of water's properties, and all of adhesives and tapes and glues, all of their properties wire down to the very fact that electrons are always moving randomly around atoms, and that there may be one or more electrons on one side of the atom than on the other side, "inducing" the atom (or molecule) with a slight positive and negative charge on both sides, and thus possibly attracting another molecule exhibiting the same electron imbalances, but exhibiting these imbalances because the atom of electrons that "induced" the atom with a charge now "induces" a charge on a nearby atom, making most or all of the electrons on one side of the atom flow to the other, repelling the electrons already existing on the original atom or molecule, and thus since opposites attract, they connect, but it is a very weak bond o For example, this can explain why as you move down the Halogen family, the substances are easier exhibiting properties of solids than liquids or gases, Fluorine and Chlorine both being gases, Bromine being a liquid, and Iodine being a solid, more on this is explained below These intermolecular forces can be responsible for explaining why substances act as solids, liquids, and gases, and also why some easily "stick" to each other and why others do not The Chemistry of Adhesives, Glues, and Tapes, they are all molecules with large atoms in them, because in larger atoms, there is more room than in smaller atoms, for electrons to whizz about and even move all to one side, thus slightly "inducing" the atom, and thus that atom "inducing" a nearby atom, and thus they attract or "stick" to each other These forces can explain why Iodine, a relatively large molecule, is a near-solid at room temperature, because Iodine atoms are large, their electrons have more room to whizz about and slightly induce the atom with a charge, and thus a nearby atom with a charge, thus making more and more atoms of the Iodine to "stick" to each other, and vibrate, making it a Solid Thus, considering Halogens, the smaller the atom, the less room there is for electrons to whizz about and possibly induce a charge on the atom, thus making it harder for them to stick together, so while Iodine atoms are quite large enough to be a solid, Bromine atoms aren't as large, and thus only some atoms can stick together, but not all of them and thus it is a liquid, and since Chlorine and Fluorine are very small atoms, they are gases, and cannot stick to each other, especially Fluorine, which is actually used in non-stick substances This is why Teflon (CF) works, because the polar polymer contains Fluorine atoms which hog the Carbon atoms, however the electronegativity difference is just right, and it is polar, and so since Fluorine molecules cannot "stick" to anything because they are so small and a charge cannot be induced, the compound is simply used as a nonstick substance or coating to put on pots and pans so the fats, which are quite large nonpolar induced dipole forced molecules, do not stick to the pots and pans forever o Dipole-Induced Dipole forces are the second weakest forces, occurring when an attraction between two atoms (or molecules) occurs because one "induced" a charge on itself and another nearby atom is exhibiting electron imbalances, but not because of the original atom (or molecule) that "induced" itself "induced" the nearby atom, but because the neighbor already "induced" itself as well, in other words in the induced dipole-induced dipole force, the atom is attracted to the nearby atom because it "forces" the attraction electrically, but in the induced dipole-dipole force, the atom is attracted to the nearby atom because the nearby atom "forces" the attraction electrically, and this happens to be a little stronger of a force o For example, this can explain why underwater life, like ours above water, can survive, because Oxygen can be dissolved in water because at the surface of the water, in relation to air, the water can "induce" a charge on the Oxygen atoms in the air" thus, making Oxygen molecules slightly charged, positive and negative, in which the electrons of the Oxygen atoms in water make the electrons on the outsides of the Oxygen molecules in the air repel, and thus make an attraction occur between the Oxygen and Water molecules, binding them together, and because of the Cohesive forces of the water, the Oxygen is brought down deep into the waters for all life to breathe in and thrive on Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole and Induced-Dipole-Dipole forces are the weakest of forces, but are perhaps the most significant, because they can make originally nonpolar substances like Oxygen Gas slightly charged, slightly polar, just enough so it can be dissolved in water, as like dissolves like, polar water can dissolve slightly polar Oxygen, and are what make many of the Noble Gases diatomic and even sometimes liquid under the right conditions, because of the significance of these forces, the unreactive monoatomic noble gases can be turned to liquid under science-easy to set-up conditions o The third weakest (and/or second strongest) intermolecular (and/or cohesive/adhesive) force is the dipole-dipole force, which is exhibited in water, occurring when two molecules aren't "induced", rather naturally polar, two naturally polar molecules come together as a result of their polarity, connecting as molecules o For example, this is the cohesive force of water, making water "stick" to itself, and also being able to explain many of water's properties o A specially-named dipole-dipole force, the cohesive force of water is Hydrogen Bonding, in which the induced dipole are of Hydrogen atoms, and the dipole-dipole force is triggered by a very electronegative atom such as Oxygen, and following Coulomb's laws of electroneutrality and attraction of opposite charges, two atoms of Hydrogen interact with the Oxygen atom, and the Oxygen atom being more electronegative, with a small atomic radius and high effective nuclear charge, attracts the electrons of the Hydrogen atoms strongly, but cannot pull them away, it just happens to be right off from being an ionic bond, with just the tiniest bit smaller electronegativity difference than an ionic compound Since it is a polar covalent bond, the hydrogen atoms want to stay as far apart from each other, but are closer to each other than a linear molecule because of the Oxygen atom pulling their electrons inwards, and thus they stay closer to each other as a bent molecule because of the intermolecular force holding them together When water gains energy, the V-shaped or bent shaped molecules gain more energy and start to roll around each other, attracted by the induced dipole, or strong Hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces, in other words oxygen atoms themselves exhibit London forces, then exhibit Hydrogen bonds as they come in contact with Hydrogen and pull at its electrons, but not completely for that would be ionic, and since Hydrogen atoms would repel each other because of the electrons still in their shells not being pulled all the way by Oxygen atoms, would repel the electrons inside the shells of nearby Hydrogen atoms And also, the Oxygen atom is simply extremely electronegative, and induces a dipole into incoming Hydrogen atoms, making that strong Hydrogen bond, and so if this process continues, then in keeping the rules of intermolecular and intramolecular forces straight, water would form hexagonal rings, if no energy was applied, and it was all up to the electron interactions This is how a water molecule would look if no energy was applied, the water molecules are bent because the Oxygen is pulling the Hydrogen atoms inwards, but the electronegativity difference as measured just isn't strong enough for it to be ionic, so they are pulled apart a bit, and although the electrons of the Hydrogen atoms are repelling, they are pulled in a bit, as this may be an accurate model to show, by the Oxygen, although it seems 1 is linear and the other is bent, they are both bent from their original position This molecular structure occurs in ice, as the temperature gets higher, the water molecules do not have to compensate for energy in their weak bonds because they are gaining energy as the temperature gets higher, and while polar covalent bonds still exist, the intermolecular forces are different, now it is more of a dispersion force, although hydrogen bonding is still occurring, just not as much, because the thermal energy applied overcomes the chemical energy inside these weak bonds or intermolecular forces of Hydrogen and Oxygen in the water molecules, so they can now roll over each other, and as water turns into a gas, the water molecules begin to break apart However, as the temperature gets lower, the water molecules have less thermal energy, and the forces of the strong hydrogen bonds overcome the energy being applied, if any energy is applied, because hydrogen bonds are the second strongest intermolecular forces, which are surprisingly and amazingly stronger than all nonpolar covalently bonded compounds So because we have considered applying the molecular structure of water to its most unusual and unique property, expanding upon freezing, we can also determine other amazing properties of water from applying knowledge of its molecular structure This makes sense because upon freezing water, the Hydrogen bonds are strong enough to compensate for the lost energy, and there is no energy there in the first place to shake them out of their position, so intermolecular forces take over, and they form those hexagonal rings spontaneously as solid ice, and thus there are holes inside of those rings, and ice is much less dense than normal liquid water, in which energy is applied, shaking the hydrogen bonds out of position, overcoming the forces hydrogen bonds are exhibiting in holding the water molecules together, and thus lets them slide over each other by means of dipole-dipole forces o The strongest of these intermolecular forces, responsible for water's dissolving properties as the universal solvent, the Ion-Dipole force, is the strongest, we can explain the fact that since water molecules are so close to being ionic yet so easily heated unlike most ionic compounds, they can interact with ions of ionic compounds that make it hard to isolate the ions from within them because the bonds are so strong, and that Hydrogen bonds, or dipole-dipole forces can be applied when Hydrogen reacts with another electronegative element other than Oxygen o For example, Sodium Chloride dissolves in water, and the Chlorine induces a dipole into Hydrogen to produce Hydrogen Chloride and Sodium Hydroxide, the Hydrogen itself can bond to another electronegative element like Chlorine, from Chlorine inducing a dipole charge into Hydrogen, making them bond together These 4 microscopic yet up most significant forces are what gives nonpolar and polar substances the ability to "stick" to each other You can think of intermolecular forces in their relationship to intramolecular forces and the polarity scale sort of like this, as follows If two objects or substances are nonpolar, their electrons repel and they do not stick, your hand isn't actually touching the table because both are nonpolar substances, there is no considerable polarity to electrically attract them, so they just lay over the table If two objects or substances are ionic, their electrons attract and they stick so well, it takes large amounts of energy to break them apart, if someone induced a positive charge into your hand, it would serve as one of the greatest weapons, making your victim's hand stick to the desk electrically Most objects are nonpolar, in which everything has a negative charge, and everything repels, so we aren't attracted So either we do not touch the table, or we touch it and cannot escape, there must be an alternative If two objects or substances are polar, their electrons attract slightly, intermolecular forces are at work of course, and they "stick" literally like "stickers", so adding a coating of strong adhesive (intermolecular) forces, like Hydrogen Bonds, your hand temporarily (not forever, unless of course in that case large amounts of energy are needed to break your hand from the table, most likely ruining your hand and the desk, or some complex biochemical that turns your organic hand or your (hopefully) organic desk into something else) "sticks" to the desk; this is why OH group-containing substances, or Alcohols, Organic Acids, and other Hydrogen Bond-filled medicines like liquid Tylenol, and not to mention semen for all you perverts out there, is what gives rise that if you were to put them on your hand and then put your hand on the table (I don't know why you would do that, maybe you ran out of tissues or napkins or something), it would surely stick, and just touching it, makes it feel sticky On a more mature level, ingredients in glues and tapes are adhesives, and getting these on your hands, desk, or wherever, their sticky because of the intermolecular forces present in them, the cohesive and adhesive forces of the substances, probably long polymers of Hydrogen Bonds, making them behave that wat So now you know why things "truly" stick or "touch", you are actually touching stickers and glue, but not your table where you set up all your nonpolar supplies, except for maybe your polar glass mug, which can exhibit adhesive forces, in relation with water though, since both are polar, and since even though the glass can exhibit adhesive forces, your hand is nonpolar nonetheless, especially with all that oil on it as biologists say you have) The fact that Hydrogen not only has its own bond named after it, but that Hydrogen bonds can interact with elements other than Oxygen, and interact in different ways, including that of dipole-dipole forces and dipole-ion forces gives rise to its many properties, such as the following For a start, since Hydrogen can interact with other electronegative elements upon dipole-ion forces, and can exhibit dipole-ion forces from originally being a part of water, it can be induced by other atoms, and thus water can act as a solvent, as known as the "universal solvent" it can dissolve pretty much any one or more substances, and can also, in solution, make other substances react with each other to form a product, usually a precipitate o For example, Potassium Iodide reacts with Lead Nitrate, two solid white salts, to form Lead Iodide, a precipitate in which the Lead ions are responsible for the murky, thick, and/or opaque yellow color produced, and which takes place because the Hydrogen atoms are responsible for letting themselves be induced by the anions in the reaction, so water sorted of acted as a natural catalyst as the universal solvent applied in this reaction, breaking down the chemicals by temporarily interacting with their anions, although the process is a little more complicated than that o Water is in constant equilibrium of Hydrogen and Hydroxide ions, but only in small amounts, and those Hydrogen ions are really just protons, and so when chemicals react in water, the cations attach to the negative hydroxide ions, and the anions attach to the positive Hydrogen ions, or protons, but sometimes there are just hydrogen atoms, and thus induce a temporary charge on them as well, and temporarily interact until they come in contact with more electronegative elements or much more electropositive elements, in this case the Lead and/or Potassium, and in this particular reaction the Lead reacts with the Hydroxide ions temporarily, and then reacts with the Iodide ions which were interacting with Hydrogen atoms and ions due to Hydrogen bonding, and the two then come together, forming Lead Iodide, while the other two come together because their other component atom was broken off, and thus Lead Iodide and Potassium Nitrate are formed in this reaction, and water "transported" the ions and made them react faster than if they were just shaken up in a test tube, proving that water can not only dissolve salts, but make them react and even act as a catalyst o Another way of thinking about it in easier to understand terms is the rule that like-dissolves-like, so water being polar can dissolve salts, which are ionic, but in arbitrary terms act like polar compounds more than nonpolar compounds, so substances like nonpolar Methanol can dissolve nonpolar organic compounds, so water can't dissolve organic compounds like oil because they are nonpolar and thus don't exhibit any ion-dipole force action, but it can dissolve salts (and dilute acids and bases) because they are composed similarly of the same bonds, one being polar covalent (close to ionic on the electronegativity difference scale), and one being ionic, thus exhibiting ion-dipole force interaction quite well So we have now explained all the complicated, confusing, and still somewhat unknown mysteries about water and how this explains its properties, reactions, and applications We've covered some of the most unique, yet most complex explanations of water's properties, including that it expands upon freezing, and condenses upon melting, but then in arbitrary limits may expand again upon evaporating and be less dense than ice dependent on the temperature, however nonetheless it expands upon freezing rather than getting more dense unlike any other liquid We also covered why water can act as a catalyst and a solvent, specifically as the most commonly used solvent, because it can also undergo ion-dipole forces, those intermolecular forces that are the strongest and are so easily physically created and induced by Hydrogen atoms, and the electronegative elements they are reacting with, while being so similar to dipole-dipole forces and Hydrogen bonds nonetheless Most solutions are aqueous solutions, meaning the solvent is the universal solvent water, and pretty much only work with other polar compounds and liquids By the way, if something is hydrophilic, it is soluble in water, and if it is hydrophobic, it is insoluble in water So some significant hydrophilic substances used often in chemistry include Salts, Bases, Acids, Sugars, Medicines, DNA, RNA, Alcohols, Organic Acids, and sometimes Esters or Ethers Here are some other unique properties water has that it exhibits best among all liquids as follows o Cohesive Forces Defined as the ability for molecules to be attracted by means of intermolecular forces with themselves Water is better at maintaining its cohesive forces, the Hydrogen Bonds are strong enough to stick together and not stick to other surfaces so well o Adhesive Forces Defined as the ability for molecules to be attracted by means of intermolecular forces with other substances Water isn't as good as maintaining its cohesive forces when it sticks to glass, when it sticks to glass, it spreads out on glass rather than beading up Both Cohesive and Adhesive Forces of which water best exhibits among most liquids, are further explained above this section of Water's properties So we now know more about water's chemistry, giving rise to its amazing properties including it being less dense than liquid water, expanding upon freezing, has amazing cohesive and adhesive properties and applications, sticks to itself, has a very remarkably low density as ice, and high density nonetheless, as well as high surface tension, heat capacity, and viscosity, it best exhibits capillary action, can be used as a catalyst and solvent, and also participates in many chemical reactions to react with other substances to produce new ones, and also be produced by itself in the process, and we also considered understanding its biological role, in terms of dissolving Oxygen for underwater life, and also making upwelling natural, allowing underwater animals to survive Peter Wothers had his own lecture, which goes over more about the applications of water, and its reactions, properties, and applications in our world • Remember, Water is the only substance on Earth that can exist and be present together in all 3 states of Matter, as a Solid (Ice), Liquid (Drinking Water), & Gas (Water Vapor, Fire Extinguishers) • Water reacts or "mixes in" with salts to create hydrates o Copper Sulfate is naturally blue because like many transition metal compounds, it is a hydrate, so not only does water exist on its own as a compound, but it can physically react and exist within a salt, so water and salts create hydrates, sort of like copper sulfate hydrate • Water's molecular structure determines many things about its chemistry, first of all it exists naturally in all 3 states of matter, as a solid ice cube, liquid, and gaseous vapor o Thus, you can heat all hydrates and remove the water from them, a property most salts share if they were mixed with water or are natural hydrates, so the more you heat them, the less they lose their "blue color", but this is only for salts that exist as hydrates, all hydrate salts are blue, because water is blue too o Thus, a chemical reaction occurs, the decomposition of Copper Sulfate Hydrate, turns into anhydrous Copper Sulfate which is just another one of those white salts, and water vapor is driven off • Water is blue o Every element has its own flame test, in other words in heating substances, the electrons in their atoms are excited and in applying the law of conservation of energy even at the tiniest level, the electrons reach a high energy level because they absorb this energy, then go back down to a lower energy level because they conserve and give off this energy, in the form of wavelengths or photons, and different frequencies interact with our retina in our eye in different ways to produce different colors o Hydrogen gives off a sort of dark red flame, as could be indicated by the red lines that appear on its emission spectrum, or bar code of lines indicating which wavelengths of light are given off when Hydrogen is heated and its electrons get excited to a higher energy level o Oxygen gives off a sort of blue flame, not because of this phenomenon of refraction, but simple reflection, it absorbs most wavelengths of light, but is able to reflect blue light at a certain energy and frequency, so Oxygen gives off that blue color, the Oxygen and Hydrogen's properties combine to produce a molecule with mixed properties of the two, like in all chemical reactions, and is like a hybrid arbitrarily speaking, in this case Water takes advantage of Oxygen's properties, in which it cannot burn, and it reflects blue light, so water is thus blue because of the Oxygen present, and the fact that liquid Oxygen is blue, and gaseous Oxygen is too far-fetched speeds for molecules to even reflect or refract any light, so water being a liquid, is blue • Water reacts with Carbon to produce Carbohydrates, and you may find that in cutting edge empirical formula usage with these complex sugars like glucose and sucrose, they're really just carbon atoms, and a certain number of water molecules added on, and their organic compounds! o So these types of compounds, carbohydrates, are found in our food o Most of all food is water, found in those carbohydrates, so removing the water leaves little left of the actual food, and this is known as dehydration, going from liquid to solid, but all the water being removed or driven off as a gaseous vapor all the same • Water reacts with so many different things, and so leaving food out, it can get moldy because of the water in it, but in taking the water out of it by making it react with something, or some physical reaction, it cannot get moldy since there is nothing inside left to react with something else o Water's role is vital, since inside of food it can react with so many different things, making it good or bad for us to eat it, but the food obviously has no benefit, and doesn't decompose or react much longer when all the water is removed, and that goes not just for food but any substance o This role applies especially to biology and being inside of our bodies, we are literally walking chemical factories of DNA and ribosomes and blood circulation and more, and water is one of many essential supplies and nutrients to organs for all our cells, and we too are made of carbohydrates we eat and many other water molecule-containing organic compounds, in which if they were driven off, removed, or we were "dehydrated", we too would not only die, but we wouldn't mold, we would just be a dead corpse curled up tight forever since without that water we wouldn't react with anything anymore • The Earth contains about 70% water, and is the most common substance or molecule on the planet • Many, many chemical reactions take place as liquids or salts, in solution chemistry • Salts can be turned into liquid, but only at very high temperatures because of the strong bonds and large amounts of chemical energy between them, so salts can normally act as a liquid by being dissolved in water, adding water, to form a solution, and thus this may turn the salt blue if somehow the solute and water come out together as a blue hydrate • Water is known as the universal solvent, almost every chemical reaction at home or in the lab or in nature- in goo polymer production, in organic compound production, in geochemical processes, and can dissolve almost anything, many things are soluble in water, or in something already dissolved in water, and this is because of the properties water has due to its unique molecular structure, which we will cover later, which is also responsible for it expanding upon freezing, and that it can naturally exist in three states all the time • Water reacts with metals such as Magnesium, and can also catalyze as we explained before acting as a catalyst, a reaction between Magnesium and Silver Nitrate because of the water allowing the two substances to mix together because the water transported the chemicals through ion-dipole forces to make them react vigorously together and produce a spark • Water reacts with any two materials to make them react easier with each other, such as carbohydrates and sodium peroxide, and sometimes they can react to dehydrate the carbohydrates, thus linguistically and chemically leaving Carbon, and also the Sodium Peroxide burns orange, due to the Sodium present • So, we can take water out of substances like Carbohydrates (reaction with Sulfuric Acid), Salts (reaction with heat on Copper sulfate), but we can add water into substances like Copper Sulfate to make Copper Sulfate hydrate • In the Sulfuric Acid reaction, it is an irreversible reaction, and in the Copper Sulfate reaction, it is a reversible reaction • 1 milliliter of water can turn into over 2000 times, or 2000 milliliters of gaseous water vapor by means of heating • Water and Oil do not mix because the Hydrogen Bonds, or Cohesive Forces, holding the water molecules together do not stick to the oil, water being polar, and oil being nonpolar or hydrophobic, the two do not mix because of the differences in polarity on the polarity scale, the cohesive forces holding the water together, as any nonpolar liquid would do, and since oil cannot perform any intermolecular interactions such as becoming a dipole or ion, and only rarely it does but by means of adding other substances • Also, water expands as it turns from liquid to gas or vapor, over 2000 times as much, and condenses as it turns from vapor or gas back into a liquid, however it still expands rather than condenses more as it turns into a solid, and also unusually condenses as it turns from a solid to a liquid, so the cycle is the same for liquids and gases, rather than liquids and solids, or involving cohesive and intermolecular forces rather than condensed states • Thus, putting Carbon Dioxide on metal-burning flames is more efficient, since water can still react with the burning metal producing its oxide or hydroxide, and giving off Hydrogen Gas and lots of heat and light energy, since it formed a salt afterwards and had to conserve energy by giving off more, thus being exothermic, and adding to the fire making it burn brighter and bigger • Thus, putting Carbon Dioxide on hydrocarbon-burning flames is more efficient, since water doesn't mix with hydrocarbons since it is polar and hydrocarbons are nonpolar, and since water is more dense than hydrocarbons, which naturally do not mix and also do float on water, then at the temperatures the oil or hydrocarbon fire is burning, this will make the more dense water turn to steam, and thus expand not only the water itself, but the oil that is burning and giving off energy and making the carbon dioxide and water, and adding to the fire making it burn brighter and bigger • You could also have a damp wash cloth instead of normal water to put out a fire, since the cloth has materials that doesn't make it burn, and it is damp so there isn't much water to vaporize • Water is blue because most waves cannot penetrate salts, and are otherwise transparent to salts because it takes a very large amount of energy to break them, and most salts reflect what waves most compounds absorb, which is infrared radiation, or the heat in the action of radiation, the form of heat radiation being infrared in chemical reactions in other words. Water's molecular formula resembles that of a salt, Hydrogen Oxide; and thus since it normally has properties different than that of salts, it also has properties of absorbing and/or reflecting light differently than that of normal salts. It absorbs red light, and thus refracts or re-emits blue light, like most red light absorptions give blue light refractions. My friend incorrectly but smartly theorized the size of the wavelength, infrared being quite large, passes over atoms and doesn't interact with them because they are too small for the wave to even tough or transpire. This gives water the property to be blue

Halides and CFC's (All Concepts)

Representing the Heteroatom Alkyl and Halide functional groups, and all of our journal assumptions officially clear, when you replace the hydrogens in hydrocarbons or any functional group for that matter, with halogens like Fluorine, Chlorine, or Bromine, complex organic halogenation reactions take place that we do not get into, but you are left with the product of a group of heteroatoms, or functional groups that contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and other atoms, and atoms Carbon bonds to other than Hydrogen. The easiest reaction, commercially known, is bonding chlorine gas and methane together in a pressurized chamber and in the presence of ultraviolet light which uses some electromagnetic energy as well to help form the bonds and a whole bunch of different products at explosive rates, fun let me tell you, but don't get killed. The products are listed below. The two classifications will be discussed in the next chapter being of Halides and specific halides or chlorofluorocarbons. Halide functional groups are represented by Carbon in the middle, a X next to it (although I would've preferred in H which would've stood for Halogens), and three R's surrounding it for other functional groups that may be apart of the macromolecule of different functional groups organic chemists tend to synthesize in macromolecular ways, hence the name. Most halides are used are of toxins, insecticides, propellants or pollutants like aerosol cans, spray paints, and hairspray, foamed plastics or solvents like chloroform, and refrigerants. Most of these have also systematically been known to deplete the ozone layer, a controversial science topic nonetheless. The simplest chlorofluorocarbon halide of Carbon, 2 fluorides, and 2 chlorides is called Dichlorodifluorocarbon, not a fancy name at all if you look at the molecular structure, and is used as a common refrigerant. The products of such reactions include Methyl Chloride, used for making silicones, Methylene Chloride, a heteroatom alkene-based alkyl, long for an alkyl halide used as a solvent, and as paint remover. Remember, there are many organic substances, which derive from alkyl functional groups that function to serve as solvents because they are nonpolar and very common. Carbon Tetrachloride is used a dry-cleaning solvent and in fire extinguishers with water and aerosol such as this Carbon Tetrachloride, nonpolar solvent that dissolves fire or extinguishes the flame. It was also used as a powerful poison gas when it reacted with water to form Phosgene as used in World War I. Chloroform is another solvent, banned because of how dangerous it is, but can be used as an anesthetic or painkiller, illegal today. DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) PCB (Polychloranatedbipenyl) are other good example, or as the molecular structure suggests of its nerdifying long name. The nomenclature of Molecular Strcutures says it all. It's really easy if you study it, but it is just hard to pronounce. DDT and PCB are two example toxins, which have been banned for obvious reasons. Alkyl Halides and all Halides are slightly polar, and are polar enough not to be dissolved but not to necessarily change the chemical properties of water either. They do dissolve in fats, stains such as lipids and greases, fuels, oils, and substances of high nonpolarity or low polarity levels. This is why such halides and chlorofluorocarbons like Carbon Tetrachloride is used in the Laundromat and can make good dry-cleaning solvents, removing the stain from grease and fabrics in chemical changes, since they are sort of near each other on the bond type line in strength, both physical and slight chemical changes in properties allow for the stain to come off of fabrics like your clothes. Teflon or Carbon Difluoride is another nonpolar, nonstick substance used on pots and pans that contains single bonds, and is Carbon attached to two fluorides over and over again to make such a polymer. Another name for chlorofluorocarbons or perfluorocarbons are Freons or abbreviations as CFC's. Oxygen is soluble in blood extending compounds called PFC's or Perfluorocarbons, which have applied used also.

Ethers (All Concepts)

As Represented by the ROR Functional Group or Alkyl Ethyl functional groups, for the rest of the chemistry, definitions, and complex reactions of functional groups and their applying compounds, go over to Chapter 15 in the real journal, all assumptions clear. I will strictly be focusing on the applications of such compounds, and these segments will be a lot shorter now. Ethers are alcohols where carbon replaces oxygen in water and is bonded to an R group instead of Hydrogen. Compounds of water where the oxygen is replaced by 2 carbons, or 2 alkyl groups are attached to that same oxygen atom are called ethers. The Eth in Ethers comes from the two carbons that replace in Hydrogens in what would have been water. Ethers are similar to Ketones and Aldehydes; only the Ethers we know of contain lone Oxygen atoms as the central reactivity, not Carbonyl functional groups. The simplest ether, Diethyl Ether is used a solvent as always, because it dissolves many organic substances that are insoluble in water such as oils. It boils at low temperatures, so it can speed up certain reactions like these a lot quicker than most functional groups represented by such organic substances. It recovers dissolved materials too because of such low boiling points and evaporates readily. It is very unreactive unless because of the Oxygen center, unless it bonds with such substances such as oils, or Oxygen, because therefore Oxygen would want to go with Oxygen, making it very reactive and also making most ethers due to their central oxygen reactivity very flammable or combustible. Over time, they react slowly with oxygen in the air to form radioactive peroxides, which can decompose explosively, so stay away from old apothecary type ethers. Great way to plan a murder 100 years in advance when you're already dead, if that makes any sense. Or if you plan to travel in a spacetime continuum like Doctor Who. Anyway, Ethylene can oxidize, in other words you can burn plastic to create a toxic gas used in the products of ethers and that other somewhat toxic property-contained ethylene glycol substance used in your cars that can be replaced by Propylene Glycol because of the alcohol's toxicity levels. Multifunctional, Ethylene Glycol or Antifreeze is actually an Alkyl or Alkene-based, Alcohol, and an Ether too. Talk about multiple functions, multiple properties, and staying with Alcohol properties, meaning it is slightly acidic, but are contained as antifreeze in around 20% solutions, so you don't have to worry about it burning your skin or heating up your car. In the olden days, Ethers were also used as anesthetics like phenols. You guessed it, now they are banned. Diethyl Ether isn't banned, and can still be used to knock out patients undergoing surgery or put soldiers to sleep or enemies on the battle field in tranquilizer guns, although it is mostly used for solvents and solubilities of organic substances, and a little bit of antifreeze property too. Ethers that burn and cool are also called Epoxides, used as Epoxy Resins or Glues, and are other common chemical intermediates in multiple step synthesis reactions of organic complexity. It is also used to sanitize sterilize medical instruments used in surgical operations. These are the many uses of Ethers, and now we will bring on their similar clan or family, the Aldehydes

List of All of the possible Physical Properties of Matter (All Properties and Concepts)

In all of Chemistry, there are certain Physical Properties we use to describe a chemical or substance, chemical reaction, phase change, or any concept in Chemistry, and a list of what they are and their description is presented below 1. Absorption Spectra - The way a photon's energy is taken up by matter 2. Angular momentum - The amount of rotation of an object 3. Area - Amount of a two dimensional surface in a plane 4. Brittleness - Tendency of a material to break under stress 5. Boiling point - Temperature where a liquid forms vapor 6. Capacitance - Ability of an object to store an electrical charge 7. Color - Hue of an object as perceived by humans 8. Concentration - Amount of one substance in a mixture 9. Density - Mass per unit volume of a substance 10. Dielectric constant - Storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy 11. Ductility - Ability of a substance to be stretched into a wire 12. Distribution - Number of particles per unit volume in single-particle phase space 13. Elasticity - Tendency of a material to return to its former shape 14. Electric charge - Positive or negative electric charge of matter 15. Electrical conductivity - A material's ability to conduct electricity 16. Electrical impedance - Ratio of voltage to AC 17. Electrical resistivity - How strongly a flow of electric current is opposed 18. Electric field - Made by electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. 19. Electric potential - Potential energy of a charged particle divided by the charge 20. Emission Spectra - Spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted 21. Flow rate - Amount of fluid that passes through a surface per unit time 22. Fluidity - Flows easily 23. Freezing point - Temperature where a liquid solidifies 24. Frequency - Number of repetitions in a given time frame 25. Hardness - How resistant solid matter is to external force 26. Inductance - When the current changes, the conductor creates voltage 27. Intensity - Power transferred per unit area 28. Length - Longest dimension of an object 29. Location - Place where something exists 30. Luminance - Amount of light that passes through a given area 31. Luminescence - Emission of light not resulting from heat 32. Luster - The way light interacts with the surface of a metallic or ionic crystal 33. Malleability - Ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling a material 34. Mass - An object's resistance to being accelerated 35. Melting point - Temperature where a solid changes to a liquid 36. Momentum - Product of the mass and velocity of an object 37. Permeability - Ability of a material to support a magnetic field 38. Pliability- Flexibility 39. Smell - Scent or odor of a substance 40. Solubility - Ability of a substance to dissolve 41. Specific heat - Heat capacity per unit mass of a material 42. Temperature - Numerical measure of heat and cold 43. Thermal conductivity - Property of a material to conduct heat 44. Velocity - Rate of change in the position of an object 45. Viscosity - Resistance to deformation by stress 46. Volume - Space that a substance occupies 47. Flammability*- Being Able to Oxidize and Combust to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water So out of the 50 or so properties, scientists describe systems in many ways, and understand the impact of knowing and discerning states of matter as Solids, Liquids, and Gases, but what about Plasma? Plasma is discussed in Chapter 30, but a quick overview will be presented below Examples of Solids, Liquids, and Gases and their Chemistry, History, and Applications are what make up the bulk of Matter and everything else needed to understand them is indicated throughout the bulk of chemistry concepts learned Phase Changes are also another important part of understanding Matter in Chemistry Phase Changes are analytically recorded for analysis in the Laboratory by Phase Diagrams if Temperature and Pressure need to be known, and by Heating or Cooling Curves if the Pressure is constant, since these are phase or state phase changes the Temperature is never considered a constant As we said Chemistry is discussed as Solids, Liquids, and Gases, but the bulk of Chemistry has to do with Liquids or Solutions that are primarily liquids

The Chemistry of Rocket Propellants and Fuels (All Concepts)

One of the most iconic rockets was the Atlantis Rocket, with the large orange cone and two skinnier white cones beside it in the back, these cones are simply large spaces of metal made to store nothing but liquids and gases, and energy appliances. In the orange cone, there is liquid Oxygen and Hydrogen at high pressures and temperatures so that they could react to produce water and largely excessive amounts of heat energy which makes the rocket go, but it can go further. Even more energy is applied by a series or combination of chemical reactions in the smaller, skinnier rockets. One, involves the same material you find on any old household match when you strike it, Potassium Chlorate, which when energy such as that supplied by the Water Production in the orange cone of the rocket, will decompose it to form Potassium Chloride and Water, just like any Chlorate decomposes to produce a Chloride salt and Oxygen Gas, and in the relative amounts it is studied stoichiometrically for that. This Oxygen Gas then fills up at high pressures in the small rockets, giving them a boost, and even more energy comes from that Oxygen reacting with unstable Aluminum at the bottom of the two cylinders, producing Aluminum Trioxide, or Carbrorundum, and in being one of the most stable compounds ever, sometimes found as a gem with Chromium ion impurities in applying the Photoelectric Effect and principles of refraction, creates a huge boost of energy as well. These combined sources of energy emitted get the rocket out of our atmosphere and controlling like a large space car, into outer space.

Concepts Associated with Precipitates (All Concepts)

When things come out of other things, like rain from clouds, or solids from solutions The Solubility of a Pure Substance, be it an element or compound, determines whether or not something is soluble or not, meaning if it is, it can be dissolved in water and usually act as a solute, but if it is not, it is insoluble meaning it either cannot be dissolved because it is in a different state, it has a much higher density, or the bonds supporting are incompatible with polar bonds, thus if they were polar, it would change the chemical properties of the water Water is a great solvent for ionic compounds, especially when placing a crystalline structure such as table salt into water, they are incompatible to bond and change the chemical properties of the water, thus the salt is soluble because it can be dissolved in water as the little dipole moments or polar parts or atoms of the water break down the structure, but don't necessarily bond with it unless heat or electrical energy is directly applied Some ionic compounds called Solid Precipitates are so strong that polar parts do not get in, meaning they stay solid rather than dissolved, formed from reactions in solutions, thus falling out of them This is how many rocks are formed near bodies of water, the water dissolves salts in Crum form nearby and forms precipitates to make them into rock form Some of these reactions actually geologically change the properties of rocks and make them heavier or lighter, darker or lustier, because of the elements the precipitates from the water dissolving such components Also, oceans get all of their saltwater from dissolving salts around them already Silver Nitrate as a liquid and Table Salt react Remember, the chemistry behind dissolving is that the polar water bonds will electrostatically attract themselves to split the salt, polar parts sliding through the crystalline, the Oxygen part taking the Sodium, and the double Hydrogen part taking on the Chlorine part, the water molecules are still water molecules, they haven't separated because no energy was summoned, thus it is a physical change where water dissolves salt to look different But instead of water, when you add silver nitrate, another famous ionic compound and liquid salt at room temperature reacts with the salt, and since both are ionic, they not only dissolve but change the chemical properties of the solution, forming a precipitate solid as two ionic compounds Silver Nitrate was the solvent, as some ionic and polar compounds can be, water, liquid salts, and organic substances are the top 3 common solvents To figure out what the precipitate is, we take a look at our chemical equation of the reaction, and know that Sodium Chloride and Silver Nitrate are our reactants, so those aren't it, since there are new products, being of Sodium Nitrate and Silver Chloride If you follow solubility rules of certain substances, Nitrates dissolve pretty well in water, which leaves us with Silver Chloride, our new precipitate substance as a solid, and although it is ionic, its bonds are strong enough to withhold solubility, thus making Silver Chloride insoluble in water Precipitation, Redox, and Neutralization are all types of reactions that can occur in liquids, or solutions such as liquids or gases, anything that can follow up with intermolecular forces determining their properties before bonding, and Intramolecular forces after they have been bonded Precipitation occurs between an Ionic Solute and Ionic Solvent Normal Dissolving of Solutions occur between an Ionic Solute and Polar Solvent Change in Dissolving of Solutions to change chemical properties occur between a Polar Solute and Polar Solvent Neutralization occurs between two substances which form a solute and solvent All in all, if two substances are made up of different bonds, they dissolve All in all, if two substances are made up of same bond, they change chemical properties and even make new substances like precipitates between two ionic substances, these are called precipitation reactions Another skill you should have is knowing how to balance redox reactions, which are the same as precipitation reactions to account for such rearrangement of molecular structures, as you do balance redox reactions for any solution, be it redox, neutralization, or precipitation Molecular or Chemical Equations are normal Ionic Equations show all of the ions reacted and formed in their ionic oxidation states Net Ionic Equations show all of the ions reacted and formed to make something new, as Nitrate and Sodium bonded, but never really took part in the react of Silver Chloride, which you can see happening at you macromolecular advantage You also need the skills of stoichiometry to know how much silver or any precipitated was actually precipitated, by dividing the molecular weight of silver by the mass of silver, molar mass, that is The reason a Hydroxide ion has a - charge overall is because Oxygen has a 2- oxidation state of -2, and Hydrogen has a +1 thus making it or adding it to get -1 A special double displacement reaction classification is precipitation because like the Silver Nitrate reaction with Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride can do the same thing, as can Lithium Chloride or Strontium Chloride, you get the idea If a compound is soluble, it will remain in its free ion form, but if it is insoluble, it will precipitate Charts of solubility can be found in the Chemistry Helper Folder

Aromatics (All Concepts)

Represented by the primary alkyl functional group and aromatic functional group, we will also be keeping intact the same rules throughout the journal and assumptions; Aromatics are organic terms for rings. Discovered and prompted for shape by a dream by scientists August Kekule and Michael Faraday in the years of 1825 and 1865, it contains a strange homolog that doesn't necessarily fit in with alkanes, alkene, or alkynes. These are called Aromatic Ring Organic compounds, and they derive from their father benzene. Significantly more stable and less reactive than alkenes, they have funky smells, the best properties of combustibility, flammability, and combustion rates, and also are components to oil, even better than crude oils, but unfortunately it promotes cancer, so it by itself isn't good, it's derivatives are better such as those in gasoline. Auto exhaust, soot, and tobacco smoke are all derivatives of benzene and aromatic compounds in gaseous forms. Benzene is the primary application of aromatics, and has some interesting features. First of all, the molecular structure is very weird looking as it contains 2 carbons triply bonded, to two carbons single bonded, and then both of those carbons double bond together, hydrogens naturally attached to each carbon according to the octet rule. It got confusing until the ring structure was proposed, and the circle inside the hexagon was drawn, the hexagon to indicate it was an isomer of Hexyne, since it contained 6 carbons of single, double, and triple bonds, and isn't really just an isomer, but a different way of drawing the same things with the same properties, therefore unlike most isomers, these retain the same properties, except for the circle drawn inside of the hexagon of alternating single and double bonds to represent benzene has some leftover electrons that pool in this isomeric structure, thus actually giving it a property it never had and contradicting its uniqueness as a similar isomer with exact properties rather than just similar properties, and that the actual alternations of single and double bonds create the different property contained isomers themselves. The hexagon shape has single ad double bonds, but the electrons left over from the triple bonds establish a flow or circle inside the hexagon ring, making it look like a modern benzene molecular structure. The ring makes benzene like a conductor of electricity. Aromatic Hydrocarbons tend to smell at a macromolecular advantage point. With properties similar to benzene and organic compounds that have strong aromas, or as recent discoveries have pointed out have no odor at all, the name has struck, and these are all of the Aromatics. Benzene, Toluene, and Xylene are all Benzene derivatives that can also make up gasoline, gasoline being made up of them because gasoline has a strong, nasty, and powerful odor. These 3 benzene derivatives all float on water, are insoluble, and less dense than water, and are another type of fuel such as in gasoline, and solvent, such as in the top 3 being of water, nonpolar oils, and liquefied salts. Two benzene rings bonded together make Naphthalene or insect repellent. When inhaled, these substances can act as narcotics. Ethylbenzene, Methylbenzene (Toluene), 1-2 Dimethylbenzene, 1-3 Dimethylbenzene, and 1-4 Dimethylbenzene are also intermediate organic substances which complexly react, names based on structures, to react and give polymers as discussed in Part 24. Most aromatics give smells, while some unique ones do not

Esters (All Concepts)

Esters are Carboxylic Acids with the Hydrogen from the Hydroxyl function stripped off. So Esters are very similar to Organic Acids, and since Hydrogen is stripped off, they are less acidic, which means less sour. They are actually a lot less sour, and actually really sweet instead. The simple reaction or synthesis of getting an ester comes from acids, with -OH at the end of their molecular structure on the right, and alcohols with -OH at the end as well. When they come together, both the OH of either the Alcohol or Acid, and one more -H of either the Alcohol or Acid, leaves one O left over, where both H were taken, making the stripping off of Hydrogen real. Thus, this creates as Ester, and also water. Since Esters are so sweet smelling and sweet tasting, they are added to fruity odors, and additives to cakes, candies, and other ingredients associated with perfumes. For example, Butyric Acid and Methanol react to produce Methyl Butyrate, which has extra Oxygen in its condensed structural formula to show it is an ester. Without it, the compound would be completely different, as most of chemistry always goes to show

The Chemistry of Grass (All Concepts)

Grass surprisingly is just like any other planet, containing Carbon and Oxygen and Hydrogen, Carbohydrates in the form of Sugars broken down through Photosynthesis when Carbon Dioxide and Water (which makes up grass by 70%) react to produce Glucose Sugars which are stored as they are converted to starches by means of Oxygen, and they also produce Oxygen Gas for us to breathe and take in, and undergo the opposite at night, taking in the Oxygen and producing Carbon Dioxide, just like we do day and night through respiration Other than Oxygen and Hydrogen in the form of water, as well as those two with Carbon in the form of Sugars and Starches or Carbohydrates, Magnesium contained in the reactive center of chlorophyll which stores the electromagnetic energy from the sun needed to speed up the chemical reactions in the chemical factory of a plant, as well as the Nitrogen in the cellulose, and the Nitrogen and Phosphorus which come from the protective fertilizers for plants which plants can easily convert to through the understanding of the Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles in the forms of Nitrates and Phosphates Other than the water, carbs, and fertilizers, Plants also contain a chemical compound called Lignin, which is also found in the bark of trees, Lignin makes up the cell walls and protective layers of grass, which plays an important role in conducting water through plant stems The life of grass starts from seeds which contain a crown, leaf, and root, each with their own chemical makeup as well A seed is the center of plant growth Inside seeds, there are embryos The embryo relies on food supplies to grow through the process of germination These supplies of food are stored in the endosperm, placed around the embryo, or placed in unique seed leaves called Cotyledons Seeds are usually inactive for a extended period of time until it reacts with certain chemicals to come alive at the right time to undergo the processes of growth Germination allows these mechanisms to sap water as the cells of the embryo devise themselves from the plant's seed case or testa, and it opens up The start of the root system or radicle in the process sprouts to cultivate downward Quickly after the shoot of the plant or plumule will produce the plant's stem and leaves Dark and Damp seeds will generally germinate as the skin of the seed breaks open as the radicle will eventually look to grow downward, and then quickly afterwards, an initiation of a shoot or plumule bends with is tip buried in the sea leaves as it begins to produce these parts of the plant As the plumule extends and opens over the soil, it thickens and adjusts to the sunlight where the first leaves are created The seed leaves remain captivated to undergo a certain germination process called hypogeal germination, and Epigeal germination the seed leaves are exceeding the ground turning green from the chlorophyll to start to cultivate food for the seedling Photosynthesis occurs After germination, it tries reproducing and races against other plants for support to stay alive like most organisms competing for survival. The life cycle is just beginning to turn full circle Process of Germination

The Chemical History of Fireworks (All Facts and Events)

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese in the early 9th century, and the age of Alchemy was just beginning to be born when these Chinese Alchemists had alchemically (serendipitously in today's terms) invented gunpowder, specifically we know it as Potassium Nitrate, one of many Oxygen-rich compounds which when heated quickly decomposes into Oxygen Gas which is somewhat unreactive in its diatomic form unless it reacts with metals like Potassium to produce Oxides like Potassium Oxide The Chinese began adding ingredients like Carbon in the form of Charcoal and Sulfur in the form of octahedral yellow crystals, as well as the deadly and highly toxic mineral realgar (Arsenic Sulfide) as a mid-800's Taoist text suggests Although legend has it that the Chinese used gunpowder for fireworks, they mainly used it as a source of war, making primitive weapons like bamboo sticks, cut open, and thus they put pebbles and gunpowder in them, and lit the inside of the bamboo stick with some fuse-type material and fired it near the enemy as some form of a cannon or gun, or bombs of bamboo containers made with gunpowder inside of them and a fuse-type material, lit close or near to the range of the enemy Gunpowder contains Oxygen, in the Potassium Nitrate inside of it containing 3 Oxygen atoms, so when you burn it, it decomposes quickly to release that Oxygen in its stable, unreactive, diatomic form, and it explodes quite massively in the open, but in a high-pressure container, it will explode, but it will cause the container to lift upward very high because of the pressure, and the need for energy conservation Gunpowder was once used and still is used in fireworks, as the fuel, oxidizer, and dye all at the same time, since Gunpowder is heated below the main fuse of fireworks, gunpowder is a mixture of Potassium Nitrate, Carbon, and Sulfur, and when it is heated, Potassium Nitrate decomposes to produce Potassium Nitride and Oxygen Gas, which reacts with the Carbon and Sulfur fuels to produce polar Carbon Dioxide and nonpolar Sulfur Dioxide, and in producing all these salts and gases, it also produces lots of energy in the form of light and heat, this was the original and/or historical method, mixture, and chemical combinations used to make fireworks The exact proportions of the ingredients in a normal gunpowder mixture are 75% saltpeter (Potassium Nitrate), 15% Charcoal (Carbon), and 10% (Sulfur), and Gunpowder is the same thing as firework scientists might refer to as "Black Powder" in the anatomy of a firework The reason gunpowder is still so useful for fireworks today is because it has a large surface area, in which case it can burn for a long time compared to other chemical reactions where there is a flash of light and then everything disappears, you want to be able to see it for a long time in the air in the form of a firework

Ketones (All Concepts)

Ketone chemistry was discussed in the last chapter, so we can begin to apply it to our lives now. Remember, both Hydrogens are replaced with Carbons, which sandwich a carbonyl group to make it a Ketone. Ketones are aldehydes bonded to R representation groups on both sides with Carbon instead of Hydrogen. The most common reaction for making Ketones occurs when your oxidize isopropyl alcohol, making it lose 2 hydrogens, just like when you oxidize Methanol or Ethanol to make Formaldehyde or Acetaldehyde The simplest Ketone is Acetone, which is used as a nail-polish remover and common solvent in chemistry laboratories for dissolving materials such as fats, rubbers, plastics, and paints to study their properties. Other simple Ketones used as solvents include Ethyl Methyl Ketone and Isobutyl Methyl Ketone o Formula Carbonyl and 2 Substituents o Properties More stable than enols, its tautomer o Reactions Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation Ketones can be converted into Esters in this reaction Kornblum De-La-Mare Rearrangement o Production Tollens Reagent Jones' Reagent

Organic Chemistry Nomenclature and its Definition (All Prefixes and Suffixes)

Prefixes Number of Carbons One Meth, Form Two Eth, Ace Three Prop, Propion Four But Five Pent Six Hex Seven Hept Eight Oct Nine Non Ten Dec Isomer Cyclo Suffixes Number of Bonds in Hydrocarbons and Organic Molecules Single -ane Double -ene Triple -yne W/ Free Radical -yl Functional Group Represented Alkane -ane Alkene -ene Alkyne -yne Aromatic -ene W/ Free Radical -yl Alcohol (OH) -anol Aldehyde (COH) -anal Organic Acid (COOH) -oic (-ic if using Form, Ace, or Propion Prefixes) Ketone (CO) -one Ester (COOR) -oate Amine (NH) -ine Amide (CNO) -ide Ether (COC) F. Groups, Ether/ Prefix, "Oxy", Prefix, # of Bonds (ane)

Organic Acids (All Concepts)

The carboxylic acid functional group represents Organic Acids, by R-COOH, where Carboxylic Acid is COOH itself, with an R, or another functional group, automatically making Organic Acids and Ketones multifunctional groups, and sometimes making Aldehydes multifunctional groups, since they can contain 1 or 2 hydrogens bonded with the oxygen replaced with carbon carbonyl functional group. Although they are similar, Organic Acids have entirely different properties and reactivates than either Ketones or Alcohols. In particular, the proton H+ on the oxygen in a carboxylic acid is unusually acidic as explained in Chapter 26. The simplest Organic Acid, Formic Acid, is "formed" from a Carboxyl group, or Carbonyl Alcohol functional group combined, with R being Hydrogen. When R is a Methyl Alkyl functional group, you get Ethanoic Acid, or Vinegar. When R is a Propyl Alkyl functional group, you get Propionic Acid, not very common. When R is a Butyl Alkyl functional group, you get Butyric Acid, the smell of rancid butter and body odor. When R is a Benzoyl functional group, you get Benzoic Acid. Formic Acid is the stinging sensation produced by certain insects and small animals such as ants, wasps, and bees. Some common Organic Acids include Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid, as given its arbitrary name as Vinegar or even Balsamic Vinegar, in low percentage inaccurate solutions, Vinegar is safe though is bitter tasting and somewhat acidic with a low pH value as well. Acetic Acid is made through a simple reaction of aerobically fermenting cider and honey, which produces the solution. Acetic Acid is also considered a Weak Acid, as discussed in Chapter 1. More Organic Acids such as Sodium Benzoate and Calcium Propionate are widely used as bathing additives and food additives to prevent decay or molds. Other Organic Acids are multifunctional in reacting in complex ways with Amines to produce the Amino Acids, or building blocks of macromolecule protein, as do all fatty acids and lipids.

Hydrocarbons and Alkanes (All Concepts)

The first and easiest organic compound classification we can use are for the Hydrocarbons, compounds of Hydrogen and Carbon, where it is a rule that for every Carbon atom, there must be 3 other atoms, usually Hydrogen unless bonded with a special functional group of an organic compound, or a special kind of molecule that can bond with other molecules and change the overall properties as represented by R in Molecular Structures be they of the Lewis or Line type. Oils are not acidic because all of this Hydrogen comes in nonpolar bonding amounts rather than ionic, thus all fuels and oils are nonpolar and do not dissolve nor react with water, rather are less dense and float on top of it. The simplest Hydrocarbons that are not gases are liquids and fuels pressurized in tanks that may compose a part of gasoline. They are pressurized lowly to liquids at room temperatures and create energy in processes like the principles of Diesel to get cars running. Gasoline is actually a mixture of common hydrocarbons next in the line of carbon content due to IUPAC nomenclature and my assumptions you know IUPAC Organic nomenclature very well. These compounds are called Propane and Butane, and are alkanes, hydrocarbons, and organic molecules to classify them. Aromatics are a part of gasoline too. These oils are usually called crude oils, since they can make great fuels too. Other classifications of Hydrocarbons that are liquids and can be used as fuels or oils to compose gasoline or oxidize in the air to burn or make petroleum and undergo combustion reactions, all sharing the similar properties are being of Hydrocarbons, Alkanes, and Organic Compounds themselves. They undergo combustion to produce carbon dioxide, for plants; and water, for us. They also contain many homologs and empirical formulations naturally, if you know what those are, isomers, cyclics, conformations, stereoisomers, and other organic-speak structures that derive as isomers from these substances, but you do not need to know what those are, what their chemistry is, or how they apply to our everyday lives because they really don't. Common Applications of such nonpolar fuels and oils are as follows. Methane (Gas) Ethane (Gas) Propane (Liquid) Butane (Liquid) Pentane (Liquid) Hexane (Liquid) Heptane (Liquid) Octane (Liquid) Nonane (Liquid) Decane (Solid) And their isomeric derivatives as well (Mostly Solid) The functional group is to Chemistry, what ingredients are to recipes, or drugs if you want to be serious and dramatic A print out of the different types of functional groups with their names and Molecular Lewis and Condensed Formula Strcutures are clipped on the next page of this journal

The Chemistry of Shampoos (All Concepts)

The unwanted parts of your hair, we will define as Sebum, is a greasy fat which overlays and protects your hair, or Keratin protein strands, and although it is healthy for your hair it makes your hair dirty and causes its sticky properties to attract particles of dirt, grease, dust, pollen, among other types of these substances, and stick to it Since Sebum is Hydrophobic or Nonpolar, water cannot clean out the fats and oils in Sebum, only the flakes of skin or salts (since salts are Hydrophilic), so Soap, or Detergent substance must be used then to rinse the hydrophobic molecules out, which has two ends, one that is hydrophobic or nonpolar, and one that is hydrophilic or nonpolar Detergents like Shampoos work as Surfactants, lowering the surface tension of water making it less cohesive or adhesive to stick to itself rather stick to hydrophobic molecules like fats and oils So the hydrocarbon or hydrophobic part of the molecule bonds and binds to the sebum coating, and the hydrophilic or acid part of the molecule bonds and binds to the water, and the detergent is swept away by the water and oil it attracts, allowing them to mix and letting the oil rinse itself out Dishwashing Detergents work just as well as Shampoo Detergents except for the fact that it may reduce the shine or cleanliness of your hair Shampoo is also more acidic than soap and can cause the Sulfide bonds in the keratin of your hair to break or corrode with the effect of the acid unless conditioning agents are placed in your hair to balance out the pH or buffer it While Detergents and Soaps are Emulsions, Shampoos can also only be classified as Gels

Concepts Associated with Polyatomic Ions and Free Radicals (All Concepts)

There are two to three different ways of understanding Polyatomic Ions The easiest is knowing that they contain free radicals, in other words electrons not in an electron pair, needing another electron to complete the electron pair in the valence shell of an atom, usually needing 4 electron pairs, 8 total valence electrons Thus, it is a Nonpolar Covalent bond, however one of the atoms contains a free radical, and is not supported by a coordinate covalent bond, thus it is an ion, specifically always a Polyatomic Anion, however there is one and only one Polyatomic Cation, Ammonium Ions, produced when an Acid, any acid, reacts with a Base, Ammonia, donating protons and producing Ammonium ions, in which Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons, and 3 share with 3 Hydrogen atoms with 1 valence electrons, producing 3 electron pairs, however it has a lone electron pair, rather than a free radical, and thus as an ion, it loses one of those electrons because a proton attracts it, thus forming a Hydrogen ion, and the Ammonia ion has a free radical, however with this particular ion, the Hydrogen ion just sticks onto the Ammonia, and thus makes the special Ammonium ion For Anions though, they are nonpolar covalent bonds with free radicals, thus they have a negative charge and only need an electron to complete the pair, or a proton from an acid Take the Sulfate ion for example, SO4 2-, in which you have a Sulfur atom which has 6 valence electrons, and shares 4 of them with 4 surrounding Oxygen atoms, each with 6 valence electrons, The third and final way to think about it is in terms of the Oxidation States represented by Oxidation Numbers of a Polyatomic Ion Valency- number of bonds formed based on number of electrons in valence shell

Concepts Associated with Inorganic Chemistry & the HYDROSPHERE (All Concepts)

Water is abundant as the Air and the Earth itself, and the waters of rivers, lakes, oceans, and streams are all apart of the Oceanic Crust's layer of flowing potential energy, water itself Composition of Hydrosphere The Hydrosphere is composed entirely of Water or H20 although there are other types of water with other chemicals and minerals in it discussed in the next section Properties and Applications of Water and Liquids themselves Water is an extremely abundant and common chemical that is not only drinkable and huge in the industrial and agricultural fields of life, but is also associated with the purification of it, the classification of it, and its many applications to the field of science overall Like other Inorganic and Organic Cycles and Processes, Water too has its own cycle which is discussed in the next section Water is also drinkable and participates in more chemical reactions and describes more chemical concepts than any other polar substance of its kind Water is the only substance on Earth that can exist and be present together in all 3 states of Matter, as a Solid (Ice), Liquid (Drinking Water), & Gas (Water Vapor, Fire Extinguishers) Water is used for agricultural, industrial, and chemical purposes and has many associations in the field of chemistry, particularly involving may chemical compounds, nomenclature, geometry, geochemistry, and most importantly, chemical reactions Water is composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen, which react to form a type of covalent bond called a Polar Covalent Bond and is not necessarily an Intramolecular force, rather an intermolecular force explained by the physics of chemistry Since Solids are defined by bonding, Liquids are usually defined by Intermolecular Forces which are weak bonds which hold the particles together and give them the property to roll around each other and allow liquids to take the shape of their container, but take the shape of a maximized surface area rather than its own shape, and Gases are usually defined as not having any relation to bonding whatsoever other than the London Dispersion Forces (type of Intermolecular Force discussed in the Part on Matter), and Nonpolar Covalent bonds which are weaker and more reactive than the Polar Covalent bonds present, and these Polar Covalent Bonds can be classified in a number of different types through knowledge of Intermolecular Forces These intermolecular forces give water is properties, and Hydrogen Bonding (a stronger force keeping the atoms of electropositive Hydrogen and electronegative second period elements together rather than normal 16th and 17th group elements in nonpolar bonds classified as Dipole-Dipole Polar Bond Forces) is the specific strong dipole-dipole force which gives water and all other polar liquids its properties The various properties of liquids, nonpolar vs. polar liquids, ionic and metallic vs. polar liquids, and the rates at which temperature and intermolecular forces associate with concepts such as liquefying particles of Hydrogen Gas to come closer together and allow the potential energy created by such intermolecular forces to overcome the kinetic energy of the particles is what classifies water as somewhat of a unique substance Water contains 2 Hydrogen and 1 Oxygen, and the electronegativity difference determining and confirming the polar covalent hydrogen bonding force gives water its properties, and normally when ion-dipole forces interact with Hydrogen Bonding forces, in other words when ion-dipole forces come into play, this gives Hydrogen Bonded or Dipole-Dipole Forces such as water the ability to react with Ions and form ion-Dipole Forces Forming Ion-Dipole Forces from strong Dipole-Dipole Forces called Polar Hydrogen Bonding Forces allows water to act as a solvent, or an Inorganic (since it doesn't contain Carbon) Polar Solvent, and is nicknamed the "Universal Solvent" since it can dissolve anything polar (Dipole-Dipole, Ion-Dipole) or ionic (Ion-Ion, Metal-Nonmetal), it is normally a part of every solution, and those solutions containing a water polar solvent are called aqueous solutions and are the most common applications for diluting concentrated acids and bases to normal pH and concentration levels Water isn't only the singular three state existent chemical, common buffer to diluting solutions, and universal polar solvent, as well as Michael Jordan's secret stuff, but it does something strange that most liquids, be they polar or nonpolar, do not do Since Water contains Hydrogen Bonds and is polar, the positive Hydrogen want to stay far apart from each other, and want to lose most (but not all, for that would be ionic) of their electrons to Oxygen, but they stay a little closer because of the intermolecular force holding them together, thus they do not have a linear formation So here is a cool thing about water, when you reduce the kinetic energy of it particles, or simply just freeze it, it is harder to break the Hydrogen Bond Intermolecular Forces, which are surprisingly and amazingly stronger than all nonpolar covalently bonded compounds So, as water freezes, it expands rather than contracts, because the Hydrogen Bonds holding it together hook up in a hexagonal formation due to the dipole chemistry of the molecules and the hydrogen bonds are stronger since there is no kinetic energy present to move the molecules away, thus it forms an ice, crystalline structure and has holes in it due to the structure of water and the bonds it forms and these V-shaped Water molecule formations Making the Hydrogen Bonds stronger, minimizing the Surface Area, and creating holes, thus making Ice less dense than water are the key concepts to know This also explains why each snowflake is present in a macromolecular hexagonal structure Water molecules are all over the place in the liquid state and don't enough energy to turn into a gas, but have enough energy to roll around rather than not have nay energy and when they do not have enough energy freeze and arrange themselves in an orderly fashion to create the ice crystal and expand it rather than contract it Several images of this phenomenon can be found all over the web for better imaging of the order of these particles of water, but this is the conceptual description Since Liquids properties depend on their intermolecular forces and the temperature, Water's properties also associate with concepts concerning its Hydrogen Bonding forces and temperature The Heat Capacity is the amount of heat measured to raise a substance such as a liquid to 1 degree Celsius The Specific Heat is the amount of heat measured to raise 1 gram of the substance such as a liquid to 1 degree Celsius Different substance have been measured out to have different absorptions of thermal energy in them, or certain heat capacities, water being of the highest other than that of salts The reason water is such a large capacitor for heat is because the potential energy carried in its fundamental intermolecular forces depend on temperature to break those forces and turn water into a gas or into another substance in a chemical reaction since these forces are somewhat strong, or maybe as strong as ionic bonds, but not that strong, thus water has a high melting and boiling point but low freezing point, and also has significantly less of a melting point than does that of your average salt Heat of Vaporization is the amount of heat measured to evaporate a given amount of water Water has a high Heat Capacity, Specific Heat, and Heat of Vaporization, and thus evaporates slowly when combining with particles in the air in weak intermolecular forces than that of Hydrogen Bonding And another thing about water is that it can experience Surface Tension, in other words, when the Heat of Vaporization is higher than that of water's limit, the potential energy of the intermolecular forces in the water droplet compensate for the kinetic energy building up in the particles when liquid water is evaporating into a gas, or a gas is condensing back into liquid water, and thus this compensation of energy created by the strong forces held together by the intermolecular forces of the particles minimizes the surface area of the liquid and creates a "skin" all around the liquid that insects can walk on The strong Cohesion Forces inside water molecules pull in on the edge of the droplets, also minimizing the surface area and creating the tension, and the surface tension is specifically described as the resistance of a liquid to increase its surface area The strong Adhesion Forces between water and other molecules such as Ion-Ion Forces (Ionic Bonds), or Ion-Dipole Forces (in dissolving Solute in an aqueous solution) that react with each other may overcome the cohesive forces of the water molecules from the inside and maximize the surface area of water into one uniform blob which can evaporate and leave marks on dishes, so surfactants are used to wipe this off The greater the intermolecular force, the greater the surface tension, and so Polar Liquids such as those that have Hydrogen Bonded Forces, have a high surface tension as well Capillary Action is the phenomenon in which the energy stored in intermolecular forces or the cohesive forces of water follow the Adhesive forces of Water into glass or plastic (more effective with the Ion-Dipole Glass) tubes and defy fundamental concepts of gravity Water is also denser as it exceeds temperature until it reaches the heat of vaporization where it follows normal kinetics Water has the standard density and is the medium for testing densities, in other words making things sink or flat based on their weight or mass/volume ratios Water also has the standard Specific Gravity rating and SRP Product Measurements as you can see in tables in the "Math in Chemistry and Physics Giraffe Official Journal" Water is in constant equilibrium with Hydronium ions, Hydrogen ions, and Hydroxide ions which are the three ions that associate with water, and the last two make up water polarity where the Oxygen hogs electrons and one Hydrogen atom closer than the other which is merely a proton Water is a non-electrolyte until salts dissolve in it and it becomes an electrolyte through principles of electrolysis Cohesion is the sum of intermolecular forces in substances like water which make particles or molecules attract to each other even when changing state, thus having a high surface tension when the molecules compensate for the lost matter by bonding more strongly and creating a surface or skin on the water and thus forming droplet spheres which decrease or reduce the surface area of the bonding intermolecular forces that compensate for the lost potential energy in the phase change Adhesion occurs when water spreads out like all liquids onto properties the adhesion forces like to overcome the cohesion forces with like that of glass, thus the surface area is increased, droplets do not form, and a more uniform shape covers the glass Adhesion also works in more complex ways as described in the States of Matter section of this Journal Capillary Action is another property of water and liquids which occurs when water's adhesive forces defy gravity when a the forces are cohesively or adhesively attracted to the molecules in the straw sucking it up from the air pressure and gravity holding it down, the Adhesive forces are really followed up by Cohesive forces in the rest of the molecules or particles of water Hydrophilic Substances are Polar Solutes which are have stronger polarities than the cohesive, intermolecular forces of polar solvent water and Hydrophobic substances are the exact opposite Ice Density is lower than that of liquid water, and it floats, and all life under it that has room for Oxygen and Water can be living and not dead because this happens, otherwise, all water would freeze and we wouldn't be able to get anything out of it and life wouldn't exist The reason for this special density of ice is because of Hydrogen bonding, and as water molecules begin to solidify, and the Hydrogen bonding in it forms crystalline structures, space molecules apart more evenly, the whole time the temperature is going down, and in turn making solid water less dense than its liquid form with the crystal complete and the separation of intermolecular forces or OH Hydrogen bonds When filling a pot with water, it takes forever to boil too, macromolecular of heat capacity features Water's Statistics, Abundance, and Mineral Dissolving Properties First off, 3/4 's of the Earth is covered in Water, but only about ¼ of the Earth's mass if taken up by water Water is extremely abundant but mostly as saltwater and needs to purified, many mineral salts in oceans other than that of table salt are dissolved in water and carried through lakes, streams, and rivers Some of these substances water dissolves include Greenhouse Gases like Acetates, Ammonia, Nitric Acid, Carbon Dioxide, and Hydrogen Gas, as well as trace amounts of Noble Gases dissolving (which sounds crazy to me), and Nitrogen and Oxygen Gas, as well as Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride, Sulfate, and Bicarbonate Cations and Anions and Neutral compounds of them dissolving in water Remember, water isn't an electrolyte unless an electrolytic salt, acid, or base is dissolved in it first Water's Chemical Reactions (Chemistry) Water also is involved in many chemical reactions The Production of Water can come from many different chemical reactions When Hydrocarbon Fuels are burning or oxidizing to produce a fire flame, water vapor is produced as well as Carbon Dioxide When an Acid or Base neutralize each other in pH, they form a salt and water Other chemical reactions are involved with water's amazing properties to replace its 2 Hydrogen atoms (which don't make it acidic, rather neutral) and the fact that water has the awesome property of being amphoteric, acting as an acid and/or a base with a pH of 7 and even as a buffer For example, Sodium and Potassium Metals are reactive in producing Sodium and Potassium Oxides which undergo single-replacement reactions, kicking out the Hydrogen to form Hydrogen Gas bubbles and also some of the heat stored in the potential energy of the intermolecular Hydrogen Bonded forces of water, which makes Sodium and Potassium purity metals explode on contact with water The same goes for Zirconium Nuclear Power Plant rods which supposedly started th Three Mile Island meltdown when it made contact with water, producing pressurized Hydrogen Gas which could've caused an explosion, and a form of Zirconium Oxide which happened to be as radioactive as Uranium, or the partially less dangerous form of Uranium as an Octo-Oxide

Concepts Associated with Electrochemistry (All Concepts)

When Zinc reacts with Copper Sulfate, it undergoes a single replacement reaction, kicking out the Copper and producing Zinc Sulfate When placing Zinc metal in Copper Sulfate solution, the Zinc Sulfate is the new solution and the Zinc metal is coated in copper metal These are single replacement reactions which govern the simple processes of electrochemistry The difference of a battery and cell are as follows: A battery is A cell is Electrochemical Cells Galvanic/Voltaic Cells (primarily Zinc and Copper) In galvanic or voltaic cells which produce electricity from chemical energy, electrodes and an electrolyte for each solution are needed Unless you are using a salt bridge, the electrolytes of both solutions that make the entire battery cell each contain a salt solution such as Copper Sulfate At the anode, Zinc is oxidized, losing electrons and moving over to Copper at the Cathode which has a stronger pull for electrons or higher standard reduction potential SRP's are determined by: When in Sulfate Solution, Zinc likes to remain in ion form to make the salt, and same with Copper in Sulfate Solution In a galvanic cell, the Zinc bar readily dissolves into zinc ions to be a part of the Zinc Sulfate Solution as Zinc ions, or a part of a solution with another salt set by a salt bridge of a salt such as Sodium Nitrate, where the Zinc reacts with the Nitrate to form Zinc Nitrate and Zinc is in it's ion form The two electrons leave the Zinc atom in its ion form with the salt solution be it Zinc Nitrate or Zinc Sulfate, and travel over to the Copper, rather than the other way around because of Copper's SRP, and also produce a certain voltage, or sum of copper and zinc's SRP's to create current, as harnessed by a wire connecting the two parts of the battery to make one cell Since Zinc and Copper both like to remain in ion form in solution, the Zinc is the Anode positively charged, and the actual Copper isn't negatively charged, but instead the electrode is negatively charged because the Copper ions want electrons more than Zinc ions, and the Zinc ions would rather have the Sulfate ions and make salt, while the Copper ions in the Copper Sulfate solution in the other part of the cell would gain the electrons to become neutral solid Copper Therefore, in Galvanic Cells, Zinc dissolves and Copper becomes more massive due to the salt bridge of Nitrate or molten salt electrolyte of Sulfate and other salts to make the elements enter free ion form, travel through the wire, and enter the other side of the cell to the other solution The SRP determines the anodes and the cathodes of the solution too Since Anodes are giving off electrons or losing electrons, Anodes always undergo oxidation And as a principle rule of Redox, if Oxidation is happening then Reduction must be happening, so the Cathode gaining the electrons is being reduced, automatically inducing a negative charge because of the electrons its gaining to become more massive, strange how Copper is growing in mass yet being reduced chemically Galvanic Cells normally use salt bridges, but solutions of Copper Sulfate or Zinc Sulfate work too Electrochemical Cells are another type of battery which generates chemical energy based on Even though the Cathode is negatively charged, the electrons are flowing to the Cathode to make it negatively charged, since electrons repel negative charges, they are attracted to the positive charges of the copper in the copper sulfate solution, not the copper cathode itself Since Oxidation occurs, Reduction must occur, and since the addition of the half reactions balanced make an entire Redox reaction, the two parts of the battery cell must be electrically neutral When more and more copper ions are joining with electrons to make solid copper and add mass to the Copper electrode, more and more free Sulfate ions are looking for positive charges to make the salt again, so they pass through a porous barrier between the two cell parts and react with the Zinc to make Zinc Sulfate solution so the Zinc and Sulfate are both happy, and the solution is balanced or electrically neutral Alessandro Volta created the Voltaic Cell, or a cell which uses molten Sodium Chloride solution as an electrolyte Copper and Zinc electrodes In this cell, the Sodium ions and Hydrogen ions from water are attracted to the cathode, and the Chlorine ions and Hydroxide ions from water are attracted to the anode Redox reactions and determination of SRP deriving from electrolytic reactions occur and the Sodium and Hydroxide are kicked out from the reaction, as the electrodes react stronger with Chlorine and Hydrogen The Voltaic Cell produces Hydrogen gas, so the wet cell described above this one invented by John Daniell created a cell that would solve the problem by replacing his primary acid electrolyte cell with a salt like Zinc Sulfate that would still do the job and not produce Hydrogen gas Daniell Cells are galvanic, meaning they are immersed in Zinc or Copper Sulfate solutions rather than acidic ones which were the main address for Voltaic Cells Voltaic and Daniell Cells were both considered wet cells because the electrolyte used was of an aqueous solution which produced hydrogen gas if the electrolyte was an acid, and fixed by Daniell to make the electrolyte a molten salt solution such as Copper or Zinc Sulfate, which dissolved the Zinc, made current, and added mass to the Copper Daniell was fond of using Salt Bridges more often, while the actual Copper/zinc Sulfate solutions were primary in the discovery by different scientists including Daniell and Volta at the time Although the copper is much bigger, it still makes sense that it is reduced in the chemical equation because it's oxidation state number decreases like all reduction reactions, and as such if the oxidation state number of an atom increases it is oxidized Electrochemical reactions occur for batteries such as splitting of molten salts or such compounds using electricity, where the electrodes react with the ions of the salts to produce... So Voltaic, Galvanic, and Electrochemical Cells use Chemical Energy to produce current The solution with the Cathode is known as the Cathode Compartment of the cell The solution with the Anode is known as the Anode Compartment of the cell The electrodes are labeled to the sign opposite their charge, in other words the sign of the charges induced on them during the electrochemical reaction taking place Before moving on, something interesting came to my mind in determining which salts to place in the salt bridge Since most are ternary, containing a polyatomic ion and a monoatomic ion, they perform certain jobs based on their atomic structure The monoatomic ion is always positive and fills into the solution with the cathode dipped in it to replace the consumed metal cations being reduced to neutral metal The polyatomic ion is always negative and fills into the solution with the anode dipped in it to replace the consumed neutral metal being oxidized into metal cations For most metals, the salt bridge should contain salts such as Sulfates, since they are looking to gain 2 electrons in their overall oxidation state chemistry For some metals like Silver, the salt bridge should contain certain salts such as Nitrates, since they are looking to gain only 1 electron the silver metal emits from the battery in electrolytic cell usage it has, and thus a salt like Sodium Nitrate or even Silver Nitrate would work for the salt bridge Electrolytic Cells (primarily Sodium and Chlorine or Chloride) Electrolytic Cells use Electrical Current to produce Chemical Energy, reverse to Galvanic Cells, and are usually non-chargeable primary cells Daniell Cells were still better than Electrolytic Cells which produced Chlorine gas In an Electrolytic Cell, an electric current or electrolyte dissociates the ions of simple salts such as Sodium Chloride, making the Sodium attracted to the Cathode and the Chloride attracted to the Anode Since they are Chloride ions instead of Chlorine atoms, they bond to produce Chlorine gas and 2 electrons, rather than just Chlorine gas from two chlorine atoms with 7 electrons in their shell rather than 8! Therefore, at the anode of an electrolytic cell, the electrons are being lost, making it positively charged, and oxidizing it Therefore, at the cathode of an electrolytic cell, the electrons are being gained, making it negatively charged, and reducing it Thus, Chlorine gas is produced, a current moving from the anode to the Cathode because of the extra electrons are produced, a voltage based on Chlorine's SRP is measured, and the cathode is reduced The sodium that reacts with the Cathode however gains an electron, and a total of 2 sodium atoms gain 2 electrons from the chlorine, thus when Sodium loses its free ion form to become electrically neutral, it forms sodium metal on the cathode, despite what the metal may have been Anodes and Cathodes vary from metal to metal in Electrolytic Solution cells Both the Anode and the Cathode obtain their charge from electron movement in the battery cell, not the ionic movement The electrodes can be copper, zinc, aluminum, or some other metal, but are not important in understanding the concept nor contribute to balancing the redox charge of metallic elements since they are always positive as electrodes and only turn to negatively charged electrodes or cathodes when electrons flow from the current to it and also from the determination that it must gain electrons or reduce since anodes always oxidize and oxidation cannot happen without reduction Remember that electrons determine the charge of the electrode not the ions, although the ions are attracted to that charge determined of the electrode If the electrodes in an electrolytic cell or galvanic cell are of the same element, it is called a concentration cell Electroplating is a common application of electrolytic cells using principles of electrolysis and electrochemical reactions The Battery that drives the chemical reaction to produce electrical energy must have the sum of voltages produced by the SRP of both Sodium and Chlorine ions in solution Although the spontaneous reaction produces current in an opposite function, it can still be used for batteries with high voltages being the sum of the individual voltages measured out by the ions of the salt and their SRP's A common application combines the sciences of metallurgy and electrochemistry to electroplate metal and make it look more of what it really is This process is called electroplating In this process, electrons are moving in a wire initiated by battery as an electrolytic cell and the current is thus produced from that Remember like the process shown with the Sodium Chloride, the electrons moving from the Anode to the Cathode are not attracted to the Cathode itself but the ions in solution of the other part of the cell, and then make the electrode a cathode by adding the electrons to it Your basically moving the chemical species by changing their charge as ions Also, you are sort of combining the two principles, using metals like copper and zinc (in this case electroplating or coating a copper ring with Silver), and using another battery or electrochemical cell to produce the reaction The use of Electrolytic Cells really comes in because they are the only cell that can achieve electroplating, and need a previous battery to start the reaction whether it be a wet Daniell Cell or Cadmium Standard, the cells work together to electroplate substances, the battery which produces electrical energy from chemical energy, and the electrolytic cell, which uses the electrical energy produced from the battery to reverse the reaction and produce chemical energy or using principles of electrolysis to break apart the salts used in electrolytic cells into electronic movement originated from ions, and then this chemical energy can be used to electroplate objects in metallurgy, which can be used to sell and make money, so from Copper or Zinc, both being cheap, you can get big money when either are electroplated with Silver or Gold Since solid metal is always made up of neutral atoms and free ions from metals dissolve in solutions, changing the charge of metals determines whether or not it stays as solid silver or dissolves, and the battery's job is to make the metal dissolve and the ions come from the dissociation of the solution In electroplating, the anode is usually the rarer substance and the cathode is usually the more common substance Since the battery absorbs electrons emitted from the neutral metal because of the positive terminal of the battery pointing toward the silver, the battery's positive charges attract the conducting of electricity silver, since all metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, starting current from a battery will activate the electron pools created from the metallic bonds in the neutral forms of atoms in silver metals, automatically making the Silver a positive ion as usual in metallic bonding reactions, and the electrons can now be used chemically to make the neutral Copper ions negative and make the copper to-be-coated known as the cathode So the positive terminal of the battery using principles of electrolysis are making the electrode obtain positively charged properties as being filled with positively charged silver ions The positive terminal attracts and absorbs electrons at the anode as attracted to the anode, and is also hooked up to the anode of the electroplating cell The negative terminal releases the electrons at the cathode as attracted to the cathode not because it is negative but because it makes it negative once electrons are dispersed onto it As electrons enter the copper metal from the electrochemical cell or battery terminal at the anode, and go over to the battery's cathode to be released So as a battery hooking up to an electrolytic cell, the battery produces electron movement at the anode and flows to the cathode (where with use of electrolytic cells: is released to the cathode of the electroplating electrolytic cells) All in all, the negative terminal or cathode of the battery attracts electrons from the Silver, and makes them flow through the battery and wires from the Silver anode of oxidation, all the way over to the Copper cathode of reduction, where the electrons flowing through the neutral copper attract the Silver ions dissolving from neutral Silver into solution when oxidized at the anode, dissolving into solution, and reacting with the electrons coming out of the battery through the copper, thus coating the Copper with Silver The solution then cannot react with the Silver ions or anode's dissolved ions So the solution is not water, the electrolyte being used in electrolytic cells of electroplating could be Silver Nitrate, and when Silver Nitrate dissolves and dissociates into an electrolytic cells, positively charged Silver and negatively charged Nitrate in the solution, and the positive silver ions flow over to the Copper after their electrons have been stripped by result of the battery's electrical energy being used The silver ions meanwhile must have an electrically neutral balance to the solution other than water such as a common silver salt called Silver Nitrate, where the Nitrate is waiting to electrically neutralize the Silver ions in solution before attracting stronger to the Copper than the Nitrate or any other polyatomic ion for that matter Then, the Silver can coat the Copper, solution's chemical identified The Silver Nitrate is an electrolyte allowing electricity to flow through the solution The same process works when applied to electroplating Iron Bumpers with chromium for your car Electroplating not only gives attraction to buyers such as in metallurgy enhanced jewelry, but it also works to prevent abrasion or corrosion of metals for various purposes such as your iron car bumper The cations associate with the anions in the solution. These cations are reduced at the cathode to deposit in the metallic, zero valence state. For example, in an acid solution, copper is oxidized at the anode to Cu2+ by losing two electrons. The Cu2+ associates with the anion SO42−in the solution to form copper sulfate. At the cathode, the Cu2+ is reduced to metallic copper by gaining two electrons. The result is the effective transfer of copper from the anode source to a plate covering the cathode (Wikipedia explanation) Using principles defined by both Humphrey Davy and Michael Faraday, the Davy was able to use electrolytic cells and principles of electrolysis to split water and also split various bases like potash and isolated many alkali and alkaline elements named after their alkaline properties as being a part of bases such as Sodium, Magnesium, Barium, Cesium, Calcium, Potassium, and Ammonium You can electroplate all kinds of things of all kinds of material, such as copper to silver, copper to gold, zinc to silver, zinc to gold, copper to platinum, zinc to platinum, iron to silver, iron to gold, iron to platinum, and iron to chrome, or even silver to gold Remember too that Electrolytic Cells produce Chlorine and Hydrogen gas and can be used for that purpose too When you are charging your Mac Book, you are converting chemical energy into electrical energy and are using batteries from an outlet source in the computer to power it up When you are discharging or using your Mac Book, you are converting electrical energy into chemical energy and are using the battery charged from within the computer, which loses power once the electricity that was once charged runs out of production and new chemical energy must be converted, heat energy driving the total reaction So electric discharge occurs when you aren't using your charger but using your power Electric Discharge is... As Michael Faraday explained, the cathode's true definition is that of which attracts cations, and thus having the same prefix in their names, not a negative charge although that was assumed and later proved to hold a negative charge because of incoming electrons from the power of a battery of SRP holdout in galvanic cells in the wires, and that at cathodes they are reduced, as he said the same to opposite functions though in such processes with anodes THE EXCEPTION (as explained by Wikipedia): Consider two voltaic cells of unequal voltage. Mark the positive and negative electrodes of each one as P and N, respectively. Place them in a circuit with P near P and N near N, so the cells will tend to drive current in opposite directions. The cell with the larger voltage is discharged, making it a galvanic cell, so P is the cathode and N is the anode as described above. But, the cell with the smaller voltage charges, making it an electrolytic cell. In the electrolytic cell, negative ions are driven towards P and positive ions towards N. Thus, the P electrode of the electrolytic cell meets the definition of anode while the electrolytic cell is being charged. Similarly, the N electrode of the electrolytic cell is the cathode while the electrolytic cell is being charged Voltaic (named after Volta), Galvanic (named after Galvani) The electrolytic cell used for the electrolysis of water has already been explained, but will further combine with the Electrolytic Cell of molten Sodium Chloride solution used at high temperatures And for Solution Sodium Chloride Electrolytic Cells, not only can Sodium and Chlorine dissociate but so can Hydrogen and Hydroxide, and based on SRP, Sodium and Hydroxide can stay in the solution to form the third most, or first least common electrolyte produced as a base of Sodium Hydroxide, while the Chloride from the Anode reacts with another Chloride to produce Chlorine gas and 2 electrons which constitute the flow of electrons to the Cathode where the Cathode is Reduced, Anode is Oxidized, they cancel, create current, and the Hydrogen come together from the electrons coming over to produce Hydrogen gas Remembering the components rather than the thorough chemistry of the preceding batteries as follows: Zinc and Silver Volta Pile Galvanic Cells Zinc and Copper Daniell Galvanic Cells Molten Sodium Chloride Electrolytic Cells Solution Water Electrolytic Cells Solution Sodium Chloride Electrolytic Cells Know that we have explained the chemistry of electrochemical cells or batteries, we can learn about the improvements of the battery through a little more learning of chemistry and modern history of the battery These are the 5 primary wet cells used in understanding applications of Electrochemistry, so let us take a look at the history and chemistry of 4 other batteries: Leclanche Cell, Alkaline Battery Cell, Lead-Acid Battery Cell, Lithium Battery Cell, and Standard Cadmium Class Cell Lead Acid Battery Cell Another type of Wet Cell which was actually modernized and much simpler to use was based on the principle that oxidation and reduction must occur together and at the same time, one and the other as well A new lesson learned though is that the charge of the electrodes isn't necessarily indicated and further depends on whether or not the battery is charging or discharging, and that the electron movement is really what matters to produce electricity and the voltage produced based on the SRP differences in the electrodes used, so without being aware of the necessary charge of the electrode, we only need to worry about the chemical reaction which gets this battery going As a part of its 5 Wet Cell battery Family above, it can occur as discharge when electrons move from the anode to the cathode, and recharge when electrons move from the cathode to the anode, because during discharge a cell acts as an electrochemical cell converting chemical into electrical energy, but during recharge a cell acts as an electrolytic cell using another battery's electrical energy into chemical energy which can be used further as electrical energy, during the electrolytic process or recharge process, everything is reversed, because the battery that helps the electrolytic cell has electrons which flow out onto the cathode and leave the cathode to go to the anode, reversing the reaction as the cathode potentially has a "negative charge", thus the electrons go on to it, and move to the Anode "positive charge" which attracts the negatively charged electrons, those having an absolute charge Different types of batteries follow different reactions with different compositions of materials, primarily wet cells contain 2 metal electrodes and a salt solution, but particularly Lead Acid Battery Cells contain a metal anode and metal oxide cathode dipped in an acid solution In a normal Lead Acid Battery Cell, there is a Lead Anode and Lead Oxide Cathode both dipped in Sulfuric Acid solutions acting as a wet cell as the electrolyte serves to allow the electrodes to obtain free ion form to conduct the electricity In the reaction at the Lead Metal Anode, Lead dipped into Sulfuric Acid automatically turns into a free ion and bonds with the Sulfate in the solution and turns the electrode into Lead Sulfate, where Lead is positive and Sulfate is negatively charged as ions, and the positive Hydrogen ions of the Sulfuric Acid and the 2 electrons from the neutral lead that turned ionic when in contact with the Sulfate move throughout the wire through an indirect electron transfer so to speak and the Anode results as being oxidized as always when releasing the electrons or losing electrons In the reaction at the Lead Oxide Metal Oxide Cathode, Lead Oxide dipped into Sulfuric Acid still produces Lead Sulfate, but instead of releasing 2 electrons, it accepts the 2 electrons to form neutral Lead since it is Lead "Oxide" and the metal previously had cationic (ionic positive) Lead, and then the current continued and the electricity was produced, and the Cathode results as being reduced always when accepting the electrons In the reaction at the electrolyte, the Sulfuric Acid solution turns to water since the positive Hydrogen ions react with the negative Oxygen ions to form water, and when it turns to an electrolytic cell the water turns back into Sulfuric Acid and the electrons move from the massive cathode to the dissolved anode, where the anode precipitates again and the cathode dissolves to normal size 6 Cells give a total of 12.6 volts each with a separate voltage of 2.1 volts as indicated by the molar mass of the substances of the battery and their composition and Faraday's Laws and concepts as discussed later in the notes of this section While Wet Cells and Small Dry Cells are used for various purposes like that of Flashlights, Lead Acid Battery Cells are huge wet cell composites which are used to conduct and produce large amounts of voltage for Cars or Automobiles that use Lead Acid Batteries As for the charge of the electrodes, this is discussed later in the chapter Other Applications of Lead Acid Battery Cells which apply Acids by themselves, are using it for sump pumps in case they fail, cars in case they need starting, lighting and igniting things, telephone and computer centers as well as energy grid storage, and conventional diesel-electric submarines and emergency power on nuclear submarines, used as back-up power for small systems like alarm clocks, and used as primary power for other small systems like electric scooters, electric bikes, electric wheelchairs, headlamps, and so on Galvanic Cells (Discharge Process) So then, we have discussed 6 primary wet cells (3 fundamental, 2 with salt, 1 modern) and why the electrodes change charge dependent on the electrolytic or voltaic (galvanic) reaction occurring, cathodes are negative as electrolytic recharging cells, and cathodes are positive as voltaic (galvanic) or Lead-Acid Battery chemistry discharging cells So what about the Galvanic Cells discharging when we first learned about them, well they naturally discharge because electrolytic cells naturally recharge since another battery is being placed based on the fundamental definition, galvanic or voltaic uses chemical energy for electrical energy, and electrolytic uses chemical energy for electrical energy for chemical energy again, and these batteries connect to outlets which connect to transformers which connect to energy power plants and their turbine generators, and those generators are where all of the electrons originate from, much and much copper based wire generators Leclanche Cell (Dry Cell) The first dry cell was adapted from the chemistry used in 1866 by Georges Leclanche, the French qualitative chemist, physicist, and overall known scientist who designed the cell A Leclanche Cell consists of two cell parts like galvanic cells, and was at first a wet cell The cell consisted of a Zinc Anode and Carbon Cathode with something new called a depolarizer made of Manganese Dioxide which reduced the effect of polarization in a battery, in other words prevented any gases from bubbling out as being created from the Hydrogen in Acid Electrolytes as first proposed to be replaced by Daniell, it also had an electrolyte solution of ammonium chloride The Carbon Cathode was dipped in crushed crystals of the depolarizing Manganese Dioxide (it is actually 4 Manganese atoms and 2 Oxygen Atoms), The Zinc Anode was dipped in the Ammonium Chloride electrolyte solution or Anode compartment The pot or glass the solutions were in contained a porous solution like the Daniell Cell too, where electrical imbalances could be fixed for smaller ions to swim through, while keeping the larger solutions separate from each other and the pore made contact with the Cathode, an electrical circuit is also added like an electromagnet onto the zinc and carbon electrodes to remove the negativity of charge on imbalanced electrodes of the cell and create current from the oxidizing anode to reducing cathode From the neutral Zinc that begins to dissolve because the Carbon wants a certain pull with a greater SRP or SEP, the neutral Zinc turns into ionic Zinc like metallic bonding creating metallic properties as explained with the wet cells As an ion, it loses 2 electrons which produce a greater voltage when coming into contact with the Carbon Cathode of a smaller SRP and thus greater difference in voltage for improvement The Manganese (IV) Dioxide comes in contact with the two electrons from the Zinc Anode and the Zinc, it makes Manganese (II)-(Tri)—Oxide & Zinc Oxide All the Zinc Oxide really is though are 2 electrons since the in this reaction splitting into 2 half reactions, you have Zinc Oxide which is oxidized at the Zinc Anode and sends out 2 electrons The Manganese (IV) Dioxide also releases an extra 2 electrons when producing Manganese (II) (Tri)—Oxide, thus producing more of a voltage in the cell, this is because when balancing out the equation you really have 2 atoms of Manganese (IV) Dioxide, each gained 1 electron to be reduced, so 2 together make a total of 2 electrons gained in pair like the Zinc to Zinc Oxide So altogether the two electrons are transferred equally, but because of water's presence in the solution and in balancing it, there are 2 Hydroxide ions to balance with the 2 electrons produced from the Zinc and Zinc Oxide reaction in the equation Come full circle, water's presence in the solution creates the necessary Hydroxide ions to balance the equation and also bond with the Ammonium ions in Ammonium Chloride to produce Ammonia and Water When balancing the Redox Equation, it doesn't seem as if the Hydroxide has just appeared anymore for the water added to the right side of the equation means Hydroxide must go on the left for the 2 electrons released to be chemically available in the reaction Thus, when the Anode sends out Hydroxide ions, the Cathode accepts them, but the electrons on the left side of the half reaction of Manganese (IV) Oxide are added a water molecule so the 2 Hydroxide ions on the right side of the equation can be balanced Since both the Manganese (IV) (Tri)—Oxide half reaction and the In modern batteries, the Anode is Carbon instead of the Cathode and the Cathode is a metal oxide such as Cobalt Oxide or Manganese Dioxide (in this case, a depolarizer) Hydrogen Fuel Cell Considerably one of the best alternative sources to energy to make cars go, Hydrogen Fuel Cells or any Fuel Cell for that matter use Oxidizing Agents such as Oxygen itself or pressurized Oxygen Gas which increases the temperature and the reaction rate to fuel or create a battery and produce electricity from the heat and energy of the reaction, the green part of it is that the most common type burns Hydrogen Gas, very flammable, and thus produces Heat and Water, which may be able to be used or converted into electrical energy Fuel Cells are composed of Gases, whereas it has a Reducing Agent anode and an Oxidizing Agent cathode, thus the Anode is still oxidized and the Cathode is still reduced, and in definition, the Anode donates electrons through a wire or conducting material and the Cathode receives them to obtain its "negative" character as both are immersed in an Acidic electrolyte which contains many Hydrogen ions and the electrolyte contains a porous material in which only the Hydrogen ions can move between the electrodes and electrolyte to conduct electricity As the fuel and air mix, the fuel turns into positive ions and bonds with the negatively charged part of the electrolyte as the electrons move from the Anode Fuel compartment to the Cathode Air compartment, where the electrons are accepted by the other positive Hydrogen ions in the electrolyte solution and react to form neutral Hydrogen which bonds with the Oxygen Gas Air to produce water where there are special holes for the unused gases, excess fuel, and excessively produced water to move out of, and a wire connects the electrodes to produce the current overall Catalysts may be added to the battery to allow the oxidation to occur more rapidly and request for more fuel to be added, rather than an acidic or ionic salt solution, therefore creating the Hydrogen ions to make it go PEMFC or Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are what were described above Electrolytes are designed for ions to pass through it and not electrons, creating ionic movement while the electric movement or current passes through the wire of the batteries, this is more of a Gas State Cell, not a Wet Cell (liquid electrolyte) or Dry Cell (solid electrolyte) Fuel Cell Stack increases voltage Primarily in any cell during (discharge/recharge, which one, look above...), Cathodes are Reduced and Anodes are Oxidized Sometimes they may say the Anode is negatively charged before it undergoes oxidation or the cathode delivers electrons in the reverse process (discharge/recharge, which one, look above...) The Lithium Ion Battery Modern Set Cell The Electrolyte is of Lithium Ions that are released, special since Lithium is a very reactive element Since the Cathode attracts Cations, the Lithium ions are willing to move toward it from the electrolytic solution or Anode compartment In our example, we will use Nitrate as our example, since Lithium is looking to lose 1 electron, and Nitrate is a nonpolar covalent bond polyatomic ion with an extra electron as all polyatomic ions are free radicals looking to pair that electron and make a dimer or ternary ionic bond The Anode may dissolve into Lithium ions which move into the Lithium Nitrate solution in free ion form, meaning they'd rather be ions than atoms to bond in the electrolyte solution, what makes all wet cell batteries go These ions that move into the solution make the cathode covered as a positive charge instead of negative because of the ionic movement, attracting the singular electrons from the Lithium ion form (isoelectronic with Helium) and made the Cathode negatively charged again, not the metal or metal oxide of the Cathode itself but of covering the Cathode in electrons transferred from the Anode to the Cathode because of the Cathode's strong SRP difference between it and Lithium, and the ions first covering the Cathode making it positive temporarily become negative when the electrons are attracted to the ions, the Nitrate part of the electrolyte moves through a porous or semipermeable membrane to electrically neutralize the solution in the law of electroneutrality The reason Lithium-Ion batteries are better than Wet and Dry Cell batteries is that they are rechargeable primary batteries, and when it goes through charging (unlike being used normally as discharge), all the electrons are used up from the flow because there is so much of the Anode metal before it completely dissolves, and more Zinc metal would need to be deposited in order to keep the current flowing due to electrical imbalance trying to be balanced in account of 2 half reactions of both the Anode and Cathode When a charger is hooked, it is automatically being used as an electrolytic cell, converting electrical energy back into chemical energy and completely reversing the chemical reaction, making the Cathode act as an Anode and the Anode as a cathode, as the electrons return to the Anode and discharge to embark on their electric current journey to the Cathode Lithium stores more power and has considerably more of an SRP difference in producing more voltage in small batteries But, because of their small size, it takes longer for them to recharge Adding Nano technological species to electrodes specific to that of Lithium Batteries may increase the surface Area and allow more Lithium ions to transfer and make it charge faster Some good things to know in order to calculate further reactions and understand more diverse applications of Electrochemistry or its primary partner in the world with Electrometallurgy with sciences and careers in extracting metals from their oxides or ores in Electrowinning, or even processes like Electroplating or Electrorefining are all discussed in the Inorganic Chemistry Journal. Now, though all that I didn't draw a single diagram of battery cells. Thankfully, instead of drawing out the components and reaction, there is a special notation referred to as "Cell Notation" for writing the components and previous states of elements in the reaction in electrochemical cells. Modern scientists devised cell Notation, and this explanation comes from the John and Wiley Sons Company, a good process to memorize in considering the already-known-science, but explanation of electrochemical cells. 1) Write the chemical formula for the Anode 2) Draw a single line after the Anode Formula 3) Write the cationic or reactive part of the ternary salt solution or Anode Compartment of the cell and it's formula, labeling it at STP with 1 M solution 4) Draw a double line after both Formulas and the single line between them, representing the first part of your cell 5) Write the cationic/anionic or reactive part of the ternary or normal compound solution or Cathode Compartment of the cell and it's formula, labeling it at STP with 1 M solution 6) Draw a single line between the reactive part of the solution or electrolyte and the electrode 7) Write the chemical formula for the Cathode The double line represents the distinction between the cells that both together make up the battery. The single line represents the distinction between the electrode and the electrolyte in the cell of that with the other cell makes up the battery. Standard Reduction Potentials, Standard Electrode Potentials, Metal Activity, Element Reactivity, Voltage and SRP models, and more are all good tables to have at hand when dealing with such sciences and the mathematics behind their nature. Standard Reduction Potentials are useful in determining which electrodes are needed (and sometimes electrolytes) in the cell to produce a certain voltage for a certain purpose in making something that depends on electrical energy to work and convert it to kinetic energy As abbreviated SRP, sometimes SRP's can be called Standard Electrode Potential (SEP) or simply Standard Cathode Potential (SCP), since the Cathode always undergoes reduction and is thus the oxidizing agent of the reaction with the Anode The tendency for the Cathode to invite the electrons being produced from the anode is measured in Volts as recorded on the SRP or SCP table The purpose of electrochemical reactions are for cathodes to gain electrons and undergo certain processes Since anodes "give" electrons to the cathode in the processes explained earlier, all Cathodes are reduced and all Anodes are Oxidized, thus all Cathodes are Oxidizing Agents and all Anodes are Reducing Agents The strength of the oxidizing agent increases as the value becomes more positive on the SRP table, and thus is a better cathode to use The strength of the reducing agent increases the value becomes more negative on the SRP table, and thus is a better anode to use Actually, if you use a Reducing Agent metal with a negative value as a Cathode instead of an Anode, the electrochemical reaction won't even begin So the higher SRP is, it is a Cathode, so the lower the SRP is (in value), it is an Anode In relation to Hydrogen ions releasing two electrons and making Hydrogen gas, Cathodes do not receive any voltage at all, and are considered neutral, or the standard derivative for all SRP ratings To increase the voltage produced from electrochemical reactions, you can hook up more cells and produce more volts in proportions, or you can increase the difference between SRP ratings of the positive value Cathode and negative value Anode to increase the electrical energy produced Remember, Anodes welcome Anions and are considered positively charged and Cathodes welcome Cations and are considered negatively charged according to Michael Faraday and his laws, but this doesn't change the SRP of the electrodes being used which ratings are opposite in value to that of their electrical charge, and are labeled to that of their SRP rating and not their electrical charge, the reason there labeling on batteries seems a little "backwards" Also, the more positive the value, the faster the reaction or more readily do the components of the reaction react The Nernst equation and Faraday's laws (which prove how much voltage is produced based on the molar masses of all of the components of the battery) are further discussed in the Math in Chemistry Journal for this section. The balancing of Redox Equations in solution of electrolyte, be it of acid or base is also discussed in the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents Redox Chapter of the Organic Chemistry Journal for it will be more useful to balance Redox equations in Acidic or Basic solution in Organic Chemistry than in Inorganic Chemistry. For General Chemistry purposes, we have included all of the following. For more on Electrometallurgy, you can learn that in the Inorganic Chemistry Journal, and for more on the mathematics behind Electrochemistry you can find that in the Math in Chemistry Journal, as well as if you would like to find the equation balancing of electrochemistry you can do so in the first few chapters of the Organic Chemistry Journal. Now that we have learned the chemistry, history, scientists, and applications of Electrochemistry, we can begin to understand to use it as an alternative energy source for the good of humans, not for changing people's thoughts about climate. The impact of energy and its role in the processes wasn't necessarily discussed, but so much energy is relied to make any reaction, especially molten sodium chloride using heat energy in such reactions. As we conclude Electrochemistry, we have just entered the first step in the other side of Chemistry, which lands into Physics as well, Energy and Energy conversion. Although we haven't discussed this until the Inorganic Chemistry Journal on Chapter 6 with Energy, Energy was converted in these reactions and the types of energy converting and associating with electrochemical, electrolytic, and modern battery cells from most to least familiar include that of Heat Energy, Chemical Energy, Electrical Energy, Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy, Light Energy, Activation Energy, and Binding Energy Electrochemical Reactions are divided into two classifications: Chemical Energy Producing Electrical Energy Electrical Energy Producing Chemical Energy Producing Electrical Energy An example of the First Type of Reaction: The first reaction has to do with Copper and Zinc metals placed in two different solutions in separated cups, and separated by a wire, which is stopped by a battery hooked up to a light bulb The Anode is positively charged and that is where electrons are moving from the Neutral Zinc to the Positively charge copper, and in liquid solutions, the metals are connected in two cups, where a wire separates the two cups, and a light bulb is placed Based on what we know about thermionic emissions, light bulbs tend to carry electrons and produce light energy and heat energy, while electrons flow from the Zinc Anode to the Copper Cathode In this reaction, electrical energy is being produced from electrostatics between two atoms The electrons coming off of the Zinc to be oxidized as the Anode are negatively charged and two leave to be attracted to the Copper's 2+ charge, and as charges balance, the Zinc becomes the 2+ charge, and the copper because the neutral element since it gains 2 electrons from the Zinc The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charges of the Copper, and it always occurs that Zinc electrons transfer to Copper in that order, rather than the other way around, because Copper has a stronger reduction potential than Zinc Therefore, the Zinc is being oxidized or is the reducing agent, losing electrons and defining the anode for what it is, being positively charged and losing electrons The Copper is being reduced or is the oxidizing agent, gaining electrons from Zinc rather than losing them to Zinc because of it's reduction potential, as listed in the standard reduction potential tables in the chemistry help folder The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charge of the Copper, not the negative charge of the electrode being a cathode The Zinc and Copper electrodes are only defined that way after they have been electroplated, or electrons have inhabited Copper, making it neutral, and thus making it gain electrons, undergo reduction, and be the Cathode The Anode of the Zinc lost electrons and after the reaction, sent electrons through the wire to produce the electricity energy or electrical current, and afterwards underwent oxidation to become positively charged The Electrode Charges are determined after the Electrostatic Attraction between the metals before they reacted because of the standard reduction potential of Copper was activated and they reacted The balance of the charges are overall more important to account for than the charges of the electrodes You would think that negatively charged electrons repel the negatively charged electrode being a cathode, but it only becomes a negatively charged electrode or cathode after the reaction took place, before it was nothing but a strip of Copper metal A pneumonic of AN OX, RED CAT can help you remember that at the Anode, Oxidation occurs, and Reduction occurs at the Cathode Realize that these reactions are redox reactions, and that they pretty much apply to electrochemistry Also note that the same skills of knowing and being able to identify oxidizing and reducing agents, oxidation and reduction, electron transfers, and writing out half reactions to show how the electrons transferred using oxidation numbers to show oxidation states and balance of charges are all pre-hand knowledge needed for knowing how to master Electrochemistry The names of batteries powered by these electrochemical reactions are called Voltaic or Galvanic Cells The second type of reaction called electrolysis Splitting Water into Hydrogen gas and Oxygen gas using electrical energy and assigning oxidation numbers to see the states of this decomposition reaction, Hydrogen is reduced and Oxygen is Oxidized, rare how Oxygen oxidizes itself here, not normal, but a property of these second type of electrochemical reactions that produce electrochemical cells Unlike Copper extracting electrons from Zinc in the first type of reactions' properties of spontaneous transformations, the second type of reaction between Oxygen and Hydrogen is of non-spontaneous transformation properties Oxygen has a stronger pull for electrons than Hydrogen does because of its Standard Reduction Potential, which is spontaneous But Oxygen oxidizing itself never happens on its own unless water splitting electricity can act as a catalyst and let it electrically decompose and oxidized itself Electrons love to crowd around Oxygen because of its electronegativity, so for electrons to be pulled from Oxygen to Hydrogen in the presence of an electrical catalyst such as a battery will make it happen These electron want to be pushed over to Hydrogen because in the electrolytic reaction of water decomposing into Hydrogen and Oxygen Gas, Hydrogen is reduced, thus gaining electrons from the oxidized itself process of Oxygen, so a Battery allows this to happen, providing the necessary amount of electrical energy to pull electrons from the electronegativity or reduction potential of Oxygen, and bring them over to the Hydrogen The electrodes are actually precipitates of water, in other words since Oxygen is being oxidized, so it is the anode, and it is becoming positively charged And the Hydrogen is being reduced, so it is the cathode, and it is becoming negatively charged The second type of reaction can apply to electrolytic Reactions, or ones that apply the concept of the second type of reaction electrolysis as a cell: Normally, Table Salt dissolves in water because polar solvents normally dissolve nonpolar solutes that are soluble in water The names of batteries powered by these electrochemical reactions are called Electrolytic Cells Types of Batteries to Know Primary- Not Rechargeable Secondary- Rechargeable Zinc and Silver Voltaic Pile Galvanic Cell Battery (Primary) Zinc and Copper Daniell Galvanic Cell Battery (Primary) Molten Sodium Chloride Electrolytic Cell Battery (Secondary) Solution Water Electrolytic Cell Battery (Primary) Solution Sodium Chloride Electrolytic Cell Battery (Primary) Lead-Acid Solution Cell Battery (Secondary) Zinc-Carbon Cell Battery (Primary) Zinc Chloride Cell Battery (Primary) Leclanche Cell (Primary) Alkaline Cell Battery (Primary) Dry Cell Battery (Primary, Leclanche Cell, Permeable Membrane used is Cellulose Polymer) Lithium Ion Cell Battery (Secondary) Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery Earth Battery Three Other Interesting Types of Batteries to Know 1. Fuel Cell Battery (Secondary) 2. Earth Battery (Primary) The Chemistry of the Battery In an electrochemical cell, a solution of something like Hydrochloric Acid & Sodium Hydroxide waits for two carbon/metal rods such as copper or zinc called electrodes to dissociate the ions for negative ions to go to the anode, and positive ions to go to the cathode, and a conductive material discovered such as copper connects the rods to produce a current of electric charge of electrons in the normal copper nature, & also the ions of Sodium & Hydroxide move from the negative anode which oxidizes by losing its electrons which are electrically charged and create current in the metal solenoid above, and return to the positive cathode which reduces by gaining the other electrode's electrons from the dissociated ions in the solution- whether it be water & salt or Copper & Zinc sulfates, they all act in the same way. In a galvanic cell, copper & Zinc dissociate as their electron pools naturally go to the carbon/metal rod electrode which is positive, oxidizing it, and taking it through the copper wire or solenoid above, making it a reducing agent for the cathode which receives the negative electrons to become negatively charged, , and only the more concentrated element goes through, so such water & salt solutions with carbon rods and copper solenoids/wires produce chlorine gas & oxygen gas after the current, while the Sodium & Hydrogen stay in the solution, Batteries work when copper dissolves in Hydrochloric Acid & Sodium Hydroxide, creating a pool of electrons as copper normally exists as, and the Hydrogen, Chlorine, Sodium, & Oxygen all acting as ions in which electrons meet at two electrodes, while the overall reaction can produce electric current. In a wet cell, a molten solution of Sodium Chloride is inserted into a container where two electrodes are placed, the positive electrode attracts the negatively charged chlorine, and the negative electrode attracts the positively charged sodium, so since the chlorine ions bond, they each have 8 electrons in their octet, bonding and giving off two to produce the electric current which are electrically attracted to the other electrode with negative charge, but an ion with positive charge- an atom with no valence electrons to gain 2; in such wet cells- the electrons are oxidized at the anode and reduced at the cathode, where they are attracted not by the electrode, but by the ion on the electrode itself (Picture 2 is an example of a Wet Cell) In a voltaic cell, metal plates or discs of certain types- say Zinc & Silver are interrupted with a disc of cardboard soaked in sodium chloride solution (which can easily dissociate in an electrochemical cell to create electric charges measured macro molecularly by coulombs, and overall create electricity), so when the discs are cut with holes in the middle, & and a metal such as copper dissociates the saltwater on the cardboard disc, the sodium and chlorine ions begin to become attracted with the electrodes at the bottom and top of the voltaic tower, so pools of electrons are created, and the voltaic cell begins to produce electricity, in which the zinc and silver plates are necessary for the dissociation of sodium, chlorine, hydrogen, & oxygen to metallically and ionically bond with the zinc and silver discs to produce an electromotive force, which further creates electricity and overall electric charge to produce electric current out to the wire going through the hole. In a voltaic cell, crown of cups were invented by Alessandro Volta himself, in which a series of cups filled with an electrolyte solution or salt such as sodium chloride would contain a piece of silver and a piece of zinc, as the zinc in each cup was connected electrically In a Daniell cell, a positive electrode, or anode is a rod of pure zinc, dipped in sulfate- SO4- the electrolyte, with a coating of mercury protecting the zinc from the sulfate acid, & the negative electrode or cathode was, consisted of a copper canister saturated with copper sulfate since it was copper containing the sulfate (Picture 3) In a Leclanche cell, a glass jar filled with an electrolyte solution of ammonium chloride. Where the anode (coated with mercury to be protected from electroplating and corrosion) was a zinc rod which created zinc ions when current was flowing, and passed into the solution of ammonium chloride, where it passed a porous pot holding manganese dioxide and carbon powder surrounding the carbon rod, which served as an electrical conductor for the zinc ions which dissociated along with the water present in the solution, and so the manganese dioxide formed manganous dioxide afterwards, and as a dry cell battery, current was able to flow In a galvanic alkaline battery cell, when zinc reacts with manganese IV dioxide, it produces manganese III oxide & zinc oxide, so overall in electrochemistry we think about half reactions, so splitting this reaction in half, breaking it down to half reactions, where one reactant is oxidized by an oxidizing agent, and the other is reduced by a reducing agent, and so Zinc loses two electrons and becomes oxidized in the chemical process & manganese IV dioxide is being reduced to Manganese III by gaining an electron, so when balancing or summing up both half reactions we can observe that two electrons are released from the oxidation of zinc atoms, and one electron is consumed by each Manganese IV atom, for a total of two consumed electrons, but this all happens in a dry cell with a potassium hydroxide and water solution, this zinc and manganese dioxide is enclosed after the zinc rod's current charged up to produce the zinc ions and the zinc produced electrons naturally by atomic number and metal classification, the zinc ions produced-enclosed with the manganese dioxide (and sometimes carbon metal crumbs where in there too), and the zinc ions bonded in the potassium hydroxide solution with the hydroxide to make Zinc Oxide and water, plus the two electrons- the first half reaction, while the second half reaction- the 2 electrons were given to reduce the manganese dioxide when it bonded with water from the potassium hydroxide solution creating manganese oxide and hydroxide anions. In a galvanic alkaline battery cell, the potassium hydroxide solution surrounding the manganese dioxide & zinc in the porous pot of the cell, is a basic compound due to the hydroxide being in it, and the electrical neutralization which the potassium contributes to representing, & the potassium hydroxide is an alkali, since the potassium is an alkali metal (that's where the metals got their names once electrolysis and electrochemical processes gave to the discovery of all the alkali metals on the periodic table by the splitting of compounds in water containing bases) & an alkali is a base which dissolves in water, the potassium hydroxide solution is an alkaline solution, not referring to the alkaline metals, but the basic description and the base in the solution of Hydroxide, normally referring to water as an alkali, not another basic reaction such as ammonium, a distinction described earlier In a galvanic alkaline battery cell, The Potassium Hydroxide separates the zinc and manganese dioxide from bonding electromagnetically together which creates a state of equilibrium, and release of different types of energy, not creating electric current very well, therefore serving no purpose In a dry/galvanic alkaline battery cell, IT REALLY WORKS WHEN: Batteries are designed to conquer that energy and in doing so, dry cells isolate the half reactions from each other allowing electrons to build charge of main electricity and not static in the cathode, to a vacuum connected to the anode. In the dry cell batteries, the zinc is in the center surrounded by a layer of cellulose guarding the zinc from the manganese dioxide which ions which tend to bond electromagnetically and mix, creating a state of equilibrium and unnecessary energy, so the manganese dioxide is outside of that In a galvanic alkaline battery cell, such an apparatus generates electrical energy from chemical energy of the chemical reaction processes of redox or oxidation=reduction reactions which can dissociate ions, split alkali and alkaline metal containing compounds, acids, & bases to produce salts, pure water, electricity especially, & more. In an electrolytic battery cell, an apparatus or the cell itself, is when electric current causes the transfer of electrons in a redox reaction, the opposite of a galvanic cell In a galvanic alkaline battery cell, an apparatus or the cell itself, that generates electrical energy from a redox reaction In a standard cell, or Weston Cadmium cell, a glass tube in the shape of an H, and a pool of Mercury at the bottom of each limb in the H makes contact with the with the platinum leads or solenoid coils which conduct electricity on both sides of the porous material which makes the shape of the H, and at the anode, the mercury is amalgamated (alloy of mercury and another metal) with cadmium, in contact with crystals to form cadmium sulfate. At the cathode, the mercury pool is in contact with a layer of mercuric sulfate covered in cadmium The amount of work that can be done depends on how strong the push or pull on electrons which is between the two reactants, which we call the reaction's electrical potential or voltage. Voltage also expresses the electrical potential of both halves of the whole reaction, or each half reaction excluding their bonding with the water or solution which surrounds them in the commonplace porous solution. When copper is reduced, it produces 0.34 more volts than Hydrogen does, so its standard reduction potential is 0.34. The standard cell potential is the sum of electrical potentials of the half reactions at standard state conditions. The reactions in batteries need to be spontaneous because their purpose is to release energy Electrolysis is the breaking apart of molecules using electricity as mentioned before. These electrochemical terms, and cells and their applications define electrochemical reactions themselves, as further explained with the list of cells above and electrochemical terms too, as well as the half reactions that go into the oxidation-reduction reactions also known they are- as redox reactions, how batteries work, how galvanic and electrolytic cells work and their opposite fundamental, standard potential of certain electrical cells which is further explained below with the fundamentals of voltage and resistance. And how electrolysis shows how electroplating works. Electrochemical Reactions: Occur when electricity produces chemical change or energy by generating electric fields or ionically set-up magnetic fields by processes of electrolysis- which is the splitting of compounds in water by electricity - The electrolytes are the substance which are separated by the electrolysis process & can conduct electricity molten in water, while electrodes can be reshaped to conduct electric current in water, usually measured in volts or amps & redefine early experiments earlier discussed - Molten salt will react undergoing the electrolysis process to produce sodium metal and chlorine gas after passing an electric current through it - Dry Cell Batteries: Chemical changes ionize running particles through the current through ionic and metallic bonds to produce electricity which has already been divided in the processes of electrolysis in wet cell batteries - When a zinc metal strip is dipped in a solution of Copper (II) Sulfate to form a rearrangement of the reactants as products by transferring the 3 electrons of the zinc metal to the copper ions in the copper solution - The Zinc Metal dissolves going into a zinc sulfate solution as zinc ions and the copper ions come out of the solution as copper metal, therefore the zinc is oxidized because it lost electrons and is the reducing agent, while copper is reduced because it gained electrons and is the oxidizing agent - Putting both substances in separate containers and attaching a metallic wire which conducts electricity or simply ions, it can generate electrical power from the zinc ions in the zinc sulfate solution to the copper ions in the copper sulfate solution and results in an overall electric current while both solutions are separated by a porous partition substance - When electrical Zinc ions go over to the Copper Sulfate Solution, the zinc metal dissolves and the bulb of light and energy stops glowing, unless more zinc is used to power the current or another reactively ionic substance like zinc - This process creates a wet cell battery - In the end, the copper sulfate solution turns to copper as the sulfate passes by the porous substance separating the two within the cell and goes to the zinc sulfate solution- with more sulfate now than the copper solution - Each time a copper atom gains 2 electrons from a zinc ion, one sulfate molecule moves through the porous partition into the zinc sulfate solution - Anodes are positively charged electrodes or metal strips & undergo oxidization- losing electrons to become positively charged - Cathodes are negatively charged electrodes or metal strips & undergo reduction- gaining electrons to become negatively charged - Zinc gives up electrons, oxidizing, and is therefore the anode - Copper gains 2 electrons, reducing, and is therefore the cathode - So those are wet cell batteries, but dry cell batteries react the same way only while zinc acts as the anode, the cathode is in the form of a solidified paste which gains the zinc electrons in the following formula on pg207 - Batteries are a storage series of electrochemical cells that are dry - Cells include Wet & Dry Batteries, Lead Storage and Main Batteries, & Fuel - Corrosion is the reaction between metal and unfixed gases not surrounded around solutions such as Rust, Aluminum Protection, & tarnishes of Silver

Concepts Associated with Chemical Structure and Orientation (All Concepts)

When it comes to Molecular Mixing and overall Chemical and Physical Reactions between substances, one of the chemical properties other than acidity and alkalinity is the strength of the bond As we know from studying Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces, Intramolecular Forces are usually more significant, and Intermolecular Forces not so much to the point where sometimes they aren't even called bonds As the bond scale goes, Ion-Ion is the strongest, then Ion-Dipole, then Dipole-Dipole, then Dipole-Induced Dipole, then Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole (London Forces), then Polar Covalent Bonds, then Covalent Bonds, then Network Covalent Bonds Ion-Dipole is the strongest of the intermolecular forces, in which an Ion such as Sodium Chloride and a Dipole such as Water come together, and react in a way in which the Water dissolves the Sodium Chloride, just like when Dipole-Dipole Interactions of two Dimethyl Ether molecules interact together Ion-Dipole and Dipole-Dipole Intermolecular Interactions are responsible for the solubility of many ionic salts and polar liquids and gases, but depend on one of two factors o First, the electronegativity difference between the two atoms (strength and factor of protons) o Second, the electric force emanating from the nonbonding pair of electrons on the more electronegative atom (strength and factor of electrons, natural tendency to pair up in covalent bonds) o When Hydrogen interacts with electronegative atoms on supposedly molecules that are Ions or Dipoles, it is known as a Hydrogen Bond, which with in its place of the bond strength line, is stronger than a covalent bond but weaker than an ionic bond, but can be any type of intermolecular force, as long as one of the atoms participating in the interaction are Hydrogen atoms The account at which these atoms are orientated together account for them to interact, and thus another factor in chemical reactions and kinetics depends on the orientation between two atoms in two different molecules, such as two dimethyl ether molecules coming together in which the Carbon atom of one dimethyl ether molecule is electrically attracted to the more electronegative, higher effected nuclear charged atom, the Oxygen atom in another dimethyl ether molecule to account for electronegativity, as well as the nonbonding pair of electrons on that same Oxygen atom, which account for NBP and strength of electrons wanting to pair up to fill that Valence Shell This same interactions applies to the reason why water expands as it freezes, is because as its molecules stop moving, all of the Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms hurry up to get into their proper orientation as it freezes, getting less dense because of the way Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms pair up together as they freeze Temporary Dipoles are more significant for larger atoms because the electrons in larger atoms have more space to repel each other and more space available to move around You may be thinking that the smaller the atom, the more of a chance for electrons to be together, but the closer they are, the more they want to repel each other They only come together in the first place because of the charge of the other atom attracting them to one side of the molecule either due to its NBP electrons or effective nuclear charge aka electronegativity However, in larger atoms electrons have more space available for even more random motion, thus increasing their chance of bunching to one side, and because they have more room to spread out, rather than in smaller atoms where they repel outwards from each other, thus keeping them evenly spread out from each other rather than bunched up to one side, so Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions are stronger for larger atoms than smaller ones The fact at which something is a solid, liquid, or gas doesn't depend on the bond strength, although for Iodine the bond strength can explain why it is a solid at room temperature

The Chemistry of Color (All Concepts)

White Powders, Black Oils, and Plain Boring compounds including Gray and Black rocks tend to make up most of the nonpolar covalent bonds in organic chemistry and they may even be in solution as a liquid with no color or translucent effects like that of glue and water If you want to add color to any chemical, the chemical naturally (or synthetically if the chemical was made) must be of ionic or metallic bonds and must depend on Intramolecular forces or chemical bonds rather than intermolecular forces like that of organic compounds and solutions There are some Organic Compounds, like double or triple bonded nonpolar covalent compounds which enlarge the probability of the location of electrons Such a process where nonpolar covalent compounds with double and triple bonds greaten the probability of an electron's location is known as electron delocalization Nitriles, which are simply Carbon to Nitrogen triple bonds are extremely reactive in organic compounds because they contain Nitrogen and can hook up to organic and inorganic compounds to make them colored So Double Bonds (4 electrons shared), Triple Bonds (6 electrons shared), Metallic Bonds (electron pools), and Ionic Bonds (electrons flowing throughout crystal) all have something in common- lots of electrons! Considering already knowing the Photoelectric Effect and the meaning of Absorption and Emission spectra of elements to identify them, we can conclude that if a chemical compounds contains delocalized or flowing electrons, it is colorful The reason is because as an atom, molecule, or compound, it can absorb certain energy as measured out or classified in wavelengths and based on its absorption and emission spectra data, it absorbs certain wavelengths, and the rest it gives off or reflects so we can see that wavelength, and the color it reflects is normally opposite the energy of the wavelength absorbed White is a mixture of a whole bunch of colors, so when dealing with Single Bonded Nonpolar Covalent compounds and simple gas compounds, unreactive compounds that are nonpolar, and others like these you won't get color rather that colorless, translucent water-like, or white look, where white is a mixture of colors, black is no wavelength energy absorbed, thus a substance or color not having any colors (scientifically, black is not a color since it is the result of not absorbing energy), and such Single Bonded nonpolar covalent compounds have an electron or two which do not overcome the energy they are absorbing White, Black, and Gray: Thus, the single bonded compounds are either white, meaning they have absorbed all the energy and do not have enough energy themselves to move out of the atoms they are in, or they are black meaning they have a lot of energy and cannot absorb any energy, or they have no energy and do not come into contact with energy either (by energy we talk in terms of wavelengths, for photons see my Photon Journal) Gray simply comes from a lighter black meaning it absorbed just a tiny bit of energy, the lowest energy they absorb, and reflect opposite to the spectrum naturally, but it just comes out as gray Also, certain colors are radiating from substances but cannot see those colors because they are lower or higher in energy than available to macromolecular advantage in the visible spectrum, like that of X-Rays, Gamma Rays, or Micro Waves and Radio Waves, so they absorb visible light energy and give off energy opposite to the spectrum, always higher in energy The Electromagnetic Spectrum is reference to determining the energy of wavelengths, red having the lowest energy (that is visible), orange having a little more energy, yellow having more than orange, blue having more than yellow, green having more than blue, and violet having the most energy To more electrons something has, the more energy it can absorb given to that of each electron, so if something has only 1 electron it barely absorbs energy and is either white, black, or gray depending on the cases we previously explained If something has 2-4 electrons (double bonds) it may absorb red or orange, but still have some yellow, green, blue, or purple to reflect Continuing with our demonstration, if something has 4-6 electrons (triple bonds), it may absorb red wavelength energy, as well as orange, yellow, green, and by 6-10 electrons it can absorb low energy waves and reflect out high ones But remember, Single Bonded Organic Compounds, as well as every other organic and inorganic compound, can absorb low energy as well as visible energy, and thus radiates out or reflects higher forms of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum than Visible Light We discussed the Electromagnetic Spectrum for Visible Light energy, but what about the entire spectrum of energy we can't see In order of lowest t highest energy, the Spectrum is illustrated as Radio Waves being the lowest energy and longest waves, and then Micro Waves and then Infrared Waves and then Visible Light and then Ultraviolet and then X Rays and then Gamma Rays Also know that certain rays such as Gamma Radiation can be harmful because they have so much energy they penetrate right through the skin and affect the atoms of your organs or DNA or brain or whatever the case may be Also, Chemical compounds do not always have to absorb light from the lowest to highest energy Some chemical compounds of these descriptions may absorb higher energy and reflect lower energy wavelength colors meaning that the electrons have absorbed so much energy they have left their atoms completely to create the wavelengths determined by their patterns in emitting from the electron shells of an atom Also note that the electron # descriptions are only a demonstration, particular chemical compounds can have more than just one main double or triple bond, and metallic bonds have trillions of atoms like any other bond formed, thus all these bonds have electrons in the primary bond which makes them up, the rest of the bonds that copy or are similar to the primary bond throughout the molecule or compound, and then the fact that there is actually a mole or 6 quintillion times this many electrons To recap, the first level of quantitatively describing energy absorption to produce colored compounds is in the bond that makes up the molecule, the second level is of the other bonds in the one molecule, and the third level is the millions of units of a chemical as a mole which makes up a substance at macromolecular advantage Most molecules absorb light in the ultraviolet range, above the visible light spectrum and thus reflect light with either much higher energies we haven't recorded on the electromagnetic spectrum, or lower energies we can see like that of yellow and green Metallic Bonded Compounds like Metals and Alloys have flowing electrons which gives them their color as well as luster, and this is why every metal has a certain color (unless it is gray) Ionically Bonded Compounds work the same way except the electrons stay put since they are strongly attracted to the atoms transferring it (or "them" if you are considering an entire molecule) And Nonpolar Covalently bonded Double and Triple Bonds need to have enough delocalized electrons to absorb and reflect or simply transfer energy as determined by wavelengths to produce the colors they normally, naturally, synthetically do Organic molecules absorb light when a photon of light interacts with the electrons holding the molecule together, temporarily bumping some out of place Bumping out electrons takes energy from the wavelengths or photons, and because the energy content depends on the color of the photon or wavelength the following can be stated Different Electrons can be knocked out by different colors of light, depending on how tightly those electrons are bonded, and if they are not tight we can refer to them as "delocalized" Those that are Doubly and Triply bonded to atoms in molecules need much energy such as that beyond the Visible Spectrum and thus a mixture of all colors those that need energy higher than that of which we can see can also be white compounds, since white is a mixture of all colors, and white also contains energy absorbed higher than that of visible colors Electrons need to have a certain binding energy strength in order to be lodged or bumped and release energy or reflect light, and molecules can be made from natural to synthetic or just synthetic molecules can be made in order to achieve a certain binding strength and produce a certain colors These are Synthetic, and all but one compound produces a color synthetically, but comes from a natural resource plant (which is rare and is barely existent anymore, the indigofera-tinctoria) In turning it into Indigo (as you might have guessed from the origin of the substance, the plant which I just named above), contains a glycoside, one of the many families of the Organic Dyes and pigments named according not to their structures but their properties in color and physical change Indian Glycoside is a powder which is heated with water to produce Indoxyl (a colorless single bonded alcohol compound soluble in water) The Water from the alcohol is absorbed in a fabric which is either burned or simply can come in contact with air to oxidize and produce Indigo which you can sift out of the fabric and is a powder that is insoluble in water, and is also colored for all the reasons described above and many more These 7 Colored Compounds are synthetic organic compounds understood by the same science as previously explained Mauvine: Made from Aniline Synthesis, Mauvine, Fuchsine, and all other -ine ending compounds tend to have those Amine Groups hunched onto their molecules somewhere and it was the second organic dye every discovered by a serendipity or accidental synthesis like that of Urea, which launched a major influence on Germany to become the Organic Synthesizer it is today Fuchsine: Produced from coal tar and added with Hydrochloric Acid, Fuchsine is normally a green powder but when dissolved in water it chemically reacts to turn red Aniline: Aniline is basically Phenyl-Amine, since it contains Benzene with 1 less Hydrogen connected to an Amine group, Aniline itself is used as a dye, not to be confused with Alanine! Alanine is an Amino Acid forming the proteins in your body, so we can't extract the dye by genetically engineering and killing humans, rather just extracting it from dead and decaying plants who have may have it stored within them in their interactions with light such as chlorophyll a & b Erioglaucine: A major component of Aquashade which turns it green-blue since the synthetic molecule's electrons absorb the same wavelength energy as algae do when it acts as a catalyst for their growth and storing of glucose sugars and production of Oxygen as a plant of algae, as Chlorophyll works the same way as a catalyst in reaction with light, both the chlorophyll and light are catalysts, but the chlorophyll must need optical energy as well, and chlorophyll is what makes plant leaves or algae green, through this process the energy needed for the algae's photosynthesis is absorbed thus the algae stops growing and a "shade" or protective "layer" of Erioglaucine has been covered over them, Erioglaucine particularly contains 4 benzene rings, 3 Sodium Sulfonate Hooks, and whole bunch of Polyethylene Alkene Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds in ring structures, making it an excellent electron delocalizer Erioglaucine reflects blue light energy and we can assume it absorbs higher forms of energy since it has so many electrons such as the electron pools in the benzene rings Tartrazine: Composed of 2 Sodium Phenyl-Sulfonate groups, a Nitrogen-Nitrogen double bond, delocalized electrons from Sodium ion transfers located at the top of a molecule near a Carboxylic Acid group without Hydrogen, Tartrazine is a bright orange powder, and like Erioglaucine, is used in blue or orange ice cream or sherbet Tartrazine reflects the orange light energy and we can assume it absorbs higher forms of energy since it has so many electrons such as the 2 electron pools in the 2 benzene rings The Family of Organic Dyes is mainly just applicative compounds (molecules) which follow the same principles discussed in the beginning, although their properties and applications other than giving "color" are different, depending on the "family" or "kind" they are Not knowing their molecular structures or chemical formulas, you can further your studies this way and understand how they were synthesized, what they make up, and also what compounds they help in reacting with others to synthesize new products as well COMMON DYES: Indigo Carmine Blue 1- Erioglaucine Blue 2- Indigo (Carmine) Alpha-Carotene Beta-Carotene Zeta-Carotene Betacyanin Betaxanthin Betacyanin (Sugar) Betaxanthin (Sugar) Acrylic (Paint) Nitrocellulose Red 3- Erythrosine Red 40- Allura Red Yellow 5- It is really just Tartrazine Yellow 6- "Sunset" yellow Chlorophyll A Chlorophyll B Lutein Betanin Lycopene Phytoene Phytofluene Capsanthin Violaxanthin Beta-Cyrptoxanthin Vulgaxanthin Zeaxathin Main Glycoside Delphinidin-3 Glucoside Pelargonidin-3 Glucoside Cyanidin-3 Glucoside Calcium Carbonate Titanium Dioxide Iron Oxides Magnesium Oxides Aluminum Oxides Cobalt Oxides Zinc Oxides Cadmium Sulfide Selenium Sulfide Cadmium-Selenium Disulfide Iron Hydrates Magnesium Hydrates Violet Manganese Violet Mineral Prussian Blue Ultramarine Deep Blue Turquoise Realgar Malachite Galena Cinnabar Azurite Paris Green Quinacridone Graphite Anthocyanin Fuchsine Mauveine Aniline Erioglaucine Tetrazine Indigocarmine 9.Alpha Carotene Beta Carotene 11Betacyanin Betaxanthin Titanium Dioxide Acrylic Nitrocellulose

Concepts Associated with Polymers and Crude Oil (All Concepts)

All of these substances listed in this section are called petrochemicals, and are either produced from crude oil fractional distillation towers, or from the treatment and further chemical and physical processing and blending as follows Class I: From Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil: Petroleum- Gas & Liquid- 1-4 Carbon atoms massive, Petroleum Gas is used for heating, cooking, and polymerization or certain Paraffins up to 4 carbons, Natural Gaseous and Liquid Fuels including Methane, Ethane, Propane, and Butane, for heating homes and vehicles such as trailers, grills, and cooking food in the home or on the go, for small, light stuff, they boil at 40 degrees Celsius, some are liquefied under pressure like Butane Naphtha- Liquid, 5-9 Carbon atoms massive, Naphtha Liquid is an "intermediate" used to make Gasoline and for Polymerization of higher-carbon-containing Paraffins, they boil at 100 degrees Celsius Gasoline- Liquid, 5 to 12 Carbon atoms massive, natural mixture of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes with the same boiling points, not a blend though, that comes from chemical processing, but a mixture of ingredients just separated, Small Vehicle Fuel, they boil from 40 to 200 degrees Celsius Kerosene- Liquid, 10 to 18 Carbon atoms massive, natural mixture of Alkanes and Aromatics with the same boiling points, not a blend though, that comes from chemical processing, but a mixture of ingredients literally just separated, also used as an "intermediate" used to make Gasoline and for Polymerization of higher-carbon-containing Paraffins and Aromatics, Large Vehicle Fuel, they boil from 200 to 330 degrees Celsius Diesel Gas/Oil- Liquid,12 to 24 Carbon atoms massive, natural mixture of Alkanes of this atom count with the same boiling points, not a blend though, that comes from chemical processing, but a mixture of ingredients just separated, also used as an "intermediate" used to make certain products and for Polymerization of higher-carbon-containing Paraffins, Aromatics, and other substances, it is used for the grandest of purposes concerning vehicles and buildings, like in race cars, they boil from 250 to 350 degrees Celsius Lubricating Oil- Liquid, 20 to 50 Carbon atoms massive, natural mixture of Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Aromatics with the same boiling points, not a blend though, that comes from chemical processing, but a mixture of ingredients just separated from the fractional distillation tower, used as an "intermediate" for gasoline, and for producing grease and lubricating agents, they boil around 350 degrees Celsius Fuel Oil- Liquid, 20 to 70 Carbon atoms massive, natural mixture of Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Aromatics with the same boiling points, not a blend though, that comes from chemical processing, but a mixture of ingredients just separated from the fractional distillation tower, also an "intermediate" for making other substances, used for even grander purposes of fuel, for industrial fuel, they boil from 400 to 600 degrees Celsius Residuals- Solid, 70 to 100 Carbon atoms massive, multi-Aromatics with the same boiling points that aren't a blend from chemical processing but just-separated substances or fractions from the fractional distillation tower, also an "intermediate" for making other products, these are the highest boiling point "leftovers", or long-chain compounds that are only solids, of which include the production and application of carbon coke coal, asphalt, tar, and waxes, they boil at 600 degrees Celsius Class II: From Chemical Processing, Treating, and Blending of Crude Oil: Gasoline or Car/Truck/Bus Fuel (Various Mixtures, Grades, and Additives) Lubricants (Various Mixtures, Grades, and Weights) Kerosene or Airplane Fuel (Various Grades) Jet Fuel Diesel Fuel Heating Oil Polymers o So, what we have been waiting for, Polymers aren't actually produced in the process, but after the process due to the production of natural gas or petroleum, and also heavy carbon-containing materials like Gasoline, Kerosene, Naphtha, Diesel Fuel, Lubricant Oil, and Fuel Oil o Take Ethane for example, Ethane is converted into Ethylene as follows: o In simpler terms, Plastic is made after the hydrocarbons have been sought out of the Crude Oil Fractional Substances, and Purified and Processes Crude Oil Fractional Substances, by preparing raw materials or monomers and then carrying out polymerization reactions through a series of chemical reactions, and sometimes using polymer resins in solution to produce the finished products o Then, the Ethylene is polymerized in solution with other Ethylene molecules to make Polyethylene, the simplest of the plastics o Similar processes like the one shown above are used to make plastics, so now we have completed the oil to plastic cycle, and now you know that plastics and all polymers for that matter come from oil, which come from animals and plants since it is a fossil fuel, and thus like them, plastic is all natural and always will be unless colored salts are added in solution to make it colored of course, such as Selenium Sulfide making it red plastic, or Chromium Oxide making it green plastic A few classes of plastics include Thermoset and Thermoplastic Plastics, Condensation and Addition Plastics, and other properties of plastics including their reactiveness, hardness, rigidity, and transparency define the class of which they are a part Thermoset Plastics include the following Polyurethane Polycarbonate Polyester Polyether Epoxy Resins Phenolic Resins Thermoplastic Plastics include Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Polyvinyl Chloride, all 3 of which are considered below Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) was invented by Polyethylene (LDPE, HDPE) was invented by LDPE HDPE Polypropylene (PP) was invented by Polystyrene (PS) was made by a group and/or company like the rest of the polymers below, and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Polyvinylidene Chloride (Saran)

Alkenes & Alkynes (All Concepts)

Represented by the primary alkyl functional group, Alkenes and Alkynes have similar chemistry to the Alkanes, although Alkenes contain double bonds, and Alkynes contain triple bonds. They are also said to be unsaturated because they do not contain as many hydrogen atoms as carbon needs because it naturally or reactively double and triple bonds. If a substance has 1 double bond, it has 1 degree of unsaturation. If a substance has 1 triple bond, it has 2 degrees of unsaturation. Degrees of unsaturation determine some properties of Alkenes and Alkynes, and Saturated Hydrocarbons are of the Alkanes. These are still hydrocarbon classifications; only they are unsaturated because of the bonds reducing Hydrogen content. Know nomenclature the whole way through these segments and that is good for you. If you don't, learn it from the other journal. The most common Alkene is Ethylene, because it contains a double bond, 2 Carbons and 4 Hydrogens, rather than 6 Hydrogens, giving it a degree of unsaturation of 1 because of the 1 double bond eliminating the two hydrogens. This allows it to retain it's solid shape, only instead of a oil, it is a plastic, and when many of them bond together because of the tight Hydrogen, it forms hard plastics made up of inorganic polymers called polyethylene, from many ethylene monomer units. We will discuss the chemistry of Alkenes like Polyethylene and their applications in Part 24 of this journal. Polyethylene is used as a plastic for items such as grocery bags, milk bottles, zip Baggies, and other Inorganic Polymers as will be considered in that chapter/part. Since Alkenes and Alkynes can be converted through complex organic reactions we won't consider discussing for the sake of time, we do know they can be converted through complex chemical processes of halogenation, dehalogenation, protonation, deprotonation, and nerdy things like that. The easiest process of converting alkenes into alkanes is pressurizing Hydrogen gas and Ethylene, where adding two hydrogens makes it Ethane, and it goes from being unsaturated to saturated in no time. And you already have passed level 1 of nerdiness if you are reading this and enjoying it. In other words, Alkenes transform themselves understand conditions into many different functional groups, thus synthesizing complex organic substances or compounds. Therefore, Alkene like Ethylene can react or convert from other organic substances with glycol, making Ethylene Glycol, an alkene-like organic substance used as a major component in antifreeze and automobile radiators. More on Glycol and Glycerin is discussed in later segments and how they have the ability to make antifreeze against the cold to keep cars and other metals intact in the winter season. Other than being in antifreeze, plastics of inorganic chemistry, and forcing plants to ripen their fruit, Ethylene is a major component in Vitamin supplements such as Vitamin A (Retinol) which we take and our biochemical body necessarily breaks down the items to distribute them to certain organs which function from them. Vitamin A is important in developing good vision, protects against sickness and fights off unwanted nonpolar microorganisms, as it is nonpolar as broken down, used in skin-care products, and is a good Reducing Agent as well or antioxidant that protects the skin from wrinkling, and you from aging! WHOA, it's a REDUCING AGENT! WE DIDN'T PUT THAT UP THERE BECAUSE IT IS BETTER CLASSIFIED AS AN ANTIOXIDANT IN THE WORLD OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY!! EMPEROR PALPATINE HAS ENOUGH VITAMIN C, HE NEEDS SOME VITAMIN A! A common alkyne is Acetylene, or the substance used in torches for cutting and welding metals in steel furnaces, splitting and creating ores from redox reactions, producing very high temperatures up to 3000 degrees, from the high binding energy of the triple bonds broken to erupt as a gas or ball of fire, which can melt glass, weld metals, and destroy tissues in you hands! Ahh! It smells of garlic because it can contain sulfurous impurities. Acetylene can also be converted in an easy process when you add 2 molecules of diatomic Hydrogen to yield a saturated product from unsaturated alkyne, and the alkane Ethane. Alkenes and Alkynes are also ingredients in fatty acids in the biochemical world too. A complex Alkyne called Calicheamicin synthesized by organic processes in a single-celled bacterium of sedimentary rock called caliche, and is known to prevent and kill cancer cells, maybe a future cure to cancer, and is currently a drug in anticancer therapies. Alkenes are also found from isolating such compounds from organisms that are alive, these can be found as gases from plant hormones that release them in special biochemical processes after the plant has become an adult, signaling biochemically throughout the plant that if it has offspring on the plant, in other words changing the genetic makeup of bananas or apples on banana or apple trees, for them to begin ripening. Sometimes, farmers will have liquid ethylene spray cans to spray on plants to force them to ripen for various reasons. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes are insoluble in water and are also less dense than water, meaning they float on water. Halogenation of such compounds and reactions to form bromine, chlorine, or even non-halogenic species such as water can help the unsaturation grow because they add double or triple bonds in complex organic reactions. These hydrocarbons can also form Polymers, as thoroughly discussed in Part 24. All Alkane, Alkene, and Alkyne substances are apart of the Alkyl Functional Groups; the most common among all functional groups as thoroughly discussed as each group throughout these segments.

Various "Magical" Concepts Associated with Chemistry (All Concepts)

1. Magic Rainbow Water- Turns Colors because the Water is actually an Indicator which changes Red, Orange, and Yellow based on Acid (acidity, low pH) placed in the titration test (swishing around a solution in a large beaker of Acid or Base and the Indicator and Water), and Blue, Indigo, and Violet based on Base (Alkalinity, high pH) 2. Magic Potassium Permanganate creates Fire- 3. Acid-Free Magic Medicine- 4. Violin Playing changes Color of Liquids (based on Energy Change)- When playing the violin in a certain key, it generates frequencies known in the realm of Acoustic induced electromagnetic radiation, and has certain vibrations that go through the air, this energized air is projected and is interacting with the molecules or particles in the liquid solution which is vibrating as well, strike up "resonance frequencies" which overcomes the "activation energy" of the reaction, and the reaction takes place 5. Magic Fire (Flame Tests)- Due to the Photoelectric Effect and Spectroscopy of cooled oil Paraffin Wax Alkane solids and Hydrocarbons of Candles producing flames, the electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted or transfer in atoms excites electrons to move out of shells at certain distances or wavelengths creating the color everything shines around you, and light units or excited electrons called photons, the particle unit of light and wave unit or wavelength being of color, when heating elements they produce certain colors through this effect and are nicknamed "magic" fire since they change colors dependent on the element you're heating 6. Magic Volcano- Ammonium Dichromate is an orange powdered chemical, always know safety first and instructions on chemicals, flame burning symbol indicates oxidant or oxidizing agent or makes things flammable and catch fire, skull and cross bones symbol-poison, a Yellow and Black circle means radioactive, liquid on hand burning means corrosive, person with hands at heart means carcinogen, unpleasant substance, the chemical reaction it undergoes is called thermal decomposition reaction, in other words breaking down the Ammonium Dichromate into simpler substances by use of heat catalysts, and steam and a gray powder is produced, the steam is water vapor, Nitrogen gas is produced from the Ammonium ion, and the powder is that of Chromium Oxide, this thermal decomposition is a chemical reaction or chemical change 7. Petrol Fire- A type of mineral oil, unlike that of fossil oil or other oil, and combusts to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapor in the form of fire, Petrol is short for simple mineral contained Petroleum 8. The Blue Fire of Bunsen Burners- Complete Combustion 9. The Internal Combustion Engine- Machine which converts energy of combusting petrol into kinetic energy to make cars go, it all happens in it, moving piston with wheels 10. Cotton is Cellulose- 11. Magic Disappearing Water- Liquid Nitrogen is frozen at very cold temperatures in bottles at around -200 degrees Celsius or -235 degrees Fahrenheit, and when they come out of their container the liquid disappears into a gas because it is @STP, and when making a solution of liquid Nitrogen and liquid Water, one nonpolar and the other polar, they do not mix rather the Nitrogen makes the water so cold yet the Nitrogen liquid becomes so warm, that cold steam is produced instead of hot steam, which happens when the Nitrogen Gas air condenses and Water evaporates to create mist or fog, and you hear a crackling noise, a special property of water which expands if it gets colder rather than hotter, thus making the steam cold when it reacts with something colder like liquid nitrogen, rather than fire, and the crackling is a sign that the water is expanding into ice, the cold steam is caused by the water vapor in the atmosphere locally trying to warm the steam and being cold and making tiny droplets, they're like mini clouds! Only they are at different temperatures, there is the cold steam, and there is the ice formed 12. Expanding Water- When water expands, it sets up huge pressures to the crystals, which pressurize among themselves, moving past each other and exerting mechanical forces or mechanical energy, and the energy produced can shatter automobiles which produce in the wintertime unless they have antifreeze for example 13. Magic Freezing Rubber- Due to thermal equilibrium, a theoretical idea proposed in physics, is that the rubber was hot enough to boil the Nitrogen gas going through it's tube, so, at high temperatures everything has lots of energy, so the rubber being elastic, and when forced into low temperatures like that of liquid nitrogen, all the kinetic energy of the molecules disappears, losing their vibrations, losing their physical elasticity problems, and they form a rigid solid kind of substance reducing the elasticity due to transfers in the energy quantity, and that is why it is a hard ice-like rubber, but @STP it will warm up again and form back into rubber, like the balloon @Argonne that he shows, Esters and perfumes as gases move out and everyone would be able to smell in room, air tight room that is, process of diffusion 14. Air is Compressible- Balls bounce because of it, are lungs take in Oxygen and we breathe or undergo the chemical reaction of respiration and leave out Carbon Dioxide, which is a gas that after being compressed can move through a barrier like a ball or an instrument to be played, or balls bouncing because air is compressible, heating it, cooling it, reforming it, nothing is emptiness! The air is filled with matter although it is colorless and odorless as explained because of the gaseous properties it has, of all the electromagnetic radiation it traps based on its absorptions spectra, bicycles, car tires, compressible air, pneumatic technology 15. When putting a cup over a candle- The candle's fire has to take in oxygen and oxidize in order to burn or combust the fuel from the wick covered in wax, and Oxygen traps the heat being made in the air every time you do this, and when placing a cup over a candle, you are limiting the amount of Oxygen the candle wick can take in, thus as Oxygen traps heat and you have no Oxygen, the heat is used, the candle cannot oxidize, thus it cannot burn, and therefore it goes out 16. Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide 1:06:00 17. W/Potassium Permanganate- Produces Pink color from Potassium, the Ethanol Alcohol fuel, Hydrogen Peroxide oxidant, and Potassium Permanganate make a sparking chemical reactions which produces loud crackling sounds 18. Carbon Dioxide, like Oxygen puts out flames- It is denser than air and thus things can float on it like soap and water bubbles, and more 19. When his minerals were subject to UV light or radiation, their crystalline structure absorbed most of the UV light energy and much was lost in the crystal, however some was transmitted and reflected at lower energies, that of Visible Light and produces wonderful compounds which glow different colors than normal in the dark

The Chemistry of Light/Photoelectricism (All Concepts and Facts)

1. Oil Lamps & Candles- Basic Combustion Process, know that Olive Oil Fuel must vaporize before it can be burned, just like any other of these materials, and knowing that Methane and Ethane burn right away since they are gases @STP, candles liquefy first, then the gas is created, and then it is burned, not all gases can be burned 2. Combustion of Burning Wood- Understanding that materials like organic polymers such as wood are easily linked or catenated together by Oxygen atoms, and have lots of Hydrogen atoms on the outside as well as reactive Carbon atoms which can react with the Oxygen and absorb energy to release more energy in the form of light and heat known as combustion 3. Combustion of Hydrocarbons- An Olive Oil fuel being used is made of fats which can be burned with Oxygen Gas as well, and candle wax is made of complex hydrocarbons, more complex than Methane Oil, which still react with Oxygen in the same way as Methane or Hexane or Butylene or Acetylene, except it starts off solid since each hydrocarbon chain unit of Wax is made of 40 or 50 Carbons and thus is more dense and has less energy, but can still burn or combust to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapor 4. Combustion of Fats- Fats are Carboxylic Acids attached to Hydrocarbon chains, a little more material than wax, but oils and waxes are hydrocarbon components that when attached to a somewhat acidic Carboxylic Acid group does it turn into a Fat, and 3 of these groups attach together to make a Glyceride or Triglyceride, and the Carbons in these long hydrocarbon chains react with the Oxygen being used to produce Carbon Dioxide, and the Hydrogens react with the Oxygen being used to produce water, and some energy is also released not in the form of chemical energy but light or heat energy 5. Combustion of Carbon- Carbon is essential to Combustion for it can burn and generate heat and light, and in order to have light you need to have Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen burn together and generate much heat, but not much light to produce water, so Carbon is needed for light, so when you put a piece of paper over a lamp and let it oxidize some, you can collect some of the black soot or carbon particles burning in the flames, and then you will know it burns with light because it is combusting Carbon, due to the incomplete Combustion Carbon can still be seen 6. Combustion of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons- As you continue to unsaturate Hydrocarbons until they have less and less Hydrogens and the constant number of Carbons forming more stable bonds, from single to double to triple, there will be more of a reaction between the Carbon and Oxygen you use with little or no Hydrogen to make water, such as for Ethyne burning to form 2 molecules of Carbon Dioxide an 1 molecule of water from 2 molecules of Oxygen Gas, it contains a triple bond and releases enough energy whereas the Carbon particles turn into a ton of soot, the more soot, the less Hydrogen, the more unsaturated the Hydrocarbon you are burning, and the easier it is to identify it 7. Acetylene Production- This Ethyne which is burned in such a way can be produced by making a solution of Calcium Carbide and Water to form Acetylene (C2H2) and Calcium Oxide, used in lamps since they were safe and produced enough energy for light lamps 8. Acetylene Reaction- Like with any Combustion process, burning Acetylene with a sufficient amount of Oxygen rather than Calcium Carbide, Water, or little Oxygen and a lot of soot, we can reduce the soot in simple combustion processes involving much Oxygen 9. Discovery of Phosphorus- 10. Production of Phosphorus- 11. Combustion of Phosphorus- 12. Thermolysis of Chalk- As you heat Calcium Carbonate, you still combust it but decompose it into Calcium Oxide (Lime) and Carbon Dioxide, so heating Chalk produces and gives you Lime or Calcium Oxide and Calcium Oxide is often produced by heating chalk and giving off Carbon Dioxide gas as well as energy in the form of light known as "limelight" which was used in theaters in early days, Hydrogen and Oxygen are added in separate tubes to excite the flame produced with the Calcium Oxide, the only problem with this was Hydrogen was flammable when coming in contact with Hydrogen and producing water as well as lots of energy in the form of heat, not all that much light, but the light from the Calcium Carbonate decomposition would do the trick 13. Radioactive Light in Gas Mantles- Certain Oxides could convert heat energy into light energy while a gauze on the oxide plate was being burned, and these Oxides included, Lanthanum, Yttrium, and Zirconium Oxide, but over the years scientists found that Thorium, which is now being used to test new batteries, was probably the most convenient source for converting heat into light energy, remember Thorium is radioactive since it is element number 90, and Uranium is 92, Thorium Oxide is not used then, but still is considered one of the most qualitatively used Oxides because it is the Oxide with the highest melting point other than Tungsten Oxide, and good at converting heat into light 14. Geiger Counter- Machine used to measure radioactivity 15. Barking Dog Reaction- Nitrous Oxide reacts with Carbon Disulfide to produce Sulfur Crystals, Nitrogen Gas, Carbon Dioxide Gas, and a bright blue light that originates from the brimstone effect of Sulfur when it is a gas or crystallizes from solution of Nitrogen Gas being an oxidizing agent and solute and the Carbon Disulfide being a Polar solvent because the Sulfur is active at high temperatures and pressures 16. Magnesium Oxide Reaction- Makes long burst of light, Magnesium vigorously reacts with Oxygen to produce Magnesium Oxide and gives off a bright white light, applied to Magnesium Ribbon Dispensers used in Photography, feeds out ribbon, light if needed 17. Magnesium Flash Powder- Makes short burst of light, apparatus of a ridge metal with or any old plate or chemical lab apparatus, which contains Aluminum and Magnesium powders and since neither react vigorously with Oxygen from the air, Sodium Perchlorate, a common Oxidizing Agent, Magnesium Oxide or Magnesium Hydroxide is also known as Milk of Magnesia used to settle stomachs with high concentrations of Hydrochloric Acid or other Acids making you feel ill, which chemically works to neutralize the acid 18. Involvement with Electric Current in Filament Lamps- Passing electric current through glowing Iron Filaments can be placed in vacuums to make Lightbulbs, passing electric current through iron excites it in the air and produces a sort of burning or sort of glow unique to that of Iron but Iron reacts with Oxygen in a reactive way, so another element must be used, and Tungsten is used since it has the highest melting point of all the metals at around 3500 degrees Celsius, we still can't have Oxygen present in Lightbulbs cause Tungsten still reacts with it, so if vacuums aren't used, inert Argon Gas is used sometimes to keep the bulb glowing, when you get a lightbulb there is just Argon Gas in it, nothing else, Tungsten Oxide is formed in the other non-vacuum lightbulb 19. Halogen Lamps- Some Halogen gases are used in Lightbulbs such as Fluorine, Chlorine, and Bromine or in Sodium Bromide lamps, very reactive and electronegative elements which can combine with the Tungsten to form quick flashes of light, but can also decompose on the filament in the presence of Oxygen or if the filament is an Oxide, which prolongs the life of Lightbulbs and gives the glow a longer, more effective quality of a Lightbulb, most Halogen Lamps use Bromine, a common application of the element 20. Sodium Street Lamps - Sodium is normally used in Light Discharge Tubes or in Modern Street Lamps when some Sodium atoms or "nodules" are put in a vacuum tube with Noble gas like Argon and set at low pressures, an electric current is supplied through the tube, and this current excites the electrons in the Sodium metal as well as the electrons in the Noble Gas to transfer light in the form of waves or photons and retransmit it into a color identifiable to that of the Noble Gas, so if you have a Bulb or Lamp with Sodium at low pressure and run electric current through it with a gas like Neon, you will see a bright pink color turn into a bright yellow color because the Sodium is quite reactive and is easily turned into melted Sodium nodules, however if the bulb breaks, the Sodium doesn't react with the air very well unlike most elements, but does react with water, like most metal elements for that matter 21. Water Explosion- Another cool chemical reaction which produces a lot of light energy in the form of an explosion occurs when placing any pure metal that can stay in pure form since they don't react very much, such as Sodium or Potassium, and placing it on water, the metal reacts with the water to produce a Hydroxide (base) of that metal, and Hydrogen Gas, just like when acid comes in contact with metal but produces a Salt and Hydrogen Gas, so its similar in which case if Sodium reacts with Water, it produces Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen Gas as well as lots of light energy, remember you can store such pure metals in polar or organic solvents to store them, kind of like how you can store around 30 balloons contracted in Liquid Nitrogen because they will blow up again when coming in contact with air @STP, such solvents Sodium can be stored in may include alcohol 22. Black and White Thermometer- An apparatus of 2 bulbs with mercury liquid inside them which expands when heated, one bulb is painted black and the other is painted white, so when converting light energy into heat energy, you can see that the black's mercury in the thermometer rises higher than the white because white is a mixture of colors which reflects the light given off and absorbs very little, while the black absorbs all the colors and converts this electromagnetic energy of vibrations into heat energy to raise the mercury in the tube and let it expand 23. Silver Chloride Photo Reaction- Another cool chemical reaction which uses a lot of light energy is this one, in which the light shining on the silver chloride decomposes it to form silver particles which changes the plate of silver chloride (white) to silver (silver) 24. Phosphorescence- The act of which a phosphor-coated material containing Phosphorus glows in the dark when light reacts with it and not so much Oxygen, and it will thus produce a bright white light which is cold and not hot because of Phosphorus's properties, using light or electromagnetic energy of darker colors produces more of a frequency or shorter wavelength which can thus react with the atoms and excite the electrons in Phosphor-coatings to change color even in the dark and glow because of the high electromagnetic energy waves of blue and purple light being used, also lasers of darker, higher-energy colors were harder to manufacture until recently, UV light lasers do the trick to converting lots of electromagnetic energy in the atoms of phosphor coatings into a glow 25. Fluorescence- Some substances can convert higher or lower electromagnetic light energies into energies which are visible of which we can see, this is called fluorescence, so Fluorescent Tubes contains small amounts of mercury with an electric current going through it produces UV light since it probably contains Phosphor coatings as well, exciting the electrons of the Phosphor coatings and thus converting the electromagnetic energies into energies we can see such as visible white light, a mixture of all the colors we can see, and these Phosphor coatings use rare earth elements including Cerium, Europium, Gadolinium, Yttrium, and Terbium The fundamental process which comes to mind when thinking about electromagnetic radiation in chemical discussions, is its absorption by electrons in atoms which raise the level of the electrons from ground states to excited states and from excited states to ground states the electrons move back down the quantized energy levels of the atom to release electromagnetic radiation in the form of light is known as the Photoelectric Effect, and was first observed by Max Planck and Albert Einstein, and applied to chemistry and physics by Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrodinger. In other words, an electron microscopically absorbing a quantum of energy and macroscopically absorbing heat or light energy, is elevated to a higher energy level. By giving up a quantum of energy, the electron can return to a lower energy level. The energy released or absorbed in these transitions shows up as a line spectrum, and can be measured colorfully as an emission spectrum or the blackness as an absorption spectrum, even though these colored lines cover the whole spectrum and are not truly those colors as we see visible light colors to be. Each line has a specific wavelength, corresponding to a specific quantum of energy. An electron moves instantaneously from one energy level to another, and there are no intermediate stages rather fundamental intervals like that of a staircase. As an electron jumps from a ground to excited state, it emits a photon while in the excited state, and then jumps from the excited state to the ground state all over again. The overall atomic spectra, or emission and absorption spectra recordings are explained best by Bohr. The potential energy of the electron in an atom depends on the distance the electron is from the nucleus. Applying laws of physics like Thomson did to discover the electron and its properties, Bohr realized that just as objects farther from the Earth's surface have more potential energy than those closer to the Earth's Surface applies to the fact that electrons farther from the nucleus have more potential energy than those closer to the nucleus, because these are the electrons that would absorb energy and move from ground to excited and back to ground states again constantly. The energy of an emitted photon is equal to the difference in energy between two orbits. Because an electron is restricted to discrete orbits, only particular light frequencies are emitted, as atomic spectra show. He also proved why Balmer and Rydberg's observations were valid in that 2 frequencies on the atomic spectra of Hydrogen equaled a third frequency shown on the atomic spectra, which he found was because if an electron is raised to the third energy level, let's say, upon absorption, it can return instantaneously to the second energy level, or the first energy level, it has 2 different routes it can take. The route from the third to first energy level emits a single frequency and the route from the third to second and second to first energy level emits two frequencies. Because frequency is proportional to energy, Frequency A + Frequency B = Frequency C. So the atomic spectra are characteristic fingerprints of elements, because based on the electron structures of different elements and based on the amount of radiation absorbed, different elements emit different sets of electromagnetic radiation intervals that appear on atomic spectra because they all have different atomic structures. Different elements have different atomic structures, and so they have different ways of routing electrons from ground to excited and back to ground states again, which allows certain elements to emit certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation compared to others, simply because of their particular atomic structure. One hydrogen atom containing just one electron can make so many atomic spectra lines because the one electron can be boosted to many energy levels and can therefore make many combinations of transitions from high to low levels absorbing a specific amount and form of energy and emitting a photon of a specific frequency gives the variety of spectral lines for Hydrogen's atomic spectra, as is the reasoning behind the variety of spectral lines for all elements' spectra, no matter the size of the atom or nucleus. Remember also that the electron may take different routes in returning to its ground state, and that the interval routes add up to equal the overall route from the highest to lowest energy level, which also gives variety of spectral lines for all elements' spectra. If the electrons were not restricted to particular energy levels, a continuous spectra would be produced instead of an atomic spectra, for all elements, light would continuously be emitted

Alcohols (All Concepts)

Representing the Hydroxyl Functional Group, and represented as ROH, Alcohols are good and bad, useful and useless, just like pretty much everything in organic chemistry. Their definition, nomenclature, and chemistry is discussed in Chapter 15 of the real journal, so we will be going over the various applications of alcohols immediately, but will quickly review the chemistry of alcohols, as you can and now probably noticed the table clipped above this sheet in the journal. The simplest alcohol of a Methyl Hydroxyl functional group combined compound, also known as Methanol, or Methyl Alcohol, is sometimes called wood alcohol because it can be made from the reaction of distilling wood. The modern reaction process involves the mixture of pressurizing two gases in a chamber, Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen gas. They yield Methyl Alcohol as represented by the condensed structural formula in the chemical equation or rearrangement of the linkage of atoms and their structure throughout chemistry. This product is called Methanol, an important solvent once again because of its liquid nonpolar properties, and chemical intermediate, it can be used to replace gasoline if needed for efficiency in automobiles. The process of distilling wood is discussed in Part 25. The second simplest Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol, or Ethanol is the stuff you find in beer, wine, liquor, and even cars or automobiles! Known to undergo biochemical processes associated with fermentation as a grain alcohol, simple reactions are known such as reacting a sort of yeast catalyst in the form of glucose with other glucose to produce carbon dioxide gas and Ethanol. Even simpler, water and ethylene unsaturated or unfold arbitrarily with an acidic catalyst to produce Ethanol. It like other alcohols such as Propanol and Butanol, is toxic. Isomeric forms of Propanol and Butanol are used as disinfectants and cleaning solutions to chemically react with nonpolar bacteria and kill them. Isopropanol is also known as rubbing alcohol, and Ethylene Glycol, and Alkyl Alcohol given an arbitrary name of antifreeze. Alcohols are multifunctional, which means like Halides, they retain the same properties but bond with other functional groups, THIS IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW. Since Ethylene Glycol is a multifunctional alcohol, it can do two things at once. Ethylene has a high boiling point due to the binding energy needed to be broken in its double bonds, and Glycol is a syrupy liquid held by hydrogen bonds, sweet tasting but toxic. In car radiators and other places that get cold, it allows certain cars and places like basketball hoops not to freeze because of the metal, which doesn't necessarily always conduct heat but coldness because of the winter seasons. Other common multifunctional groups that retain properties of alcohols include Propylene Glycol, Butylene Glycol, and Glycerol. Glycol is an alcohol itself, so it is not multifunctional. Larger groups of Carbohydrates, specifically natural sugars and starches are multifunctional and contain properties of good alcohols such as in Sucrose or Fructose, a common organic polymer further discussed in part 26. Alcohols are known to be very toxic. They are made from fermentation processes, ethanol into gasoline, or completely replacing gasoline. Methyl Alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes. Drinking an ounce of formaldehyde can cause blindness, and at 2 ounces it can cause death. Methanol is extremely toxic, Ethanol is less toxic, and propanol has more toxicity. It pretty much decreases as you go down the number of Carbon atoms if you are using them correctly. It increases if you use them incorrectly. So don't drink rubbing alcohol or you will die, toxic and poisonous, like liquid Arsenic. Ethylene Glycol can react with liquid salts to chemically reform into Oxalic Acid, which can also be transformed with the help of Calcium into Calcium Oxalate. Oxalate itself is used to create such salts which can damage kidneys and do other bad things, all coming from risky transformations of ethylene glycol in antifreeze, so sometime the percentage is lowered and filled in with propylene glycol, which is less toxic, and even completely replaced by propylene glycol to prevent toxicity. Glycerol Alcohol is a sweet, syrupy liquid that is a byproduct of soap manufacturing. Although toxic, it can be neutralized and be added to soap to make it slippery. The chemistry of soap is quite interesting actually, since it contains polar, nonpolar, and ionic substances all in it, since it is considered a homogenous mixture or solid solution, and contains alcohols although it used for your body. It contains ionic substances such as Sodium Laureth Sulfate and Sodium Chloride to dissolve unwanted nonpolar bacteria, or chemically change them with complex nonpolar organic molecules with long names included on the ingredients of soap labels. The Glycerol is a slippery substance used in lotions and soap to keep the skin soft and dissolves unwanted bacteria. Other uses for common alcohols like Glycerol can be used as food additives to keep cakes moist, and can react with Nitrogen or Nitric Acid to make the explosive material in Dynamite, something Alfred Nobel did to get rich and honor scientists and people like Nelson Mandela. Talk about explosive and historical! The chemistry of shampoo if you want to discuss it, is talked about in the Thiols part Alcohol Formula: CnH2n+1OH Less soluble in water as chain length increases, more soluble in organic liquids Ethanol boils at 78.3 degrees Celsius Used as solvents in cosmetics to dissolve active ingredients that won't dissolve in water, therefore alcohol could be hydrophobic Smaller chained alcohols can be used as emulsions, preventing and oily and watery layers from separating out

Aldehydes (All Concepts)

As represented by many different multifunctional groups, primarily containing the CO Double Bond (not Carbon Monoxide) or Carbonyl group, and also being recognized as the Formyl Group, or R-COH like Aldehyde nomenclature representations, Aldehydes have brothers and sisters, which include Ketones and Organic Acids such as Carboxylic Acids, and share similar properties. Aldehydes are dehydrogenated alcohols basically. I will also explain a quick overview of the chemistry of Ketones and Organic Acids, since they are basically as similar as you can get to Aldehydes. Carbonyl Groups are CO Double Bonds, where the Carbon can be attached to 1 of 2 Hydrogens, this is an Aldehyde. If it is attached to no Hydrogens, but Carbons rather, it is a ketone. If it is attached to Hydrogen or Carbon or an Alkyl Group and a Hydroxyl Alcohol group, it is an Organic Acid. Aldehydes are represented by H-CO-H or R-CO-, Ketones are represented by R-CO-R, and Organic Acids are represented by R-CO-OH, or just R-COOH. The most familiar Organic Acid Carboxylic Acid is represented as COOH, and is a main component in Acetic Acid, or Vinegar. Most Acids are ionic, but Organic Acids can be nonpolar because although they are not traditionally ionic, they were taken advantage of macromolecularly and cause skin damage, reaction with metals to create actual acids or bases and dissolving metals and metal oxides, and causing litmus paper or other indicators to turn red. For Aldehydes, the simplest reaction known has been to oxidize Methanol, removing 2 Hydrogens from the molecular structure, making it a little more unsaturated, and forming Formaldehyde, or a "formed" aldehyde from methanol. The second type of Aldehyde, Acetaldehyde or Methyl Aldehyde forms when ethanol is oxidized. So Aldehydes are oxidized alcohols, and organic acids are Carbonyl-ized Alcohols so to speak. Common Applications of Aldehydes include Formaldehyde (Methyl Aldehyde), Acetaldehyde (Ethyl Aldehyde), Propionaldehyde (the name changing because it first is an acid, or propionic acid, as we will get to two segments from now), Butylaldehyde, and Benzaldehyde, multifunctional with Benzene. Formaldehyde is used for making certain plastics as discussed in Chapter/Part 24. It is also used to disinfect homes, ships, and warehouses. The reaction that forms formaldehyde when methanol is oxidized occurs when Oxygen, being the number one oxidizing agent breaks down your food as explained in Part/Chapter 2. Formaldehyde is formed thus, from ingestion of methanol. As a 40% solution called formalin, it is a preservative used to preserve biological specimens as a sort of embalming fluid, as bad, but not necessarily strong odors are released from preservatives of such specimens. Acetaldehyde is produced by plants and found in ripened fruit, coffee, and bread. Soluble in water for these purposes, Acetaldehyde is produced from oxidizing ethanol. It can biochemically function as important enzymes for metabolic reactions throughout your body, but is somewhat toxic and very toxic over long periods of time like most ethers. Propionaldehyde and Butylaldehyde have strong, foul odors that are also used for various applications. Benzaldehyde is a sweet smelling aldehyde odor that gives almonds their odor and is somewhat of synthetic oil. It is also used in artificial flavorings and perfumes. Another type of Aldehyde given its arbitrary name Retinal is a pigment that traps light in the eyes of humans making vision possible. Boric Acid overlaps to clear the eye with eyewash or clean contacts too, just for application knowledge of Acids. It is of Boron and 3 Hydrogens

The Chemistry of Crayons (All Concepts)

Crayons are made up of Paraffin, a long hydrocarbon wax derived and produced from wood, coal, oil, and petroleum or petrol substances They are also made with pigments or dyes to give them certain colors Liquid long-Hydrocarbon-chain Paraffin is delivered in a boiler at 135 degrees Farenheit or 57 degrees Celsius, its melting point as a substance Since Paraffin is Hydrophobic, the pigments added usually are made from mixtures with water, and thus are in forms of powders and dried from the previous aqueous solutions they were contained in Chemicals mixed together in wooden tanks are forced through filters to remove excess water, leaving chunks of the individual pigments which are then kiln-dried for a few days Used from Paraffin Wax

Concepts Associated with Advanced Gas Laws (All Concepts)

All the Laws governing Chemistry are shown in that chapter, but some are taken out to give concepts to important chapters in General Chemistry Velocity of a Gas Law: The Square Root of 2 x Kinetic Energy Law Equivalent/ Mass of Gas = Velocity -Since the mass is in the denominator, it is proportional to the velocity inversely -In other words bigger masses move slower than smaller masses, which move faster, while both still have the same kinetic energy, although one is moving faster Kinetic Law: Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2 -Meaning any change in kinetic energy causes change in velocity You find the Kinetic Energy Law Equivalent with this law The velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the mass rather than inversely proportional -Meaning a large change in mass is required to make a significant change in the velocity Thomas Graham combined all of the variables for irrational gas behaviors of how a velocity of a gas measured for behaviorism and accuracy, relates to the following variables Velocity Temperature Average Kinetic Energy Mass of Particles He came up with Graham's Law to put them all together He wanted to measure first the amount of gas moving rather than the distance it was moving to find the velocity of a gas The rate of effusion x/t doesn't measure the velocity of a gas, therefore, we used his law instead, although this law is associative The volume of effusion d/t did measure somewhat, but he still had to come up with a better law Lowercase v stands for Velocity and Uppercase V stands for Volume! Lowercase m stands for Mass and Uppercase M stands for Molar Mass! The law compares the rates of effusion for different gases using the changed equation methods shown above It states that the ratio of the rate effusion of a gas a to rate of the effusion of gas b is equal to the ratio of the square root of the Molar Mass of Gas B to the square root of the Molar Mass of Gas A Effusion is the passing of a gas through a tiny hole or "orifice" in a barrier such as a porous solution This law means that rate of motion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its mass The rate of effusion x/t doesn't measure the velocity of a gas, therefore, we used his law instead, although this law is associative Free Gas motion is studied because of Diffusion, meaning gases tend to move freely from high concentrations to low concentrations like in osmotic processes, removing from crowded places to least crowded places The difference in concentration between two areas is called the concentration gradient, a gradual change in concentration of some substance over a given area or distance, and continue to spread until their particles are distributed evenly in the available space they take up Diffusion is the process of a substance (usually a gas) spreading out into less concentrated areas until it is evenly distributed, what I pretty much mentioned in the last bullet sums it up quite well Graham's law can be applied to Effusion and Diffusion as well Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid can be pressurized and turned into gases in tubes, where Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid with two more Chlorines make solid Ammonium Chloride, a precipitation reaction, and forms a precipitate from two gaseous parts of a solution, rather than liquid parts Dalton's Law: The total pressure of exerted gas combine and are equal to the sum of all the partial pressures, in other words all of the partial pressures of gases added together give the total pressure, not partial, to the gaseous solution Use the Ideal Gas Law to find the Pressure of Each Gas, where R and T are constants and remain the same, and to find Pressure using the Ideal Gas Law, you divide Volume from your two constants times the molar mass of the gas or amount of gas contained to give you your pressure, usually in mmHg, torrents, or atmospheres, in this case- kilopascals Do the same for every gas until you have all the partial pressures To find the total pressure of the gaseous solution, such as in Oxygen tanks that also have Helium, find the partial pressures of Helium and Oxygen, add them together, and you get your total pressure of the gaseous solution which can determine many macromolecular properties of the gaseous solution The only thing that changes due to your constants and volume of solution if you are finding the pressure variability is the n, amount in moles of the substance, depending on the substance, specifically as an element Mixing Gases combine particles, increasing the total moles of gas present The Mole Fraction is the ratio of moles of individual gases in a mixture to the total number of moles X (Chi in Greek) is the Variable for a Mole Fraction, whereas equals n1 divided by n Total, due to how we said it in word form We can also say that it equals n1 divided by the sum of the partial pressures of all the gases, including itself The number of moles, then, is directly related to the pressure the gaseous solution exerts as long as volume, temperature, and R constant of the Ideal Gas Law remain constant All in All, The Mole Fraction X (Chi) = Amount in Moles N1 divided by Amount in Moles N total = Pressure P1 divided by Pressure P total Gases mix together in ways that aren't so predictable Heating it to bubble through a column of water to trap the gas as less dense than water as it is above water in a tube or at the end of a column is called collecting a gas over water The problem is that some water molecules will escape the liquid because of how much energy they have Like all gases, the water molecules move around a lot and sometimes bump in sides of the column, container, or tube we are talking about, thus creating a special kind of pressure called the water's Vapor Pressure The water molecules mix with the gas that is being collected and when that happens total pressure in the column equals the pressure of the collected gases according to our friend Dalton's Law So the Vapor Pressure of the water counts as one of the partial pressures in such gaseous solutions So in this process of Collecting a Gas Over Water, we need to subtract the vapor pressure from the total pressures to find the total pressure of the gases lighter than water in terms of density as we explained This works with any sort of reaction, such as neutralization reactions of baking soda and vinegar When the two react, it forms Sodium Acetate, Carbon Dioxide, and Water The Sodium Acetate ions that formed are spectator and are excluded from the final or net-ionic equation of this neutralization reaction because they dissolve along with the water, which didn't necessarily change at a macromolecular level either The small solution of the three begins to emit the Water and dissolved Sodium Acetate as liquid, but Carbon Dioxide which is denser than the two wants to come out as a gas out of the solution If you place a tube on a cup with a lid that has a straw, letting the carbon dioxide come out while the explosion is separated somehow in the best way you know possible, or it just melts down by itself, you can keep the Carbon Dioxide going through and coming out of the straw After the reaction, you can use stoichiometry and the laws learned as skills in this lesson to find out how much Carbon Dioxide was actually produced, minus the vapor pressure of the water produced in the reaction When you place the straw into a upside down graduated cylinder in a bin with a solution, it produces bubbles

Concepts Associated with Polymers and Processing of Polymers (All Concepts)

Crude Oil is simply the black stuff that comes out of the ground filled with various compounds Petroleum is Crude Oil being processed and purified or "refined" as most call it Crude Oil is produced when animals and plants decay into the ground and are crushed by heat and pressure that they decompose because of the heat and pressure and because of microorganisms feeding off of them, many hydrocarbons and other Carbon-rich materials are left behind, so it is known as a fossil fuel, the name deriving from the fossils found in the earth, due to their bone structure, making up most of the calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate (Calcium and Phosphorus) in the Earth's crust, all of which these compounds are found naturally, and also of which contribute to the Carbon Cycle With a variety of colors, viscosities, and reactivities, crude oil is an impure mixture of various high-energy ingredients including the Paraffins or Alkane Fuels (Methane, Propane) that serve a variety of purposes (and apply to many different things as we will get to a list of the applications of ingredients in crude oil later), the Aromatics (Benzene, Naphthalene), the Napthenes or Cycloalkanes (Cyclobutane, Methyl Cyclopentane), and then the Alkenes and Alkynes, which were found in the crust from decomposition, but in part sometimes made synthetically from their Alkane counterparts More common ingredients of Crude Oil include the Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Cycloalkanes, and Aromatics, all the Hydrocarbons are found in various proportions in the Earth's Crust naturally Less common ingredients of Crude Oil include Sulfur, Hydrogen Sulfide, Sulfides, Halides, Oxides, Metals, Amines (Nitrogen), and Oxygen (Carbon Dioxide, Phenols, Ketones, Acids), all various organic and inorganic compounds found in various proportions in the Earth's crust naturally, but made originally artificially The best process for refining oil to make the millions of compounds that come from it is by using the methodical concept of fractional distillation as follows 1. Drilling: 2. Storage Tanks, Steam Chamber: First, the crude oil is pumped out of its storage tanks it was drilled at and carried into, and the mixture runs through a tube or pipe to get to a high-pressure, superheated steam chamber, where temperatures are at around 600 degrees Celsius, that's 6 times that of boiling water! 3. Fractional Distillation Tower: Next, methods of fractional distillation are used in which the ingredients in the crude oil are separated by their boiling points (sort of like gases are separated by their melting points in liquid distillation techniques Ramsay used to discover the Noble Gases). 4. Fractional Distillation Tower, Temperatures, Plates: Then, there are many different plates with holes in them in the main boiling-separation chamber, allowing the vapor to come through and help heat the other remaining liquids at the cold top of the chamber, since the hot bottom of the chamber is mostly filled with gases. Since the substances of crude oil weigh differently and their different boiling points are most likely due to their different molecular masses, the bottom of the chamber is much hotter than the top in order to vaporize the massive substances and condense them again. The exact substances and their applications are discussed after this process. 5. Fractional Distillation Tower, Tubes Alongside of it, Condensation of Fractions (Substances): After, the Crude Oil ingredients now vaporized due to meeting the temperature of the chamber matching their known boiling point, and once all the ingredients are vaporized, they condense again into liquids that the plates collect, and make them flow right into the pipes alongside the main chamber where the vaporized gases are separating, and collected separately into storage tanks, now separated from the crude oil. They may also ship them off where they are further purified by chemical means. 6. Chemical & Catalytic Processing: From the "Cracking Process", all of these hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon-like materials are further processed chemically in one of three ways as follows. [SPACE] Cracking (Converts Heaviest Substances into Lighter Ones) i. Thermal Cracking- Breaking the isolated substance from the crude oil and purifying it further (by making smaller molecules from larger ones, such as gasoline from kerosene) until all substances have been isolated by means of a high-pressure chamber and thermolysis, this heat comes from a number of methods (because certain substances are processed from other certain substances using certain methods) of heating certain substances to get new substances as follows 1. Superheated Steam converts certain large substances into smaller ones 2. Visbreaking (superheated leftover or residual material) converts certain substances by means of cooling it with gas oil and then burning it in a distillation tower, reducing the viscosity of the materials and also producing other specific substances 3. Coking (very superheated leftover or residual material) converts certain large substances into smaller ones ii. Catalytic Cracking- Breaking the isolated substances from the crude oil and purifying it further until all substances have been isolated by means of a high-pressure chamber, thermolysis, and catalysis 1. Normal Catalysts 2. Fluid Catalysts, used to convert heavy oils into diesel oils and gasoline 3. Hydrocracking- Certain catalyst, lower temperatures, higher pressures, Hydrogen Gas used, used to convert heavy oils into kerosene and gasoline Unification (Converts lighter substances into mixtures of light substances and heavy substances) i. Catalytic Unification- Small Hydrocarbons already supposedly isolated from the original crude oil are now mixed together to react and build new molecules in a machine called a reformer, and this works with converting substances such as impure Gasoline into pure Gasoline, and Naphtha and Gasoline into Aromatics like Naphthalene and other smaller-weight substances into mixtures or blends, which are usually taken to gas stations afterwards, and are done by means of catalysis (Platinum or Rhenium Catalysts work) ii. As a result, Hydrogen Gas is usually produced as being impure part of it and a byproduct Alteration (Converting Substances/Fractions and rearranging them to produce others) i. Alkylation- When Alkanes are converted into Alkenes, and then into Alkynes, by mixing original hydrocarbon substances from the crude oil with impure byproduct substances (such as Hydrogen Gas in the Unification process), such as Propylene with Sulfuric Acid, to produce more efficient hydrocarbons (those with a higher octane rating, which we'll get to later) 7. Treating: Fractions or Isolated Substances are distilled, physically separated, and then finally chemically separated or treated to remove any other impurities by chemical means Sulfuric Acid removes Oxygen and Nitrogen Organic Compounds: First, the substance or fraction goes into a tube or pipe of Sulfuric Acid, which removes unsaturated hydrocarbons to produce any wanted Alkene or Alkyne mixtures, and also chemically reacts to produce new substances to take out certain molecules to remove any Organic Compounds with Oxygen or Nitrogen- from Alcohols to Amines, since all Oil Refineries and Associates are interested in producing is Organic Compounds called Hydrocarbons, the starter materials for energy consumption, polymer production, and more Drying Agents* remove Water: Drying Agents remove water leftover 8. Hydrodesulfurization (HDS): This is a process in which a catalyst works with Hydrogen Gas to remove Sulfur and Sulfur compounds from Crude Oil and isolated substantial fractions of Crude Oil, which we will get to soon, to get the essential produce of oil refining- Hydrogen and Carbon, removing all the Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur Organic compounds, and also reducing the change of toxic Sulfur Dioxide production, but rather produces Hydrogen Sulfide Gas or Hydrosulfuric Acid, which smells and that is the way you can detect if there is impure Sulfur or even Tellurium in the Crude Oil or Fraction you are dealing with 9. Blending: After all the isolated substances or separated fractions from the crude oil are purified by physical and chemical means, and all Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur is removed, the remaining Crude Oil separated products are sold separately, refined for further chemical processing, or blended like in the unification chemical process to produce various products of certain isolated substances from the Crude Oil 10. Producing: These now-pure, now-processed, now-refined products include Gasoline, which is a mixture of such substances, and other substances separated out and sold as shown in the next section

Concepts Associated with Gases (All Concepts)

Gases are quite wonderful, sarcastically and chemically speaking. Hydrogen Sulfide and Methane react when they are produced by catalysts and carbohydrates to emit from your butt and create farting gas, but at the same time- without gases we wouldn't be able to live for they make up the entire atmosphere diatomically and covalently when it comes to Carbon, Sulfur, and Chlorine emissions from the surface. Gases occur as the third state of matter, when liquids are heated they will evaporate to form a gas, such as when your cooking something with water and heat is applied to turn it into water vapor, the gas version of water. Particles are flying and bouncing from one part of the container to the other all over the place all the time. Gases do not have a definite shape and do not have a definite volume, and therefore their volume depends on the temperature. Like liquids, gases aren't as discrete as solids, and so like orbitals, sets of laws were discovered and established by different scientists will make dedications to their contributions in a bit. Because of their not so discrete behavior like those of liquids and electrons and unlike those of solids and protons, sets of laws govern the properties as we thank the discoveries of Italian scientist who also made contributions to Stoichiometry and the French Revolution, Amedeo Avogadro; Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, John Dalton, Johannes Van Der Waals, Thomas Graham, Lord Kelvin, William Thomson otherwise, Anders Celsius, Andre Ampere, Daniel G. Fahrenheit, and other groups who created two extra laws that combine certain laws to make them essential to their variabilities. How these variables measured to describe such properties in these laws is something we need to know before we dive right into the laws. For temperature, we simply use a thermometer that works because it contains a little bit of liquid reactive memory which was dyed red for some crazy reason no one knows to turn solid or liquid in a variety of ways in the meter measured in units to describe these temperature properties, which happens to not be a colligative property rather a property which depends on energy instead of matter in which more heat energy that is applied to a system raises the temperature, and cold signs indicate low temperatures. Temperature is scientifically measured in Celsius, although for more accurate or precise measurements, we SI peoples use Celsius, and all scientists use Kelvin. Americans, of course, have to use Fahrenheit because we just love Daniel G. Gabriel's way of mathematical thinking. Volume of course is measured in Liters, or sometimes milliliters. I feel we're pretty good with this topic. And for moles, take a look at the chapter on Moles and Stoichiometry for more information as well as Chapter 2 for chemistry basics on a mole's relationship with sig figs and dimensional analysis. And then there was pressure. Pressure is measured using so many different units including mmHg, which I explain in a second, torrents, atmospheres, Pascals, and Kilopascals. The most common forms are mmHg or, millimeters per gram mercury and atmospheres where 1 atmosphere is equal to 1 molar volume unit or 22.4 L STP. STP is Standard Temperature and Pressure, the universal chemical condition for measuring chemical reactions and properties, and physical reactions and properties and if it isn't this, the property normally changes but this is very slightly until the temperatures or pressures make the matter move at the speed of light squared to create energy as Einstein theorized. Density is equal to Mass/Volume, an intensive physical property. At the same time, temperature is an intensive physical property since it may change depending on how much space objects take up or how hot or fast they are moving, and not so much the matter that is moving within them, therefore it is non-colligative as we explained earlier. Pressure is also an intensive physical property for it equals the constant or proportion of Force/Area, where Force is measured in Newtons as gravity, and Newtonian matter makes up the system, and Area is measured in meters squared. So if you know Boyle's Law, you can write it as P1V1= P2V2 or in this case of explaining these intensive physical properties, FV/A (I) = FV/A (II). So temperature is measured using a thermometer, volume and mass are measured in many different ways as well, and moles are measured in moles, but pressure is measured using a barometer. Barometers measure pressure at mmHg and are composed of a small disc with a little wall and a tube that extends from it filled with some mercury that takes up a liter or so in volume of space. The pressure of the atmosphere can be measured as it pushes down on the mercury and it rises in the extension tube where the weight of the mercury will rise since it is less than the weight of the air around it, a special property of mercury for it to be placed in barometers, manometers, thermometers, or any other measurement device of the sort. It rises to a certain point at sea level in the tube at 760 millimeters measured on the tube, and really accounts for milliliters inside the tube. At sea level, which is also STP, 760 mmHg or 1 atmosphere or 1 torrent or 1,000 Pascals, or 1 kilopascal. These measurements start to change when their proportions are not as proportional as they seem. Manometers also measure pressure where mercury is inserted into a tube that is u-shaped as gravity pulls down the mercury column at the closed end and the mercury is balanced by the pressure of the gas in the container as well, the difference of mercury levels in the two parts of the u-shapes tube represent the amount of pressure in the gas. Now, for the laws. There are 4 distinct properties that are measured in the units and using the devices I described above to determine their properties and rational behavior. How awesome that they soon become irrational and fun to explore with more ideal and complicated laws that are able to describe their behavior. These properties that are not chemical but rather equally intensive physical and extensive physical are volume and amount that are extensive and a little harder to take in, and temperature and pressure which are presumably intensive physical as described and explained a little earlier. Boyle's Law has nothing to do with boiling actually, but it would've been a little easier to remember I suppose if this were true. Boyle's Law relates volume and pressure. When the pressure of a gas increases, the volume decreases; and when the pressure of a gas decreases, the volume increases. Pressure (I) x Volume (I) = Pressure (II) x Volume (II). Charles's Law relates volume and temperature. When volume increases, temperature increases; and when volume decreases, temperature decreases as well, although pressure and temperature are still the game changers for determining how much volume a gas retains as the volume depends on those units. Since they are proportions, they can be written like conversion units where it can be represented as Volume (I)/ Temperature (I) = Volume (II)/Temperature (II). Gay-Lussac's Law relates pressure and temperature. When the temperature (being the game changer) increases, the pressure increases as well; but when the temperature decreases, the pressure decreases. So it can be represented as Pressure (I)/Temperature (I) = Pressure (II)/Temperature (II) since they are proportions they can look like unit conversions or division problems, where temperature is the game changer. And the combined gas law relates temperature, pressure, and volume all together excluding stoichiometric measurements using moles to make basic gas laws a little simpler. Pressure and Volume divided by Temperature (I) = Pressure and Volume divided by Temperature (II), where temperature is the game changer. Temperature is usually always the game changer unless it is Boyle's Law, where pressure is the game changer. Also note that such intensive physical properties of Temperature and Pressure naturally as you are reading are more representative of gases than extensive physical properties such as volume. Now comes the other extensive physical property, amount, as discovered by our mole study contributing Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, who's got an awesome name! He says that Volume and Amount are related and are directly proportional to each other, and can also be represented as proportions, division problems, unit conversions, constants, whatever you want to call them (mathematically speaking of course)! Volume (I)/ n= amount in moles (I)/ Volume (II)/ n (II). For problems on all of these laws, see the notebook, worksheets, and workbook attached with better representations, problems, and practices of these problems. To better memorize them, realize that Charles's Law, Avogadro's Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law are all division-proportion-unit conversion problems, and Boyle's Law, and the Combined Gas Laws are multiplication or both operation problems with 1 or no inverse problems to describe the gases properties. Once you get the hang of those, you'll regret ever having to use and memorize them. FORGET THEM! There's a new law in town called the Ideal Gas Law, and it summarizes all the laws together with a mysteriously discovered constant represented by R, cause reasons! DO THIS THEN PLEASE BEG YOU IGNORE TEACHERS AHHH! But anyway, it can be represented as Pressure x Volume= n= moles x R= constant x T= temperature. Here, anything can be a game changer! PV=nRT is it! For more on these, consult the back of the book. The Van Der Waals equation law explains how Dalton's Law explains how Graham's Law explains how As with the other 2 forms of measurable matter being Solids and Liquids, the science of Gases explained by their behavior, which in turn can be explained by the nature of intermolecular forces and the mathematics of the properties of gases, which pretty much explains why forms of matter are the way they are, which is that intermolecular forces and mathematical equations and laws are the two concepts that describe why the forms of matter are the way they are. Gases do not have a definite shape nor are a definite volume and their particles are heated enough to the point where they are constantly coming into contact at certain speeds and bumping into each other at certain rates as described in the Kinetic Molecular Theory and Kinetic Energy equation. Not all gases behave the same, but there are a definitive set of variables or properties that describe the behavior all gases share, but it is down to the mathematical value which describes the behavior of one substance compared to another when they are both in the gaseous form of matter. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory, sparing the math, describes heating something may change its state of matter as its particles move faster and attain new physical properties through phase changes of matter, allowing another division of physical changes such as freezing, melting, boiling, or condensing to occur, and changes between solids to liquids to gases in process of applied thermal (heat) energy. There are Ideal and Real Gases, and a different set of mathematical equations and laws helps describe their differences, even though all substances in gaseous form can be real or ideal, but real describes the more complex set of mathematical equations as compared to the Ideal set. For Ideal gases, there are 7 equations which describe their behavior, a few variables as well. These include Volume (V), Pressure (P), Temperature (T), Amount (n), and the physical constant for gases found by Max Planck (R). In mathematics, Boyle's Law determines the solo inverse relationship of degrading exponential notation, that shows the relationship between Volume and Pressure, which can both be multiplied to equal a constant, and when finding the product of the initial pressure and volume, it should equal the final pressure and volume (invented by Robert Boyle in 1660). In words, in gases, if the Pressure increases the Volume decreases and if the Volume increases the Pressure decreases, as such it is inverse or not similar because as one "increases", the other "decreases". In mathematics, Charles's Law determines one of the many proportional rate laws, and shows the relationship between Volume and Temperature, which can both be divided by each other to equal a constant, in which the quotient of the initial volume divided by temperature equals the quotient of the final volume divided by temperature (invented by Jacques Charles in 1787). In words, in gases, if the Temperature increases the Volume increases and if the Temperature decreases the Volume decreases. One good application of this law was in Jacques Charles' discovery of Absolute Zero. In gases, if the Pressure increases the Temperature increases and if for each Celsius degree rise in temperature, the volume of a gas increases by 1/273 of its volume at 0 degrees Celsius, so plotting this on a graph where the x-axis represents temperature and the y-axis represents volume reveals the lowest temperature of any substance being 1 Kelvin or -273 degrees Celsius, and because Temperature and Volume of a Gas are directly proportional, they form a linear relationship on a graph. Jacques was experimenting with cooling and heating gases when discovering his law, and while doing so he ended up cooling a particular gas that was 70 degrees Celsius and 60 milliliters in volume to 100 degrees Celsius, and so its volume dropped 30 milliliters, and so he cooled the gas another 100 degrees Celsius, so as its volume would expectedly drop 30 milliliters, and so as it reached 0 milliliters, it was -270 degrees Celsius, and so he figured if the volume was 0, this was the lowest any substance can have of a temperature, and so he tried it with other gases and found the same results, but based on different intervals, and from the straight line that the graph had shown and the proportions the law represent, he was a bit off in the standard Kelvin, -273.15 degrees. Also, you can take into consideration that there must be such a concept as Absolute Zero because it could only be so cold and you can only have so much space before particles cannot collide with each other or they would be forced to stop unless extreme amounts of heat energy allowed them to fuse together In mathematics, Gay-Lussac's Law determines one of many proportional rate laws, which thus means they can be divided by each other to equal a constant and therefore shows the relationship between Pressure and Temperature, in which the quotient of the initial pressure divided by the initial temperature equals the quotient of the final pressure divided by the final temperature (invented by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1787). In words, in gases, if the Pressure increases the Temperature increases and if the Pressure decreases the Temperature decreases. One good application of this law is knowing why a water bottle cracks in the mountains or on airplanes. The water bottle starts to close in or crack as the temperature decreases, thus obviously decreasing the volume and increasing the mass or increasing the overall density (grams/molar mass), but also increasing the pressure on the bottle to the point where the temperature is so low it cracks on its own. Similarly, the "air pressure" up in planes is assumed to be high whereas the temperature then is always lower, and the temperature is always higher in the troposphere when air pressure is "normal". Also for reference later on, the units of Pressure came from the discovery how one goes about measuring Pressure, which has to do with the use of Barometers, an apparatus which consists of an upside down test tube of mercury in a bowl of Mercury with measurements in milliliters in which at STP or 1atm of pressure, the tube contains 760 mm of Mercury or Hg, so 760 mmHg equals 1 atm of air pressure, if the air pressure increases, the mercury tube will increase, allowing the mass of the mercury originally in the bowl to decrease, and if the air pressure decreases, the mercury tube will decrease, allowing the mass of the mercury originally in the bowl to increase. In mathematics, Avogadro's Law determines one of many proportional rate laws, which thus means the amount divided by the volume of gas equals a constant, thus the initial quotient of the initial amount divided by initial volume equals the final quotient of the final amount divided by final volume in the gas (invented by the Italian Amedeo Avogadro in 1811). In words, in gases, if the Amount increases, the Volume increases, thus the Pressure decreases, and if the Amount decreases, the Volume decreases, thus the Pressure increases. Where Pressure times Volume may equal a constant as Boyle predicted, or may equal the amount of the gas times the temperature times the physical constant R, which derived because it fits the perfect mathematical calculation for the quotient of Pressure divided by Temperature to equal the Amount divided by the Volume, and in knowing Algebra, switching up formulas in certain ways to find certain variables can help us understand how R connects the 4 variables to equal each other, placing R in front of one of the equations allows it to be equal to another equation, specifically Amount times R divided by Volume equals Pressure divided by Volume, thus when doing cross multiplication to find your proportions, you end up with PV=n R T, were R represents a physical constant that accounts for the irrational amounts and rational Temperatures, Volumes, & Pressures and their recordings in gases. In words, We can combine these 4 laws into one called the Ideal Gas Law, which accounts for the four variables of an ideal gas or physical property or feature of a gas into PV=n R T. STP is another way of saying you're using your system in chemistry at standard conditions or standard temperature and pressure, also meaning that the volume must be standard as we will find out, so if you are at STP, and you are given the amounts (in M) of each gas, just plug in the numbers in the Ideal Gas Law equation to solve and determine the physical properties of the gas system you are using. Knowing a gas is @STP eliminates the work of figuring out 2 variables of the physical properties of gases and means 2 more are left to be found. In understanding Stoichiometry, Molar Mass is defined as the Atomic Mass or Average of the isotopes of an atom, only defined in grams, thus making the number of atoms of one atom to the Molar Mass of that atom in grams 6.02 x 1023 atoms equaling the amount of grams of the Atomic Mass of an element. That means that Carbon whose Atomic Mass is 12 has a Molar Mass of 12 grams and that mass contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Carbon in it, so the Molar Mass is just the Formula Weight, 342 grams of Sucrose have 6.02 x 1023 molecules of Sucrose, and the reason the Molar Mass is so much higher, and the reason you need more sugar cubes to equal the molar mass of Carbon pellets which cover a small plate and the cubes can cover a small bowl, which is substantially larger than the carbon pellets, is because Sucrose is a larger molecule than Carbon, so naturally the Mass is larger on a macroscopic level due to it being larger on a microscopic level. Therefore, the Amount of a Gas can always be calculated as quotient of grams of gas divided by the molar mass of the elements of the gas. Therefore, the Density of a Gas can always be calculated by substituting this equation into the Ideal Gas Law, and then looking for the Pressure by itself and multiplying it by the Molar Mass to equal Grams divided by Volume times R T, where P, V, g, & T are known and constant. When you have PV=g/(Molar Mass ) RT, you can find the grams by themselves by multiplying the Molar Mass by both sides, canceling on the right, and also find the Volume by dividing on both sides, canceling on the left. Standard Temperature equals 273 Kelvin, 0 degrees Celsius, or 32 Degrees Fahrenheit, the Freezing Point of Water equals Standard Temperature in other words Standard Pressure equals 1 atmosphere, 760 torrent, or 760 mmHg (milliliters of Mercury) Standard Volume equals 22.4 Liters, because if you understand that @STP, or at standard temperature and pressure, a gas already has a certain volume, and at 273 Kelvin, 0 Celsius, or 32 Fahrenheit, any gas naturally has a volume of 22.4 Liters. There is no such thing as Standard Amount, so this is always the variable you are dealing with, however you usually know what the amount is of the substance you are working with, but when you do not this becomes a minor problem as a variable you do not know unless you base it off of @STP first. Now, we can find the Temperature, Pressure, Volume, and Amount using the previous Equations and also the Ideal Gas Law to describe the physical properties of Ideal Gases, as well as learning about the Molar Mass of any substance such as a gas, Density of a Gas in which you can use Algebraic reasoning to switch variables, canceling and flipping to find another easy physical and mathematical properties of matter such as in gases, and the STP Molar Volume as well. Temperature, Pressure, Volume, Amount, Mass, Molar Mass, Density, and Molar Volume (which is just Volume @STP, since Volume is altered by changes in temperature and pressure, a particular set of standard conditions are chosen for all of chemical measurements to occur which is @STP) are all of the properties to enable us to understand Ideal Gases. Real Gases behave with more variables though and are understood in more complex equations developed in the late 1800's and early 1900's which described the physical properties of gases more specifically, but before diving into these laws, let us first get some terms straight. Diffusion is the movement of one gas into another container of gas, increasing the pressure of the Gas (according to Dalton's Law). Effusion is the movement of a gas particle out of a container through something such as a pinhole. Now onto the variables which describe the behaviors of real gases, including mass and constants as usual, as well as pressures, volumes, temperatures, and amounts, along with velocities, forces, areas, and densities. The first of these is the Real Gas Law, the second of these is Dalton's Law, the third of these Laws is Graham's Law, and the fourth of these Laws is Van Der Waals's Law. In talking about temperature, the Kinetic Molecular Theory states that the average kinetic temperature of one atom or particle in a gas equals the overall Kelvin temperature of the gas as verified by Charles's Law. Also, in talking about Pressure, it is convenient to consider that Pressure is defined as the amount of Force exerted on a certain area of an object, specifically the Surface Area of particles as being one of the 5 known variables that affect the rate of chemical reactions, and that the greater the force on the constant surface area of a gaseous particle, the greater the pressure, as is when both values decrease, P= F/A. For Gases, the force is created from the collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container and each collision obtains a certain force according to the velocity of the gas particles and the total force is the sum of the forces of all the collisions occurring each second per unit of surface area. Thus, the Pressure is dependent on Force and Area, and the Force and Area are dependent on velocity of the gas particles (Area) and collision frequency (Force), and that Force depends on Collision Frequency must also depend on the distance of the container walls to the collision. In other words, changing the size of the container the gas takes space in effects the Collision Frequency, but not Force. However, changing the temperature of the container the gas takes space in effects the Collision Frequency and the Force or Velocity of each gas particle, and thus changes the Pressure! And thus does it inversely, putting all of Gay-Lussac's, Charles's, and Boyle's Laws together in reasoning! If the volume of the gas in the container decreases, making the distances decrease and thus the frequency of collisions increase, allowing the Pressure to increase as well. If the temperature of a gas increases, the average velocities of particles or Collision Force and Collision Frequency will also increase, thus the pressure must increase. This is why we cannot assume the Temperature is decreasing and the Volume is also decreasing and why we may have to refer to the world of Real Gases, as Volume decreases, Pressure increases & as Temperature increases and thus, if Temperature Increases Volume and Pressure Decreases Volume, Temperature can Increase Pressure, but Volume cannot Increase Pressure, so Temperature doesn't always increase the Volume, as this relationship is confusing and lacks specification provided by the Real Gases and their laws above. The Real Gas Law simply describes the Ideal Gas Law where all the ________ variables are taken into account with _________________ variables. So the Real Gas law looks like this: PV = nRT, but really: FM/AV=nRT Advanced Gas Laws: Velocity is something moving in a certain direction at a certain rate Stoichiometric Laws are shown in the Stoichiometry Chapter Van Der Waals Equation is shown in the Math in Chemistry Chapter All the Laws governing Chemistry are shown in that chapter, but some are taken out to give concepts to important chapters in General Chemistry Velocity of a Gas Law: The Square Root of 2 x Kinetic Energy Law Equivalent/ Mass of Gas = Velocity -Since the mass is in the denominator, it is proportional to the velocity inversely -In other words bigger masses move slower than smaller masses, which move faster, while both still have the same kinetic energy, although one is moving faster Kinetic Law: Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2 -Meaning any change in kinetic energy causes change in velocity You find the Kinetic Energy Law Equivalent with this law The velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the mass rather than inversely proportional -Meaning a large change in mass is required to make a significant change in the velocity Thomas Graham combined all of the variables for irrational gas behaviors of how a velocity of a gas measured for behaviorism and accuracy, relates to the following variables Velocity Temperature Average Kinetic Energy Mass of Particles He came up with Graham's Law to put them all together He wanted to measure first the amount of gas moving rather than the distance it was moving to find the velocity of a gas The rate of effusion x/t doesn't measure the velocity of a gas, therefore, we used his law instead, although this law is associative The volume of effusion d/t did measure somewhat, but he still had to come up with a better law Lowercase v stands for Velocity and Uppercase V stands for Volume! Lowercase m stands for Mass and Uppercase M stands for Molar Mass! The law compares the rates of effusion for different gases using the changed equation methods shown above It states that the ratio of the rate effusion of a gas a to rate of the effusion of gas b is equal to the ratio of the square root of the Molar Mass of Gas B to the square root of the Molar Mass of Gas A Effusion is the passing of a gas through a tiny hole or "orifice" in a barrier such as a porous solution This law means that rate of motion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its mass The rate of effusion x/t doesn't measure the velocity of a gas, therefore, we used his law instead, although this law is associative Free Gas motion is studied because of Diffusion, meaning gases tend to move freely from high concentrations to low concentrations like in osmotic processes, removing from crowded places to least crowded places The difference in concentration between two areas is called the concentration gradient, a gradual change in concentration of some substance over a given area or distance, and continue to spread until their particles are distributed evenly in the available space they take up Diffusion is the process of a substance (usually a gas) spreading out into less concentrated areas until it is evenly distributed, what I pretty much mentioned in the last bullet sums it up quite well Graham's law can be applied to Effusion and Diffusion as well Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid can be pressurized and turned into gases in tubes, where Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid with two more Chlorines make solid Ammonium Chloride, a precipitation reaction, and forms a precipitate from two gaseous parts of a solution, rather than liquid parts Dalton's Law: The total pressure of exerted gas combine and are equal to the sum of all the partial pressures, in other words all of the partial pressures of gases added together give the total pressure, not partial, to the gaseous solution Use the Ideal Gas Law to find the Pressure of Each Gas, where R and T are constants and remain the same, and to find Pressure using the Ideal Gas Law, you divide Volume from your two constants times the molar mass of the gas or amount of gas contained to give you your pressure, usually in mmHg, torrents, or atmospheres, in this case- kilopascals Do the same for every gas until you have all the partial pressures To find the total pressure of the gaseous solution, such as in Oxygen tanks that also have Helium, find the partial pressures of Helium and Oxygen, add them together, and you get your total pressure of the gaseous solution which can determine many macromolecular properties of the gaseous solution The only thing that changes due to your constants and volume of solution if you are finding the pressure variability is the n, amount in moles of the substance, depending on the substance, specifically as an element Mixing Gases combine particles, increasing the total moles of gas present The Mole Fraction is the ratio of moles of individual gases in a mixture to the total number of moles X (Chi in Greek) is the Variable for a Mole Fraction, whereas equals n1 divided by n Total, due to how we said it in word form We can also say that it equals n1 divided by the sum of the partial pressures of all the gases, including itself The number of moles, then, is directly related to the pressure the gaseous solution exerts as long as volume, temperature, and R constant of the Ideal Gas Law remain constant All in All, The Mole Fraction X (Chi) = Amount in Moles N1 divided by Amount in Moles N total = Pressure P1 divided by Pressure P total Gases mix together in ways that aren't so predictable Heating it to bubble through a column of water to trap the gas as less dense than water as it is above water in a tube or at the end of a column is called collecting a gas over water The problem is that some water molecules will escape the liquid because of how much energy they have Like all gases, the water molecules move around a lot and sometimes bump in sides of the column, container, or tube we are talking about, thus creating a special kind of pressure called the water's Vapor Pressure The water molecules mix with the gas that is being collected and when that happens total pressure in the column equals the pressure of the collected gases according to our friend Dalton's Law So the Vapor Pressure of the water counts as one of the partial pressures in such gaseous solutions So in this process of Collecting a Gas Over Water, we need to subtract the vapor pressure from the total pressures to find the total pressure of the gases lighter than water in terms of density as we explained This works with any sort of reaction, such as neutralization reactions of baking soda and vinegar When the two react, it forms Sodium Acetate, Carbon Dioxide, and Water The Sodium Acetate ions that formed are spectator and are excluded from the final or net-ionic equation of this neutralization reaction because they dissolve along with the water, which didn't necessarily change at a macromolecular level either The small solution of the three begins to emit the Water and dissolved Sodium Acetate as liquid, but Carbon Dioxide which is denser than the two wants to come out as a gas out of the solution If you place a tube on a cup with a lid that has a straw, letting the carbon dioxide come out while the explosion is separated somehow in the best way you know possible, or it just melts down by itself, you can keep the Carbon Dioxide going through and coming out of the straw After the reaction, you can use stoichiometry and the laws learned as skills in this lesson to find out how much Carbon Dioxide was actually produced, minus the vapor pressure of the water produced in the reaction When you place the straw into a upside down graduated cylinder in a bin with a solution, it produces bubbles Understanding properties of certain gases can help us better understand our world, like any field or subject of science From Atmospheric Gases including Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Carbon Dioxide to Greenhouse Gases including Water Vapor, Ammonia, and Hydrogen, to Noble Gases including Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon, they share similar properties, and also are very different from each other periodically and through these categories Air Pressure is about the same as 3 people laying on top of you, and Magdeburg Hemispheres are a great example of air pressure's effect, in which when you take the air out of these devices as Wothers shows, it create a vacuum and the air pressure around them is exerted onto the 2 hemispheres so much that it requires a much greater force than a load of horses to break the two apart, however once you fill them back with air the air pressure exerts on both, thrusting them out of their sealed sphere, and being able to be pulled apart easily, by a load of horses, or even by a baby's arms, all as a result of weighing the air Vacuum tubes with nothing except for a phosphor of Phosphorus, a nonmetal, reacting with the air coming in to produce electromagnetic energy known as Phosphorescence normally to oxidize, seeing bright colors as you do so, in the right proportions with the right chemicals producing the specific colorful lights, and this part of air was Oxygen Chlorates are one reactant or chemical used to produce Oxygen by their thermolytic decomposition, producing Chloride Salts and heating and driving off the Oxygen Gas, so Sodium Chlorate or Potassium Chlorate will produce Sodium or Potassium Chloride and Oxygen Gas, so when heated the Oxygen is released and we can use it to breathe into the Oxygen mask, made with a chemical generator and tube You can see that since Oxygen is being given off from the thermolytic or thermal energy necessary Potassium Chlorate decomposition to produce the Oxygen Gas, blowing out a splint or fire match stick, you can "relight" it in the Potassium Chlorate apparatus or tube where Oxygen Gas is being driven off or given off as a result of the decomposition reaction If you drop a Jelly Bean or Baby into the test tube, all the sugar will react with the Oxygen Gas the same way Carbohydrates and Oxygen Gas come together in a combustion reaction, producing Carbon Dioxide, Water, and while there still is Potassium Chloride, a mildly reactive substance in there, it may be reacting, this produces a ton of light and heat energy as well So Oxygen can be produced from plants through the Oxygen Cycle, from Priestley's Method of heating Mercuric Oxide, from today's fun method of heating Potassium Chlorate, especially in the presence of sugar or starch, and Pure Oxygen could be produced, simply from the liquefaction of air through liquid air distillation processes Chemical Generators Carbon Monoxide may be produced from burning Carbon every once in a while instead of Carbon Dioxide, so sometimes when producing CO2, alarms are needed to detect if CO is produced since it is poisonous or toxic, and it is because it chemically and biologically locks onto red blood cells and stops them from circulating throughout the blood in the Circulatory System, killing us

The Chemistry of Steel (All Concepts and Facts)

1. Corrosion & Combustion of Metals- We usually refer to metals undergoing corrosion when they oxidize and different forms of metals with different surface areas corrode or even combust at different rates dependent on those 2 independent variables and the dependent variable being the corrosion or combustion rate, and all combustion processes of metals do not form gases like Carbon Dioxide so it isn't considered that they necessarily catch fire as combusting, but however when undergoing oxidation they do tend to corrode when placed with water and air, but with air by itself it still tends to burn but creates a solid rather than a liquid or gas, known as an Oxide, so a metal in the air creates a metal oxide which may even change color dependent on the light or luster processes of the metal, and it creates a corroded metal in the presence of air and water, Pure Iron is quite expensive, but a common form with impurities contains Steel Alloy or Carbon and Iron, the dependency of Surface Area on wools and powders (forms) of metals determine how well they burn or even corrode, the more surface area the easier for the oxygen to spread and catch fire, but with chunks, squares, nodules, nails, and bars of Iron have small surface areas and large volumes which tend not to catch fire easily 2. Rusting Metals Quickly- Setting up an apparatus of wool metal to rust with the air and water, connecting the apparatus to a tube and inverting it (upside down) into colored water, as the Oxygen reacts with the steel wool in water it is being used up, and thus create a partial vacuum once the water soaks into the wool, so the Atmospheric of the pressure @STP will push down on the colored water the beaker and tube are placed in, and will rise up the tube to rust the metal 3. Corrosion & Combustion of Metals with Low Surface Areas and Large Volumes- Applying Friction also generates heat of metals with low surface areas and large volumes such as Iron in the form of nails or bars, rather than powders and wools, and special machines containing abrasive metals that are generated by electric current to spin extremely fast generate so much friction on a surface to melt through substances like steel and set it on fire, forces of friction overcoming other forces to heat up steel, which can't normally be heat up by chemical energy of Oxygen 4. Types of Iron Oxides- Light brown Oxide is just granulated or powdered rust with water in it, dark brown Oxide is just powdered rust heated with the water removed, and a black oxide which is Fe 3 O 4, rather than Fe 2 O 3 which were the first two, and is a black oxide which is driven be combustion of substances such as gunpowder, decomposing other Iron Compounds like Iron Carbonate produces another type of Iron Oxide Fe (1) O (1) or Iron (II) Oxide, and Carbon Dioxide Gas, so technically you are decomposing it rather than combusting it, but it still produces the gas, so there is Fe O (an unstable Iron Compound which spontaneously catches fire in air when Iron is decomposed or isolated from it), Fe 2 O 3 (Dark Brown), Fe 2 O 3 H20 (Light Brown), and Fe 3 O 4 (Black), these also have other names written as follows 5. Mono to Di Iron Oxidation- At first you have Iron (II) Oxide, but as 2 oxygen atoms are added in the form of Oxygen Gas to make the O3 part of the compound, the Iron (II) remains the same, but an extra iron atom is added to chemically bond electroneutrally 6. Historical Hydrogen Production- Sulfur minerals or blocks were extracted from near volcanoes, and they set aflame this Sulfur and then mixed its dense gas into water to create Sulfuric Acid, and then Henry Cavendish prepared Sulfuric Acid chemically and placed it on metal, creating a salt and oxidizing it, and reducing the Hydrogen, or producing Hydrogen Gas 7. Chemical Sulfuric Acid Production- Chemically, there are two different ways to produce Sulfuric Acid, the most important industrial chemical, the first is by obtaining Sulfur rocks or minerals or allotropes, burning them in air or moist air to produce 2 molecules of Sulfur Dioxide, which react with Oxygen in the air to form 2 molecules of Sulfur Trioxide, which reacts with water to produce Sulfuric Acid, which is then cooled into a liquid; also mixing Sulfur Dioxide in Hydrogen Peroxide yields Sulfuric Acid as well, as these chemical reactions and others are shown in the 100 Conceptual Chemical Reactions Doc, Sulfuric Acid is also known as Oil of Vitriol and is used as an electrolyte in most alkaline batteries 8. Chemical Hydrogen Production- Then, the Sulfuric Acid made reacts with a metal, producing a salt and Hydrogen Gas 9. Iron Sulfate Production- Iron Sulfate is also known as Green Vitriol, and is produced when Sulfuric Acid reacts with Iron, as well as Hydrogen Gas 10. Properties of Transition Metals- a. Can undertake wide variety of chemical reactions, mostly Redox chemistry, or Oxidation and Reduction go together redox chemical reactions, as well as having multiple oxidation states or different formally charged ionized b. Since they are naturally all ionized they take in more heat from reacting with Oxygen or Sulfur in producing Oxides, Oxalates, Sulfides, and Sulfate, and (Metal name here)-ates such as Chromates, and absorbs more heat energy and becomes more complex with its oxidation states, absorbing, transmitting, and reflecting or refracting visible light of a wide variety of colors as compounds, such as the various colored compounds including Green Vitriol (Iron Sulfate), Titania Pigment (Titanium Dioxide), and Green Pigment (Chromium Oxide), and their Oxides and Sulfides are used as pigments and dyes c. Most metals have a luster because of the ways the multiple formally charged oxidation states of metals' excited electrons cling and coincide together creating a pool of electrons and forming metallic bonds, with the same metal atoms having no strong differences in electronegativity, weak pulls, but upmost attraction, and thus excited electrons cannot already absorb heat, but carry or conduct heat, light, and electricity from one cluster of electrons to another, why metals are shiny and good conductors d. Also used industrially for engineering metal applications e. Act as good Catalysts as well 11. Iron Reaction with Oxidizing Agent- When Iron reacts with 50% Nitric Acid diluted with water (another great Oxidizing Agent, oxidizing Fe + to Fe 3+, and the reaction produces a brown gas Nitrogen Dioxide, and lots of energy since it is an exothermic reaction, but even though it is a light and heat generating reaction, Nitrogen Dioxide is toxic and also acidic, and so Ammonia and a little indicator are mixed in with water as alkalis to neutralize the toxic Nitrogen Dioxide Gas, and after doing so and creating a salt and water, the water dilutes it even more, eliminates the Nitrogen Gas, but the effect is still created, in creating Ammonium Nitrate 12. Recap of Iron's Oxidation States- So there is the Green Iron Sulfate Solution in Iron's 2+ oxidation state, and so there is Brown Iron Nitrate solution in Iron's 3+ oxidation state, changing color dependent on the state it is in 13. Chemical Tests to Distinguish Iron 2+ and Iron 3+ with Salts in Solution with Sodium Hydroxide- Since the Iron 2+ reacted with Sulfuric Acid to produce green Iron Sulfate solution and Hydrogen Gas, and the Iron 3+ reacted with Nitric Acid to produce brown Iron Nitrate solution and Hydrogen Gas, you now have Iron 3+ Nitrate and Iron 2+ Sulfate, and running chemical tests, such as reacting the Iron 2+ and 3+ in basic solutions, or alkalis, such as Sodium Hydroxide will not only neutralize the acidic properties it still has, but also each ion will turn a different color when reacting with the alkali, and always turn that color in that reaction, so you can tell them apart, and when metal salts and metal bases react, they produce a different metal salt and base, and produce precipitates, with Iron (II) Hydroxide and Iron (III) Hydroxide, the Iron (II) Hydroxide being a green precipitate, and the Iron (III) Hydroxide being a brown precipitate 14. Chemical Tests of Iron Oxidation States with Potassium Iron-Cyanide & Thio-Cyanate- In solution, Iron (3+) reacts with Potassium Ferricyanide to produce a dye called Prussian Blue as a precipitate in the solution, and Iron (2+) reacts with Potassium Ferrocyanide to produce Prussian blue if they are both mixed in, Iron in Thio-Cyanate makes a brown precipitate, some of these precipitates like Prussian Blue are used as dyes and pigments 15. Iron 2+ and 3+ Plants- A solution of Waterglass, also known as Sodium Silicate, soluble in water, used to make "chemical gardens", and you place Iron Sulfate crystals which are made in this chemical garden, crystallizing the solution yields Iron Sulfate, more over as a powder, and also adding some Iron (III) Chloride, brown Iron and green Iron plants 16. Iron 2+ and Purple Potassium Permanganate- Iron 2+ in Potassium Permanganate Solution, a redox reaction, and Iron 2+ are added to Permanganate Ions, and the Iron turns to Iron 3+ with the Permanganate Ions, so it turns from green Iron 2+ solution, colored since it is ionized, and since all transition metals have multiple oxidation states of ionizations, they can each form multiple colors with multiple atoms they absorb from and emit energy with, and so the Iron 2+ reacts electroneutrally with the Permanganate to Iron 3+ and thus changes color from Green to Brown, and since Permanganate (Manganese) is naturally purple, that color will change as well to translucence? Yes, that is because even though it would turn from Green to Brown (or dark brown, dark red), a Thiocyanate chemical test compound is added to indicate the change and show the brown color produced 17. Iron represents Transition Metal Chemistry better than almost any other metal, SO far, we have discussed the Oxidation States and the Changes between them with Iron 2+ and 3+, however let us see how Iron acts as a Catalyst 18. Chemical Clock Reaction- Chemical Reactions made to go back and forth depending on the proportions of ingredients you have in the solution, known in chemistry as Equilibrium between two solutions of ions going back and forth in reacting with substances, and as ions carrying the color with them as they are ionized, and as they go back and forth in equilibrium, they change the color of the solution every now and then, even when mixed, Iron can be used as a catalyst to speed up this reaction 19. Electrochemical Iron - Setting up an apparatus or glass cube, with an Iron File in it and lots of nails, and then putting in Copper Sulfate, which is blue because of the Copper ions' color in it when reacting with the Sulfate, and most likely releasing a little energy to form the liquid crystal solution, it is a salt solution of course, not molten, and filling that Blue Vitriol up as historically known, redox chemistry, and what happens over time is the bottom of the iron file and iron nails are all turned into copper, modern alchemy explained by the electrochemical applicative reaction, where a Single Replacement reaction, Iron and Copper Sulfate react, producing Copper and Iron Sulfate, that green Vitriol, so the Iron transmutated into Copper, and the Blue Vitriol transmutated into Green Vitriol and also produces heat energy, but can also produce electrical energy, the purpose of the electrochemical iron in wet cell batteries, as electrodes! 20. Electrical Iron- Setting up a Wet Cell Battery, you add 2 glass jars, one with Iron file and Iron Sulfate, and one with Copper file and Copper Sulfate, and then a salt bridge with Potassium Nitrate Solution (also known as saltpeter), and connecting an electrical current from ballast-like sources, actually two electrodes, the Iron and Copper, and connected to the Voltmeter, it produces voltage because of how wet cells work based on the transfer of electrons 21. Iron Production of Reducing Agent- Also known as the Thermite Reaction, the Iron is reduced and Aluminum, Carbon or Silicon metalloids or metals, the 3 best Reducing Agents, chemically react with the Oxygen, producing Ruby, CO2 Gas, or Sand, and isolating and purifying the Iron 22. The Electrochemical Series- Designed by Alessandro Volta, the series lists the reactivity of the elements in order of increasing voltage and the difference in each reactivity quantity, and this series means that through single replacement or displacement chemical reactions, you can use this chart for reference, and any metal lower than a metal can be displaced by the metal higher than it because the higher metal in the table shown below produces more of a voltage when connected to another metal in batteries 23. Prediction and Revisiting Iron Production- So a Copper-Iron Electric Wet Cell Battery produces a voltage of 0.77 volts, the difference in Copper and Iron volt quantities, and so with the Thermite reaction (very exothermic reaction, Thermite Cages are named after the reaction so the reaction can take place in it), and so since Aluminum is above Iron, it will displace the Iron, producing Aluminum Oxide from the previous Iron Oxide, and producing molten Iron metal, the main production process of pure metallic Iron, the difference in Iron and Aluminum is 1.22 volts, so that is how much electrical energy would be produced if you set it up like a wet cell battery, and through the Thermite Reaction, using the Aluminum Reducing Agent to make Carbrorundum (Alumina or Aluminum Oxide) and Iron, producing lots of heat, you can mix some Magnesium and Potassium Permanganates to give light energy as well, bright white to make an explosive reaction occur 24. Iron Production Again- Iron is also produced from its ores through Thermolysis, including from Pyrite (Iron Sulfide, Fool's Gold, in which you can obtain the iron and also start making Sulfuric Acid), Hematite (Red Iron Oxide, formed from molten states), and Magnetitie (Magnetic Black Iron Oxide), ores Iron is extracted from to be produced 25. Safe Iron- When getting the Pure Iron from the Thermite reaction, and then dissolving the molten Iron in water, the water cuts out any other Oxygen which would get in the fire, that is a metal fire, not an alkali fire, in which water would be of no help, and then Magnetitie is produced, and you can pick it up with a magnet after getting it fresh and safe out of the water 26. Steel- Iron and Carbon, getting the Iron buy using Oxygen and Sand, so the Oxygen takes the Carbon as well as the Sand, isolating the Iron 27. Welding- In order to make steel alloys, or in order to make Iron-based structures and products, nuts, bolts, and rivets, a screw to hold metals together but stuck there forever which was quite a laborious process, you have to join iron together with something, such as with Carbon, mixing the two at high temperatures or with tremendous amounts of heat to make the alloy, welding is when you join together pieces of metal by heating their surfaces at their melting points using a blowtorch or electric arc, uniting them by pressing or hammering based on their malleability 28. Welding Possibilities- The first reason welding became possible was because the chemistry behind it was well understood, people were able to make gases and collect them and the various types of welding, in which Oxyacetylene was among the most popular method, it was possible to produce Oxygen (from electrolysis of water and liquefaction of air) and Acetylene Gas (Calcium Carbide reacting with Water to also produce Calcium Oxide) and store the two industrially, and also produced steel alloy cylinders strong enough to hold gases used at high temperatures when they were mixed, to be able to melt iron in the steel cylinder, flame that burns at domestic cooking is 600 degrees, low temperature in Metallurgy, Oxyacetylene is also Ethyne Oxide 29. Test Tube Burning- Since Test Tubes are Glass, which is a mixture of Sodium Carbonate, Potash, and Silica, the Sodium flame test when taking in heat energy is a bright orange or yellow fire, and the blue fire from the Oxygen flame added to the Acetylene Gas burning on the test tube makes it turn that color 30. Metallurgy- Copper is not magnetic, but Iron is, and Iron is cheaper than Copper, so Iron or Zinc is used to make pennies, and electroplated with Copper, you have to develop sufficient thermal capacity to actually melt the steel, make it flow, and melting it too much makes it catch fire and burns away ineffectively, Iron and Steel are very strong of course, huge industrial applications including Electroplating 31. Types of Steel- Depend on how they have been heat treated in the foundry, and how much Carbon they have got in them, no more than 1% Carbon, Modern Steel, Cast Iron- wack with a hammer and it splits apart, Tall Steel, High Carbon Steel (used to cut metals), and Steel for Watches and Spring Steel with Potential Energy in it, springs, musical instruments, harmonicas and pianos 32. Blood- We have 6 grams of Iron in our blood in the form of Hemoglobin, not Iron shavings, plays a very important role in our physiology, the way we live and breathe 33. Steel is very Heat Resistant- Flash Powders like Magnesium-Potassium Chlorate on Hydrogen Gas produces temperatures of over 2,000 degrees Centigrade or Celsius

Concepts Associated with Solids (All Concepts)

Solids are the simplest form of matter to describe. From chairs to books to food to Newtonian Matter, solids contain particles which vibrate in constant crystallization patterns and stay in one place, with a definite shape, definite volume, and Homoglous series of definite proportions. - Solids are the first state of matter, where particles all over the solid vibrate with each other - Solids are composed of 2 or more atoms based on the way their bonded - Solids have a definite shape and definite volume, so they combine in definite proportions - Solids contain intramolecular forces which help keep their bonds together, and are the strongest forces which help bonds happen - Solids can be things like coal, glass, conducting metals, wax, food, and the computer your using - Humans are solids, liquids, and gases all at the same time because we are composed of these 3 different things - Solids' particles are spinning and vibrating contained to intramolecular forces, and changing its kinetic energy to a liquid according to the kinetic-molecular theory when heat is applied, it will turn into a liquid - Since solids can become so kinetic to turn into liquids, and then into gases- they have little density and highly compressible as explained by real gas laws and the gas chapter - So solids have high density, and can be compressed very little, high resistance to interactions with environment so to say - There are 2 different classes of solids: o A crystalline solid is a solid with atoms arranged in an orderly way o An amorphous solid is a solid with atoms arranged in random ways, literally meaning with shape - There is also a way to classify all solids in the following way: Crystalline Amorphous Atomic Ionic Molecular. A solid structured in random ways. Network Intramolecular Force Bonds Noble Gases Covalent, Ionic Metal (electricity) - Amorphous Classifications and Properties: o Disordered/Random Structure o Since the structure is random, the bonds holding it together are random as well o This causes Amorphous Solids to melt gradually, and not have exact melting or freezing points for that matter o Amorphous Solids such as rubber are tried to be cut through, and the unordered bonds interfere with the planes of the cuts, making it harder to break o When pressure is applied to such solids, they will eventually break, but they cut up into random pieces, such they are composed of random bonds, so things like glass, coal, and rubber are all amorphous because they don't break up into definite shapes nor do they form adequate crystals like rocks o Amorphous solids are Isotropic- meaning the solid interacts with forces in the same way always in every direction, interacting in the same ways in all directions o There is 1 classification of Amorphous Solids - Crystalline Classifications and Properties: o Ordered/Normal Bond Intramolecular Forced Structure o Easy to break along a plane of molecules next to each other because of the square shape and sheet-like destruction formations o When they break, they create straight lines or sheets of the solid o Crystalline Solids are Anisotropic, meaning the solid interacts with forces in different ways and depends on the direction, interacting different ways in different directions, breaking differently depending on which way you hit o There are 3 classifications of Crystalline Solids o All bonds in a crystal are the same length, so they are all equally strong and can be broken up by the same amount of energy and their melting points are specific, not in ranges o Brittle more than amorphous o There are 3 more classifications, 6 total actually, which describe the bond angle and crystalline structure or crystal lattice formed in solids divided up into units: o A simple unit or primitive unit, the particles are located at the corners of a simple cube o A body centered unit, the particles are located at the corners and another particle is at the center of the cube o Or a face centered unit, the particles are in the corners of the cell and in the center of each face but not in the center of the entire unit (cell, as they call it) o And can further be classified not only as simple, body centered, or face centered unit intervals, but as atomic, molecular, ionic, network (covalent), and metallic solids as well with properties such as ductility, malleability, and electrical conductivity - Molecular o Made up of Nonpolar Covalent compounds o Because they are held together by weak Van Der Walls forces and have more of a bond length and such less resistance than Ionic bonds, Molecular Solids are soft, with fairly low melting points - Atomic o Made up of individual atoms, not molecules or compounds o Tend to form allotropes of each other o There are 3 more classifications of Atomic Solids: Network Covalent, Noble Gas, and Metallic - Ionic o Made up of Ionic Compounds o Because they are held together by strong Van Der Walls forces and have less of a bond length and such more resistance than Covalent bonds o Made from monoatomic and polyatomic ions, so they are soluble in water or any other polar solvent, and have high melting points due to those strong bonds o If you wanted to have liquid salt, it would need a lot of heat energy, unlike when you just dissolve it - And Atomic Crystalline has 3 different classifications as well: - Metallic Bonds o Simply, metallic bonds o Known to form closest packing arrangements: of atoms which form several different arrangements to best take advantage of the space in the structure o Most Metal Solids are malleable, meaning they can be pounded into shapes, and ductile, meaning they can be stretched to form wires o Atoms in metals are large, electron pools known as metallic bonds, weakest Van Der Walls forces of intramolecular forces actually since electron flow freely between their atoms o In such solids, the nuclei are tightly, not strongly bonded together with the electrons, making the metal structure extremely strong, but the metallic bonds are unique flexible due to those flowing electrons rejecting electrostatics, and for that such metals have such properties of normally deforming - Noble Gas Bonds o Little interest in bonding, very hard to cool and pressurize them to make them a liquid, and further into a solid, very hard to encounter, very rare, and are the only known example of Atomic Solids other than Metallic and Network covalent which seem to classify themselves independently - Metallic Bonding is another reason the physical property of luster is described by metals and shown - A phase diagram is a graph representing the relationship of all the states of matter of a specific substance, usually relating the states to pressure and temperature - Pressure is the vertical axis - Temperature is the horizontal axis Solids have a definite shape and definite volume There are different types of Solids with Different Properties There are Metals or Alloys & Crystals Metals comprise of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals, Inner Transition Metals, Lanthanide Metals, Actinide Metals, and Boron Family Metals Crystals can comprise of any element on the periodic table excluding that of Noble Gases since they are inert There are also different types of Crystals comprised of certain elements with certain chemical and physical properties Metallic Crystals o All Metals and their Crystals are Solids, be they Natural Solids or Cooled Liquids @STP other than Mercury o Held by a special type of bond that retain Ionic Properties and is somewhat strong called a Metallic Bond o The forces at which electrons bind atoms of Metals vary and Metals thus have various melting points, the melting point of the metal can determine which types of forces are holding it together be it that the stronger the attractive force be it Intramolecular or Intermolecular, the higher the melting point, in which melting metal disrupts the crystal formation processes and is required with a special type of activation energy to break the binding energy called the lattice energy o The special concept of Metals and their Crystals are that they are composed simply of Metallic Nuclei, and when coming electrically in contact with other metals through wires as demonstrated in electrochemistry and that since Metals are composed entirely of Metallic Nuclei, there electrons are free to move about o Since electrons have their own little magnetic fields, electromagnetic fields or large magnets can rid metals of electrons, thus leaving nothing but metallic nuclei, and also gives reason to the fact that some metals are magnetic in terms of the electrons that flow freely through them and naturally produce a magnetic field o Since electrons are moving about the metals freely, metals can be considered to be good conductors of electricity and heat as well since electrons are already flowing through the metal naturally and atomically, metals are cationic meaning they are ions to begin with since they create electron pools for electricity, magnetism, and heat transfer to occur o Since electrons are moving about the metals freely, metals also are very shiny or have a "luster" in a sense that the unknown radiation or energy absorbed by the electrons causes them not to produce wavelengths or colors in the electron shells of atoms, but causes them to completely move out of their shell to give the wavelengths and color of the atom, and also to release or emit the absorbed energy as heat energy in the form of conducting heat in metals, and light energy in the form of the luster observed at a macromolecular advantage o Metals can be hard, soft, or brittle depending on its contact with other metals through its evolution, or if it forms Alloys o Metals are malleable, meaning they can be spread out into different shapes or stretch and roll into, that it can be made into sheets, the metal, and glass, and back again o Metals are ductile, meaning they can be reformed into wires used for electrical and thermal conduction in the common household o Metals can also fuse at high temperatures and overcome the attractive forces to create Alloys, be they Substitutional (more diverse in elements and fair in percentage, same size atoms) or Interstitial Alloys (less diverse in elements and bias in percentage, different size atoms, complex densities) Ionic Crystals o Ionic Crystals are those that form from Strong Ionic Bonds such as those between Sodium and Chlorine to form Sodium Chloride or common table salt o All Salts and Minerals are Ionic Crystals like that of Table Salt o Since Ionic Bonds are the most fundamental and strongest in terms of binding energy, it requires extremely high temperatures to break the bonds as activation energy or lattice energy, and thus all ionic compounds have the highest melting points o Ionic Crystals also shatter unlike that of Metallic Crystals because when you break the large-small ion pairs that make up the entire crystal unlike the large-large or large-small ion pairs of Metallic Crystals, the negative-negative and positive-positive charges of the crystal repel so much that the entire crystal, mineral, or salt breaks, a form of geological inspection called Cleavage, the forces and/or properties ionic crystals have are that they are rigid, hard, and brittle Molecular Crystals o Held together by all Intermolecular (Van Der Waals) Forces o Molecular Crystals have thus weak forces holding them and tend to be soft with low boiling points o These are usually from the nonpolar Organic Compound form as alcohols, phenols, or sugars in the sense that it can contain London Dispersion Induced Dipolar Forces, Dipole-Dipole Polar Forces, and even Hydrogen bonding such as those of Alcohols, Organic Acids, Amines, and Sugars Network Covalent Crystals o A network crystal has a lattice structure in which the atoms are covalently bonded and usually are polyatomic structures consisting of the same atom in different molecular arrangements o Molecules or Substances of different molecular structures are called Isomers o Atoms or Substances of different Intramolecular structures are called Allotropes o In other words, Pure Carbon can bond with 4 other atoms of Carbon which can bond with another 16 atoms of Carbon, and create BP electrons in proportions or sp3 hybridized orbitals, but then Pure Carbon can bond with 3 other atoms of Carbon which can bond with another 9 atoms of Carbon or sp2 hybridized orbitals o In other words, quantum hybridization of orbitals and the geometries be it of Quantum Theory or VSEPR determine the Network Covalency or Bond Order (ratio of how many electrons will form BP's with other atoms and which BP's or SP electrons won't [free radicals, and not dimers]) o So, a Network Covalent Crystal with an sp3 hybridized orbital or tetrahedral formation of Carbon atoms covalently bonded will form Diamond, where the bonds connecting each Carbon atom and their electrons really want to stay in place, making Diamond the hardest substance known on earth with one of the highest densities and hardness as represented on the Mohs Hardness scale and thus making the shape a tetrahedral diamond formation which cannot break, but if it did it would be weird since neither atom repels each other since it is of the same family on the periodic table and exists as covalently bonded atoms and not ionic ones, with a high melting point thereof o So, a Network Covalent Crystal with an sp2 hybridized orbital or trigonal planar formation of Carbon atoms covalently bonded will form Graphite, where the bonds connecting each atom or BP work for three of the Carbon atoms, and there is a NBP left over of electrons, allowing Graphite to be a conductor of electricity and magnetic at certain ends, when you break it and unless you granulate it into balls or crumbs, it will break into sheets because of its trigonal planar formation and weak p electrons holding out between reacting with others of its kind as an allotrope, and is also used as a Cathode or Depolarizer since it is nonpolar in Battery Cells Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) Solids o Some ionic solids are Amorphous meaning they form random shapes and are not of crystal formation o Most of these, like glass are cooled liquid metals that fused in certain metallurgical processes and thus when they break they shatter into random parts since they have no formation chemically unlike that of cleavage surfaces of certain solid ionic substances o Many plastics or polymers consist of these as well

The Chemistry of Smell (All Concepts)

We have already introduced one of the five senses you can physically identify with which is sight or color, and remember we have already explained the sense of touch with intermolecular, Intramolecular, and overall electromagnetic interactions, and hearing isn't chemistry applied, only in physics, and taste is the chemistry of things like sugars, which we cover in another doc with the Chemistry of Taste So what kinds of chemicals have smells? Most gases have a certain smell since our brains biologically and physiologically react around the environment when we sniff in chemicals in their gaseous state, so most smells are gases or substances that stick around another substance in the air chemically or physically to give it that smell, or is actually present inside a substance like the chemistries of the matter, taste, and color The reason they have to be in their gaseous form is because their substances tend to need to or naturally have low boiling points so they can evaporate and diffuse into our bodies as smells, it must be a small molecule as well and one which can evaporate and diffuse easily from its Intramolecular to its Intermolecular forces state The most familiar smelly compounds include the Aromatic Ringed Hydrocarbons, Esters, and Complex Gases and Alcohols as well as Sulfur-containing Thiols Examples of smells of familiar substances are listed in the Tables Section of Official Reference for Physics and Chemistry Journal

Concepts Associated with Inorganic Chemistry & POLYMERS (All Concepts)

-Also known as macromolecules, Polymers are a bridge to the scale between atoms and moles, & definitely much more enormous than a molecule or compound but so much more smaller than a speck of salt -Polymers are made from smaller macromolecules or enormous molecules called monomers which sort of act like functional groups in polymerization processes rather than organic compounds though most polymers are organic anyway though they don't provide life rather tools for life -Such Polymers that help us include the monomer building and condensation splitting polymers which bond and end up making things in the forms of cotton, wool, silk, wood, cellulose, glucose, proteins, plastics, plastic bags, bottles, plastic toys, electrical insulation, indoor & outdoor carpeting, bottles, luggage, wooden furniture, Styrofoam, plastic cups, packing materials, plastic wrap, leather, plumbing & pipes, garden hoses, floor tile, food wrap, seat covers in cars, Teflon nonstick coating, yarns, wigs, paints, pigments, adhesives, Plexiglas, & bowling balls -All that are mentioned above are made out of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Chlorine, or Fluorine -All that are mentioned above are made using compounds of Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Teflon, Saran, Polyacrylonitrile, Polyvinyl acetate, polymethyl methacrylate, Plexiglas, & one or two more polymerizations of compounds that aren't a part of organic chemistry but use organic elements, aka: Inorganic Chemistry -Polymers that do use organic elements and fall under Organic Chemistry rather than Inorganic are what make up the chemical studies of Biochemistry and so much significance of the human body focused on in the Biochemistry section -Polyethylene is made from ethylene aka monoethylene, where ethylene is a monomer for the polymer of polyethylene -Polymerization can chemically react as an Addition Polymerization -Polymerization can chemically react as a Condensation Polymerization as well -Rubber or Isoprene is a semisolid, plastic, and common material that can be vulcanized which means it can be cross-linked and/or connected with sulfur atoms to make them much more stronger and less reliable to remold or recreate -Rubber is also synthetically made using Polybutadiene & the copolymerization of the elastomer polychloroprene or Neoprene -Styrene-butadiene rubber also works -Nylon & Dacron chemically combine their amine groups & organic acid, the hydroxyl and Hydrogen atom from both the amine group and acid bond to give off water condensing the structure even more to densify it and make a strong amide bond between the Carboxylic Acid, or Ketone and the Amine Group to create the official monomer which will build into the polymer as a Condensation Polymerization Polymers, Household Chemicals, & Items & Labels- What are their Chemical There are a few different ways of showing a formula: • Molecular Formula • Empirical Formula • Weight Formula • Structural Formula • Condensed Structural Formula Line Angle Formula Line-Angle Formula Because organic compounds can be complex at times, line-angle formulas are used to write carbon and hydrogen atoms more efficiently by replacing the letters with lines. A carbon atom is present wherever a line intersects another line. Hydrogen atoms are then assumed to complete each of carbon's four bonds. All other atoms that are connected to carbon atoms are written out. Line angle formulas help show structure and order of the atoms in a compound making the advantages and disadvantages similar to structural formulas Plastics are also known as Polymers which are long chained composed of monomers or repeating units and give the properties of the plastic or inorganic substance, just like functional groups give to organic substances Polymers aren't just plastics but similar items we will discuss in a short while Polymer Chemistry is pretty straightforward since learning the monomers and their reactions enables you to understand these are happening in repeating units over and over again to a macromolecular level Believe it or not, Polymers are actually referred to as Macromolecules since they are large chains of microscopic monomers that can be seen at a macroscopic or macromolecular level and observed that way Polymers can be Natural or Synthetic, and normally contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen or Sulfur here and there Organic Polymers are those of Carbohydrates like Cellulose or Synthetic Organic Celluloid, Sugars and Starches as well, and even Proteins are considered Organic Polymers There are two types of classifications that follow inorganic Polymers which include thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers whereas thermoplastic polymers can be heated, softened, reformed, or remolded, however, thermosetting polymers can be heated but harden after they form and cannot be reformed, think of it as heating up (thermo), and staying hot and hard (setting [staying]) There are two types of reactions that follow Inorganic Polymers which include Addition and Condensation Reactions and undergo chemical changes, not physical ones as the names may suggest Addition Polymerization occurs when Monomer Units build each other up to produce a Polymer, where the Polymer is just one long chain of the Monomer unit and retains the same chemical and physical properties as the Monomer unit, Think of it as 1 + 1 = 1 Condensation Polymerization occurs when a portion of the monomer molecule unit is not incorporated into the final polymer because certain functional groups (which can be a part of Organic Chemistry since they are units of monomers and monomers are the units of plastics) contained in the monomers reacting join and split out new substances such as water, Think of it as 2 - 1 = 1 Polymers can be Thermoplastic or Thermosetting, and they can also be classified by their reaction as Addition or Condensation Polymers The simplest Polymer is Ethene also known as Ethylene, since the functional group written in the name gives the monomer the properties the polymer will have, and Ethylene is an Ethyl-based Addition Polymer and is Thermoplastic and especially strong because of the tight double bonds it forms Ethylene is also an Alkene in plastic form made of Hydrocarbon material (or Hydrogen and Carbon) and can also be used as a reagent in converting it to Alkanes or Alkynes in complex Organic Reactions described in the Official Organic Chemistry Journal All of the plastics will thus be named with the -yl prefix since functional groups truly describe the nature of the monomer Polyethylene consists of a strong double bond of Carbon atoms and Hydrogen atoms around it Polypropylene is the polymer as indicated by the name's prefix, of Propylene, which is kind of like Ethylene, except a methyl functional group replaces the Hydrogen atom in Ethylene, giving it 3 Carbons and Propyl functional group based properties Polystyrene is the polymer of Styrene (monostyrene), where the Hydrogen atom in Ethylene is replaced by a Benzene or Benzyl functional group Polyvinyl is a polymer of monomer units with halogens replacing the Hydrogen in the monomer molecule, in other words they are inorganic halides which form long chains and are coined with 'vinyl' in their name, Polyvinyl with a Chloride halogen to make the Halide is Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC When replacing all of the Hydrogens in Ethylene with Halogens such as Fluorine, you obtain uniquely named inorganic halides such as Tetrafluoroethylene (Four-Fluorine-Ethylene) which is the monomer for polytetrafluoroethylene which doesn't sound like a big word if you're a chemist and can be abbreviated as (PTFE) which also holds its double bonds and is thermosetting giving it unique properties like that of Ethylene where both are strong, thermosetting plastics, and is also known as "Teflon", which because of its strong C-F bonds, Teflon is strongly resistant to chemicals, is touch, unreactive, and nonflammable Although the molecular structures indicate normal bonds, they are actually still double bonds since "-ene" is indicated in the name and there are really only certain derivatives Polyacetylene comes from Acetylene, still using the "-ene" suffix although it contains triple bonds since it uniquely saturates itself to double bonds as some plastics so, and also is the use for such alkene-derived in name due to the "-ene" for alkenes to be used as reagents in complex organic and inorganic reactions, from triple to double bonds as "dienes" where every other monomer unit has a double bond, or each unit has a double bond and each unit is connected by a single bond These are all well-known Addition Polymers and can be thermosetting or thermoplastic dependent on the chemical properties of the bonds which give their macromolecular physical properties There are other polymers with certain chemistries straightforwardly explained below as well as the ones we considered Summary of Molecular Structures Polyethylene is CH2=CH2 Polypropylene is replacing one of the Hydrogen atoms with a Methyl Group Polystyrene is replacing one of the Hydrogen atoms with a Benzyl Group Polyvinyl is replacing one of the Hydrogen atoms with a Halogen to make an Inorganic Halide, like Chloride in Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Polyvinylidene Chloride (Saran) is replacing two of the Hydrogen atoms with a Halogen to make an Inorganic Halide, like Chloride in this molecule to make Saran Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is replacing all of the Hydrogen atoms with a Halogen to make an Inorganic Halide such as Fluorine in this Polymer (double bonded) Polyacetylene is replacing two Hydrogen atoms and giving it a triple bond and then making a unit by automatically unsaturating it into double bonds with a single bond accounting for 3 bonds in the triple bond to connect the double bonded monomer molecule units together (double bonded) Polyacrylonitrile is replacing one of the Hydrogen atoms with a Nitrile functional group to produce single and double bond polymers like Orlon Polyvinyl Acetate is replacing one Hydrogen atom with Ethanoic or Acetic Acid to make the part of Acetate Polymethyl Methacrylate is replacing two Hydrogen atoms, one with Ethanoic or Acetic Acid to make the part of Acrylate, and two with a Methyl Group Applications and Uses of Polymers Polyethylene is used as plastic bags and bottles, many toys, and electrical insulation as well Polypropylene is used as plastic bottles as well as carpets Polystyrene is used as Styrofoam and Styrofoam Insulation as well as Styrofoam Cups, Styrofoam Packaging, and Toys Polyvinyl (PVC and Thermoplastic) is used as Plastic Wrap, Plumbing and Pipes, Hosing and Hoses, Shower curtains, Fake Leather or Beach Chairs, and also Floor Tile Polyvinylidene Chloride (Saran) is used as Food Wrap and also as Seat-Covers in Cars Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is used as nonstick coating for kitchen utensils like pots and pans, electrical insulation, and gaskets Polyacrylonitrile (Orlon) is used is used for Yarns and Paints Polyvinyl Acetate is used for Adhesives and the resin of chewing gum as well as paints Polymethyl Methacrylate (Lucite) is used as Plexiglas or Glass Substitutes and also the substance that makes up Bowling Balls Polyacetylene is used as a conductor rather than insulator because of the alternating double and single bonds make it easy for electrons to travel across the chain and conduct heat and electricity, it even looks like a metal with luster due to the electrons and electromagnetic radiation energy transfers A thermosetting, and an Addition Polymer, Rubber or (Neoprene) and isomers of Neoprene like Isoprene are used in making Rubber, although Sulfur can be used to vulcanize or cross link Isoprene chains to make stronger rubber, cooling volatile fluids of Isoprene and Neoprene allow for the semisolid, elastic properties of rubber Other Applications and Properties of Polymers Copolymers are another type of Polymers that are a division of Addition Polymers which can still either be thermosetting or thermoplastic, where the monomer units contain 2 or more different types of monomers in one unit creating the pattern, for example Styrene-Butadiene Polymer contains a Butadiene unit, a Styrene unit, and two more Butadiene units, before the next unit of Styrene-Butadiene, which introduces another Butadiene unit for the next Styrene unit and is used as Synthetic Rubber which isn't vulcanized but synthetic since copolymerization allows the mixing of two natural monomer units Polymers that are elastic like Natural and Synthetic Rubbers are called Elastomers, and tires cost a lot because Vulcanization and Cross Linking is expensive So far, we have discussed Organic Polymers and Inorganic Addition Polymers Inorganic Condensation Polymers usually split out small molecules which are not included in the final polymer because of certain functional groups reacting, such molecules may include that of water Organic Acids with Amines on the Sixth Carbon Atom are always Polymers such as that of Nylon Nylon is the Condensation Polymer from the monomer 6-Aminohexanoic Acid, since an Amine group or Methylamine Group is located on the 6th Carbon atom, or 5th if you are naming it Methylamine, it is titled 6-Amino, and since a Carboxylic Acid is placed on the first Carbon atom and there are a total of 6 carbon atoms (5 if you are naming the Amine as Methylamine), you get Hexanoic Acid or an Organic Acid with 6 Carbon atoms and the Carboxyl group on the first atom Nylon is formed when 2 monomer units of 6-aminohexanoic acid join, where the OH Hydrogen bonding in the 6-aminohexanoic acid joins with a Hydrogen atom (H) from the amine or methylamine group of another monomer molecule unit of 6-aminohexanoics acid, the Polymer Nylon is formed and repeats in units, while the H and OH left out, split out to produce molecules of water When the Amine's Nitrogen and Carboxyl's Carbon come together, it forms an Amide C-N or just CN, and thus Nylon 6 and an alternative of Nylon 66 are both Condensation Polymers classified as "polyamides" Condensation Polymers can react and split out molecules like water as the same monomer unit or as different monomer units In the case of Nylon 6, the same monomer units are used, but Nylon 66 forms from 2 different monomers reacting and splitting out molecules of water When 1,6 Hexadiamine named because there are 6 carbon atoms, and the first and sixth have Amine groups, thus giving 2 or "di" amine groups, reacts with a specially named Acid called Adipic Acid, a Polyamide of NH-CO is formed like Nylon 6, only 2 different monomers give it the name of Nylon "66" Condensation Polymers' subdivisions are based on the new functional groups formed when the reaction produces molecules that are split out like water, and then another classification is how many different monomers form the units and whether or not they are standard or copolymerized condensation polymers Nylon 6 is a Normal Condensation Polymer and Polyamide Nylon 66 is a Copolymerized Condensation Polymer and also a Polyamide Dacron is a Polyester composed of repeating units of Esters which split out water and form Dacron, a mixture of Ethylene Glycol (Antifreeze), and Terephthalic Acid, where the OH of the Acid and H of the Glycol Alcohol split out to form water, and the remaining O on the sides of the Alcohol bond with the remaining CO on the sides of the Terephtalic Acid to form an Ester of O-CO or Polyester called Dacron A mixture of Ethylene Glycol and Terephtalic Acid will react to form Dacron, Water, and also heat as the solute and solvent collide and give off entropy measured heat Thermosetting Polyesters and Polycarbonates (Esters with O-CO-O Bonds instead of just O-CO bonds), Phenol-Formaldehyde Bakelite Resins, and Composites are other types of Condensation Polymers which work the same way to produce various molecules not included in the final polymer such as water Other Addition/Condensation Polymers in Chemistry and Application (not so much classified though) include: o Cotton o Rubber (Neoprene and Isoprene) o Latex o Gutta-Percha o [Condensation] Orlon or Acrylic o [Condensation] Kevlar o [Condensation] Zylon o Polyglycolide o Polydioxanone o Kaolin o Keratin o Silk Polyamides as we have discussed include variations of Nylon-6, where Amides are created and connected through condensation polymerization reactions in solution Polyamides, specifically variations of Nylon-6 are found in and used for textile fibers and coatings, threads and ropes, electrical insulation, sports equipment, and bristles for brushes Polyesters like Dacron formed also through certain condensed hook-ups of polymers, it is found in and used for the basis for magnetic tape and photographic film Polycarbonates like Lexan are found in and can be used for making bullet-proof vests and windows as well as safety glass and glasses, food containers, and certain car and auto body components Polyethers, formed from condensation polymerization in solution of two substances which create and connect ethers at the ends of two organic-based substances, specifically... Polyethers like Polyglycol can be used to make urethanes and polyurethanes as well a base for these and elastomers, also used somewhat for basis of oil and fuel Polyethers like Delrin and Celcon are tough plastics used for tough plastics' gears and pipes, as well as pens Phenol-based Polymers formed with the Phenol Organic substance and another substance are Hard-thermosetting polymers Phenol-based Polymers such as Bakelite are found in and used for telephones and buttons on keys and shirts, as well as for electrical insulation in insulators Another, Formica (Polymelamine Formaldehyde) is used for laminated surfaces like the "fake wood" found in our kitchen Polyurethanes, based on Polyglycol and Polyglycolide are found in and used for foam rubbers and synthetic leathers, specifically Polyurethane itself A more complex variation, Lycra, is used in carpet underlays and clothing Polyalkenes include Neoprene (Adhesives, Rubber, and Liquid Seals), Polyethylene, Polyisobutylene or Butyl Rubber (Tires, Seals, Raincoats), Teflon or PTFE, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC, and Perspex (Polymethylmethacrylate- used in and for windows, fiber optics, and illuminated signs) Now is a good time to discuss Artificial Light and Illuminated Signs as being a small section of Inorganic Chemistry without Physics getting involved, so we shall see As electric current is passed through a tube filled with a noble gas such as neon, the electric current or voltage will begin to accelerate electrons on the outer shells of Noble Gas Atoms and the voltage would be large enough to ionize the atom or turn the atom into an ion, which takes some energy, called the ionization energy, in which the electrical energy overcomes that amount, knocking an electron or two out of place of every atom in the tube, so since the Noble Gases don't react with each other, are all positively charged ions, and there are flowing negatively charged electrons running throughout the tube, it results in the fourth state of matter being plasma, because though at low pressures, the gas seems to be at somewhat of a high temperature because of the interference of the electrical discharge, which creates a plasma of electric charge which carries the current from one electrode to the other There also other forms of light signs called Mercury Discharge Tubes, or Fluorescent Lights, coated with phosphors on their walls which are highly reactive with electromagnetic waves, specifically light radiation, and will absorb any radiation, such as UV radiation, that is emitted by other elements in the tube such as Mercury, and based on that emission from the Mercury and that absorption from the Phosphor coating, it will glow bright white Color is based on the type of gas used and its emission spectra in terms of the electrical energy or radiation it will absorb, and the colors of light it will reflect and emit as the natural rule of electromagnetic radiation goes, so Neon will absorb short wavelengths of color, and reflect white light's long wavelengths of color to produce a bright red color, however Argon absorbs long wavelengths and emits short ones like blue, Krypton even shorter with Purple, and Bromine just a hair shorter than Neon with Orange Another explanation of how this works is when an atom absorbs waves of radiated energy and moves up and out of electron shells, but when an atom moves back down, that energy is transferred radioactively in the form of photons, which carry the energy as a unit of light and make the tube glow A photon's energy or tube's color depends on the energy differences between the orbitals of electron shells in atom, as a given atom can emit photons at many different energies corresponding to different pairs of orbitals or different places where the electrons were zapped by radiation in the electron shell Silicones are Natural Polymers in which all of the Carbon is replaced by Silicon, and all the Hydrogen is replaced by Oxygen in the chain, and "R" functional groups on the sides of the chain, therefore it is not of catenation anymore because it Contains Silicon and Oxygen Silicones are used in toys like Silly Putty because the reactions split out water and an interesting substance which makes the putty When Acids or Bases react with Alcohols they produce a sort of slimy, squishy polymer, all of which are Condensation Polymers since water is split out in the reaction, and the Acid/Base and Alcohol come together to produce water and common polyesters, polyamides, silicones, or polycarbonates such as silly putty or slime! Classifications, History, More Chemistry, More Properties Polymers are classified not just by their reaction (Addition, Condensation), or Chemistry (Polyvinyl, Polyamide, Copolymer, Standard Condensation Polymer, etc.), but also by their properties (Thermosetting, Thermoplastic) as well as other properties like Crystalline or Amorphous arrangements of plastics Synthetic Spandex Fibers combine Crystalline and Amorphous Polymers together as synthesized, to produce a rubber that is both flexible (Amorphous), and rigid (Crystalline), and certain Natural Polymers like Glass from Volcanoes have odd Amorphous and Crystalline properties as well which do not break even because they are made of random melted and cooled metallic or polymerized atoms which do not take ionic bonds Fiber Forms from certain Polymers as well and is a certain Physical property they have The Glass Transition Temperature is the temperature at which a Polymer becomes rubbery and tough When below it, the Polymer is hard, stiff, brittle, and even glass-like Tires are tough and elastic, so they need low Tg or GTT's Plastic Substitutes for Glass such as Plexiglas are glass-like and hard, so they need high GTT's Synthetic Polymers can be made from simple Hydrocarbon bases from that of Petroleum which can be used to make Synthetic Polymers, Octane-Converted Liquids like Kerosene, and Gasoline (a mixture of Alkane pressurized gases at vapor pressure and liquids) Since Fossil Fuels like Petroleum and Natural Gas and Oil are the only energy source for Fuels as well as Plastics, it is considered a nonrenewable energy resource Remember, the "-ene" suffix is used because ethylene which automatically unsaturates itself to form Polyethylene derives from that of an Alkene, but is really an Alkane Other properties of Polymers and Plastics include that of Strength, Resilience, Pliability, Recyclability, Flexibility, Opacity, Transparency, and others PVC is also made into Records, or "vinyl" records because of the Poly "vinyl" Chloride in them, "Vinyl" comes from old Greek meaning "wine" PTFE has 4 Fluorines which hog every single electron existent in the molecule and do not allow the molecule to allow to stick to other things based on electromagnetic forces because the electrons are hogged by the Fluorine, and the electrons do not flow whatsoever and are also really hogged by the Fluorine, PTFE contains 4 extremely electronegative Fluorines which for those two reasons give it a "nonstick coating" property and also it is used for insulation, and since it can be reformed into a coating or insulation, it is thermoplastic Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics thus are determined based on the number of applications a polymer has, fewer means Thermosetting or Thermoset, more mean Thermoplastic Free Radicals are extremely unstable, and thus the more unstable a molecule is, the more reactive it can be electromagnetically and like a Half Covalent bond, it can bond and form dimers, extremely stable, and thus not reactive of a molecule, which can also be a unit as monomers in polymers in plastics These plastics like Polyacetylene produce electrons which make them good conductors and follow Addition Polymerization All Polyesters, Polycarbonates, and Polyamides are Dimers or bonds of two Free Radicals Amines and Acids do not just form slime and goo and Nylon, but they also form Natural Polymers you may have heard of called Amino Acids, essential to all proteins and all of life itself! And they are synthesized by biochemical functions and reactions inside of us as we speak Other Natural Polymers include DNA and RNA with Polysaccharides from Monosaccharide's in sugars and starches as Carbohydrate Natural Polymers, cellulose, and the synthetic polymer of cellulose, celluloid And Celluloid invented by Hyatt prevented the deaths and extinction of elephants, which contain natural polymers used to make billiard balls, so Celluloid made from an Acid and Alcohol formed the ball! Some Polymers, are made when two organic substances clash together to form a monomer and water, and the monomers wrap in long chains to form a polymer of the monomer, which can than combine with another substance to make a condensation polymer and still split out water

The Chemistry of Lightbulbs (All Concepts)

Chemical Energy producing light proposed hazards for household lighters, so it was changed historically to allow Electrical Energy to produce Light energy, and Heat energy In 1802, the beginnings of the Lightbulb began with my favorite chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, when he used electrolysis to split alkalis and find new metal substances, and he demonstrated that electric currents he created from batteries could heat strips or ductile, wired metals to white heat and produce light through the photoelectric effect of course, the start of the Incandescent Era of Lightbulbs, or Lightbulbs which glowed with light and heat energy emanating from the bulb Afterwards, the Arc Lamp became more common, in which 2 electrodes of Carbon were separated by a space of air, and electric current was applied to one electrode, which flowed to the other electrode and produced light across the space of air In 1879, in Thomas Edison's first lightbulb, he used a Platinum filament and put a piece of Carbonized Cotton Cloth around and in the filament, ran electric current through it, and it burned through thermionic emission for 2 and a half hours, and he decided to place it in a vacuum, sucking all the air out and placing the filament in there so the Carbon cotton wouldn't react with the air Today, Tungsten Lightbulbs or Lamps use Tungsten Filaments since this element has the highest melting point than that of any other, and can heat up while conducting heat and electrical energy at very high temperatures without melting or burning out, so it is placed between two electrodes in the form of an electromagnet, and as electric current is carried through and it produces an electromagnetic field which creates motion for the thermionic emission to occur and for the heat and light energy to be generated Fluorescent Lamps are another type, which contain Mercury drops which are liquid and gas, vaporizing each moment, and an Argon shield gas, a skinny and long spherical tube which has a phosphor coating, a filament and electrode as always, Mercury Vapor for producing UV radiation or light once it is ionized by the electrical energy running through the filament in the tube, and then the Phosphors are coated with UV light, absorb this light, transmit, and through the Photoelectric Effect reflect lower energy or visible light we can see, as Fluorescence and Phosphorescence are both taking place Mercury Vapor Lamps have two bulbs which act in the same way as Fluorescent Lamps only the bulbs is made of Quartz (Silicon Dioxide Glass) and the Mercury Vapor or Gas is at higher pressures, allowing the Mercury Vapor or Gas to produce visible light instead of UV light, signifying that changing the pressure of a gas can change what light it emits, or the extent of light it emits, and produces this light without the use of a Phosphor coating Neon Lamps are tubes filled with Neon Gas which glow a bright red when electric discharge runs through them, and through the Photoelectric Effect, it is ionized in a vacuum tube by tremendous voltages of electrical energy, and determined by the gas, determines the color, so you can also have other colored Lamps such as Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Helium lamps which are based on the same concept and glow different colors depending on the gas used Metal Halide Lamps, contain a metal filament and a Halogen Gas inside of it, and are exactly like Mercury Vapor lamps except that the metal that immediately reacts with the Halogen to produce a Metal Halide produces a color more exquisite than that of a Mercury Vapor Lamp, and doesn't need a Phosphor coating either, and the tube itself or lamp bulb is made of ceramic, sometimes quartz glass, and also contains an Argon Shield Gas and a Metal Halide salt such as Sodium Bromide and unlike Mercury Vapor Lamps, they operate at higher pressures and temperatures, and as the gas is ionized, emitting UV and Visible Light, sometimes contain a Phosphor Coating on the inside of the tube Sodium Lamps, the filament is made of Aluminum Oxide also known as Corundum, and a solid mixture of pressurized Sodium is mixed with Mercury While High Pressure Sodium Lamps emit red-orange colors, Metal Halide Lamps emit more of a blue color These Metal Halide Lamps consist of Metal Halides, particularly like Silver Bromide, Chloride, Iodide, or Fluoride which produce a white color after being heated to 4,000 K in the lamp to produce the light and heat energy needed for the lamp So how does a Metal Halide lamp work? Well, inside the lamp there is an arc tube made of quartz glass, in other words a cylindrical tube where on both ends it has an electrode pole, and wrapping around it is a Tungsten filament on both ends, which seal off the arc lamp from the air, and it is a vacuum tube There is also the Starting Electrode, on of the two electrodes connected to the battery and resistor which start up the lamp when it gets cold The Arc in the lamp contains Argon Gas, Mercury Liquid and Vapor Gas, and also a Halide Salt, so when the wire from the resistor part of the battery enters the lamp and an electric current is produced from the battery, and the electricity excites and ionizes the Argon Gas so it turns blue for one bit Then, as the Arc lamp starts to heat up, the Mercury liquid completely vaporizes into a gas, the lamp gets smaller in size of light but brighter as a blue color, and then the Halide Salts are specific chemicals given to the name Halide Salt Lamp or Metal Halide Lamp, and when they are heated and ionized through electrolysis and Thermolysis through the Photoelectric Effect, they give off their own colors So Silver Fluoride (clear), Chloride (White), Bromide (Yellow), and Iodide (Greenish Yellow) all give off their own colors when the Tungsten filament withstands the high temperatures inside the tube, so the Argon gives it a blue color at first, and then the rest of the colors shine soon after, and this mixture of light turns the already ionized Argon Gas producing blue light into white light once it heats up more and ionizes the Metal Halide Salts producing white light The ends of the Arc Tube unlike the Arc Tube whole itself are coated with Ceramic, to reflect heat back into the lamp which if it were not there to insulate the heat, the heat would be wasted and go out of the lamp to keep the arc at a specific temperature to keep it burning and producing a bright light, the light energy will only be generated if heat energy is present, these are sort of like the Lamps used in OttLite lamps 75% of the energy is actually used to make heat, which is then converted to working the remaining 25% of the energy as light Without the Ceramic Heat Insulation as a Polymer, the lamp would shift in color because the heat energy is thus wasted as it goes out into the atmosphere, and the metal halide salts are cooler, not ionized, back to normal, and the white light goes back to blue light, and if it gets too cool then it will just burn out Also, the ends of the Arc lamp are coated with ceramic pained white to reflect any of the heat rather than absorb it if it were to be pained black or any other color A 400-Watt lamp puts out about 38,000 lumens of light, which is 18,000 more lumens than Mercury Vapor Lamps, and more efficient But High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps are even more efficient and are the most modern lamp source used today, although as long as it lives, having a lamp life or shelf life shorter than Sodium Vapor Lamps as well, it emits a nice array of clean, bright white light, and doesn't depend on a Phosphor Coating like Fluorescent Tubes do So, Incandescent and Arc Lamps are rarely used anymore, and so Fluorescent Lamps are used but depend on a Phosphor Coating, so then Mercury Vapor Lamps were used which didn't depend on a Phosphor coating but weren't as efficient, so Metal Halide lamps were used but didn't last as long as High Pressure Sodium Lamps, so those are now used, and also Neon or Noble Gas lamps are the two Lamps commonly used today Metal Halide Lamps are used for "high-day" lighting, Parking Lot lighting, and Gas Station Canopy lighting Mercury Vapor Lamps are used for These HPS lamps burn with a bright yellow-orange light These HPS lamps contain a Lamp bulb of Alumina or Carbrorundum (Aluminum Oxide), a very stable oxide ionic compound which works better than glass and is the only lamp which uses a non-glass material for its bulb or tube containing the gases inside of it, and this Carbrorundum is made or transformed into a Ceramic-like material which other tubes and lamps used on the outside of the arcs inside the bulbs, but the bulbs themselves were glass which worked well enough, but these have ceramic on the arc lamps and on the glass bulbs The sudden change in use of Carbrorundum Ceramic was due to the fact that the ionization energy and high temperatures and pressures used in these lamps could withstand the temperatures, unlike glass or ceramic itself which would just break A discharge lamp, it has one electrode at each end with Tungsten filaments, the gas used is Xenon Gas which is heavier than Argon Gas and thus can withstand such temperatures and be ionized to produce a lasting effect greater than that of Argon, and there is an Amalgam or Mercury Alloy of Sodium and Mercury in the Arc Tube, because the alloy controls the rate at which the Sodium melts and also because it can absorb, transmit, and reflect light through the Photoelectric Effect to produce a whiter light, and although it still looks orange, it also gives a "monochromatic" white light at first Higher compact and longer lasting, they aren't as efficient as Low Pressure Sodium Lamps, but overall outweigh efficiency and use of all lamps If the lamp gets cold, they use a high-voltage pulse to get it going There is an external electric circuit built-in outside of the ballast or battery and the current hits the lamp with a high-voltage spike or spark which starts the arc As the current is used more and more, the temperature and pressure increase, and the Xenon is excited and ionized first and turns the lamp a Sky Blue, then the Mercury from the Amalgam vaporizes second turning the lamp normal Blue, and then the Sodium vaporizes last, generated by the heat from the Mercury Gas, and turns the lamp orange-yellow color from the normal flame test and photoelectric results of Sodium So, first the Xenon is excited and ionized and it turns the lamp a Sky Blue color, and then the Mercury from the Amalgam vaporizes as the temperature from the increasing current increases High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps are used for street lighting, lighting large areas, home lights, orange color and glow, and at first were normal Pressure but then High Pressure because they found that would increase it efficiency

The Chemistry of Detergents (All Concepts)

Detergents are also known as the chemistry of all Soaps and Shampoos, and are known as Emulsions, a type of colloid or homogenous mixture, as the three types of homogenous mixtures known include solutions, colloids, and suspensions which are determined based on a particle's size and surface area, and this is a colloid in which normally it is heterogeneous or immiscible (meaning the liquids have a large difference in polarities), but when shaken up become miscible or liquid droplets suspended in another liquid which don't normally stay that way unless they are shaken up Air is a Homogenous Mixture, Alloys are Homogenous unless they exist in different phase states in which case if any mixture's substances are in different phase states they have different densities and thus do not combine evenly and are Heterogeneous, Oil and Water mixtures are Heterogeneous, Chemical Solutions are Homogenous, Oobleck is Homogenous, many drinks are homogenous including Vinegar, Chicken Noodle Soup is Heterogeneous, blood, soil, and sand are all heterogeneous even though they look homogenous to the naked eye, and Homogenous Mixtures can be in parts of larger Heterogeneous Mixtures Dispersions are when phase changes or states of substances are mixed together in different ways to form mixtures that are usually colloids or suspensions as homogenous mixtures Dispersions include Aerosols which are very low-density solids and light liquid particles in a gas which may include CFC's and Chloroform, Smoke- solid particles in a gas, Fog- liquid particles of water in a gas, as well as Sols which are solid particles in a liquid, Gels which are liquids in solids, and Emulsions like Mayonnaise and Soaps and Shampoos, formally known as Detergents So, enough with the basic lesson on Matter, how does Soap Work??? Detergents are needed because oils, fats, and other messes need to be cleaned up, whether they be from your sweat or dirt on your body, or from the greasy foods you ate after dinner, and as an emulsifier and emulsion, they work because water has a different polarity than fats, as water is polar and fats are nonpolar chemically, and thus can remove fats rather than water, and Soap allows Oil and Water to mix so the Water can chemically react with it and rinse out all the fatty substances Detergents are also known as Surfactants and work in the same way as them in which they lower the surface tension and intermolecular forces binding water together so that it becomes wetter and sticks to other substances other than itself Other than Surfactants, and the basic fats and lye, Detergents may also include or contain certain enzymes to break down fats or even more complex proteins, bleaches for decolorization, and blue pigments and dyes to get rid of substances yellowing What's cool about detergents is that they contain a chain of Hydrophobic molecules on one end, and Hydrophilic molecules on the other end, the primary surfactant component of it Detergents can be made from different substances as these are common additives as follows o Petrochemicals or Hydrocarbons which are attracted to the Oil or Fat o Oxidizing Agents like Sulfur Trioxide and Ethylene Oxide which are attracted to the water or the hydrophilic functions of the substance and provide properties of energy sources as well as the common functions of bleaches o Alkalis provide positively-charged ions to induce chemical reactions, and these include solutions or Alkali Metals as Bases like Sodium and Potassium Hydroxide, which are more specific to soaps Since Detergents don't form Soap Scum, it doesn't necessarily contains soap, for soap is a little more complex and specific of a substance There is a clear difference though between Soaps, Shampoos, and Detergents, Soaps and Shampoos contain more chemicals Historically, the Renaissance was one of the greatest eras of history, however no one really uncovered any knowledge about bathing for people during that time like the Kings and Queens bathed very little, once or twice a month at the most, and one Queen bathed only twice in her entire life, reason to say she only lived to be 38 years old Historically, Detergents have been known to come naturally from the ashes of plants, which contain Carbonates from the absorbed Carbon Dioxide and dissolved Minerals and Salts in the soil, so then oxidized and burned to turn into metal Carbonates, they mainly consist of Potassium and/or Sodium Carbonate, which react with water (found near streams in ancient villages) to produce bases like Sodium and Potassium Hydroxide, as well as Bicarbonates like Sodium or Potassium Bicarbonate from the alkaline plant ashes and today is still sold under the label of "washing soda", this was a process the Babylonians used around 4000 years ago, illustrated by the following chemical reaction Na2CO3 + H2O = (Na) HCO3 + NaOH Historically, Detergents have also been known to come naturally from animals and their fatty acids they create like from goat tallow, and the base or lye part would be created from the plant or wood ashes, but sooner or later came a method for obtaining the Sodium Carbonate, not from wood ashes, but simply from the evaporation of Hard, mineral-ion based Alkaline water, which was alchemically and serendipitously heated with lime, in other words, an ancient chemical reaction proposed and undergone by the roman who improved on the Phoenician's way of soap for they were popular for making soap and dyes and dyestuffs, as was the roman Pliny the Elder who had done the chemical reactions as follows First, Pliny produced Sodium Carbonate through the following chemical reaction H2O + M = M (OH) n OR... Next, Pliny produced Sodium Hydroxide through the following chemical reaction Na2CO3 + Ca (OH) 2 = 2 NaOH + CaCO3 Lastly, Pliny produced Soap or Detergent by heating the Sodium Hydroxide into a solution with the goat or beef tallow, as well as animal fats and vegetable oils to produce his soap, which is illustrated through the following chemical reaction Commercially, soaps are made by hydrolysis of Fats and Oils using superheated steam, and then the fatty acids produced are neutralized with a base like Sodium Hydroxide to produce the soap, and some soaps have air blown in to them before they solidify to lower their density so that they float Potassium-based soaps are softer than Sodium-based soaps, which neutralize any acids with Potassium Hydroxide When Tripalmitin reacts with Sodium Hydroxide, it produces Sodium Palmatate and Glycerol or Triglycerol, both of which are used in soaps, the Palmatate as the Surfactant, and Triglycerol as the Solvent As the soap or detergent enters the water and oil or fat mixture, its hydrocarbon ends cling onto the oil/fat, and its hydrophilic end (acid formed into a base) ends cling onto the water, as soap goes between the oil and water and creates a thick layer denser than oil but not of water, and quickly does its job, that is if you are looking at this from a standard emulsion point of view, but with dirty plates for example, the soap ends cling to the desired substance, and then the oil particles which are reacting with the soap's chains cling onto the inner part of the soap chain or hydrophobic part, while the hydrophilic cling onto the water, but are still a part of the same chains stuck in the oil at their hydrophobic ends, thus allowing the oil droplets to travel through the water The multiple chains of soap molecules form sort of a soap-oil particle, in which it tags the oil and comes together with other chains of soap molecules to all points in the center of an oil droplet, while the hydrophilic ends allow for it to come in contact with the water, and Sodium ions are added to the soap, rather than the previous Hydrogen ions in our previous construction of soap steps, so that it doesn't dissolve as easily, and thus these chains carry the oil droplets throughout the water The reason the particles don't coalesce or come together is because remember that the hydrophilic ends of the soap molecules are on the outsides of the oil droplets they are carrying and interact with the water, but not with other oil droplets for they also have Carboxylic Acid ends and do not interact as easily with each other since they are still part of chains which are holding into the centers of other particles or droplets of oil which form such a dispersion Unfortunately, when Soap reacts with Acids in acidic solutions, it kicks the Sodium ions out and produces fats or fatty acids, rather than rinsing and ridding fats, which are not good for that reason, but also since fatty acids don't have an ionic end, and thus do not undergo any detergent action, for a detergent you need an ion other than Hydrogen and the Hydrophilic Carboxyl group as we mentioned in the construction of soaps section, and also after awhile, insoluble and impure soap scum will form and precipitate out of the water such as Calcium or Sodium ions Without synthesizing soaps but getting rid of the scum produced from the Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Calcium ions produced from within them, Washing Soda, also known as Sodium Carbonate in aqueous solution is used, which is dissolved in the soap to make it more basic than ever Water softeners like Washing Soda, which contains Sodium Carbonate has a certain production process utilized by Pliny the Elder, as explained above None the less, before getting synthetic soaps, the Carbonate ions of the Washing Soda react with the water in acidic solutions to produce both Bicarbonate and Hydroxide ions in the solution, and the Sodium is even there to react ionically with the Hydroxide to produce Sodium Hydroxide, which can neutralize the fatty acid and bring the solution back to normal None the less, before getting synthetic soaps, the Carbonate ions of the Washing Soda may react with Magnesium or Calcium ions which might have dissolved in the solution, and thus react as Carbonate ions with Magnesium or Calcium ions to produce salts which are insoluble and are not actually just floating ions which cause soap to scum up, but salts which you can remove from the solution, such as Magnesium or Calcium Carbonate Trisodium Phosphate, as well as other Phosphates are other alternatives as Water softeners Carbonates and Phosphates are ions which act like bases because in chemical reactions when coming in contact with water, they produce Hydroxide ions, so their just as unfamiliar I guess you could say as Carboxyl's acting as Acids All the Sodium ions which do not make up any of the impurities are collected at the bottom in result of the creation of soft water

Concepts Associated with Chemical Reactions and Kinetics (All Concepts)

The reaction pathway of a chemical reaction are the steps taken and represented by endothermic and exothermic reaction graphs to describe what is happening throughout the reaction as reactants turn into products, since Chemistry is a subject of studying matter and the changes of energy it undergoes, energy is applied to every chemical reaction Another way of describing these temperature changing graphs is to call them reaction coordinate diagrams, which plot the energy and changes in energy throughout a chemical reaction, in which the y axis is the energy of the reaction and all the atoms and molecules involved, and the x axis is simply time or how far the reaction has progressed as would be on any graph An important qualitative concept to remember when studying Kinetics is that when atoms and molecules are lower in energy, they are more stable, nonetheless when higher in energy, they are less stable, and also more reactive, so all atoms and molecules in a chemical reaction, compounds in general, want to get to a lower energy state In the reaction pathway, the first step is determining your reactants, what are they, how many are there, what are their physical and/or chemical properties, and how much energy is stored in either their chemical bonds, or how strong are their electromagnetic fields in terms of the energy of its electrons In the reaction pathway, the second step is using activation energy, the amount of energy used to spark or begin the reacting of the reactants to form the product, with all chemical reactions, natural or artificial, energy is needed to heat the electrons, which are always thermally conductive, and thus when one electron is heated the next is as they move to higher energy levels, and soon break from their atoms and thus break the bonds, ions and atoms of similar electronegativities and electropositivities are flying around not able to react because of the amount of energy breaking them apart In the reaction pathway, the third step is the transition state, in other words determining how much activation energy is taken in or absorbed by the reactants, and how much can be given off, so as the bonds are now broken and there are new atoms in the area, readily active and ready to form compounds, as we are looking at synthesis reactions, decomposition reactions, and displacement reactions, therefore in this transition state, we can tell whether or not the reactants' chemical properties with one another make it an endothermic or exothermic reaction If the reactants start off with more energy than the products, they do not simply need to lose just as much energy as the products would have, rather they need to gain enough energy to break the bonds between them and actually form the new products, which thus have a lower energy because of the chemical properties of these products demonstrating that they do not take in heat easily, and thus heat energy is given off in the reaction and it is an Exothermic Reaction If the reactants start off with less energy than the products, not only do they need energy to break and reform new bonds in the transition state, which requires twice as much energy as before, to one, actually get them moving, and two, break and reform the bonds, and thus the chemical properties of the reactants will determine if they do not move much and need extra energy just to get them moving, and thus in order to get from the reactants to products, you can't add the amount of energy the products result in having in to the reactants, since they need another packet of energy after getting them moving to break and reform the bonds, and then afterwards can react and also take in half the heat as result, thus based on these properties of the reactants, the products will have more energy than the reactants, and thus it would be an Endothermic Reaction, considering both of these last two points in association with the Reaction Coordinate Diagram Mathematically, the change in energy equals the change or difference in energy between the products and reactants, and is independent of its value, so this isn't the amount of energy to be gained or lost by the reactants to equal the products, since it needs that Transition State or Activation Energy first, however will eventually form the products, will have this much energy more or less than the reactants once did Therefore in that equation, and in qualitative perspective, if the energy of the reactants is more than the products, it is an exothermic reaction, and if the energy of the reactants is less than the products, it is an endothermic reaction Collision Theory summarizes the Reaction Pathway with a set of points that tell how a chemical reaction takes place, or what actually happens o Particles of the reactants must collide into each other in order to change their properties and make new substances o Particles of the reactants, being atoms or compounds, must have energy to react, specifically Activation Energy before reaching energy more than or less than the products' energy, and must move fast enough to break the bonds, thus thermal and kinetic energy are at work o Particles of the reactants, specifically their molecular structures or orientations must be orientated correctly, atom to atom, in order for the chemical reaction to be complete So based on these points and the more in-depth ones described to determine if a reaction is endothermic or exothermic demonstrates the events of reaction pathways of chemical reactions However, Chemical Kinetics suggests the question of whether or not we can make the reaction go faster, of if the activation energy, or any energy form for that matter representing as the activation energy, determining which form of energy is used, or which factor speeds up the reaction, thus making reactions go faster and determining the factors it will take to make reactants react, thus at the same time determining properties of those reactants The first is Concentration, or Density, the amount, a higher concentration increases the number of particles in the same space, thus they are more likely to react with each other The second is Temperature, simply based on the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases (and substances in general), as you heat a substance, its particles more faster, and thus having more energy, so when two particles collide they are more likely going to have enough energy to react The third are Catalysts, simply based on the fact that they speed up chemical reactions, and are able to lower the activation energy and changing the reaction pathway to avoid the highest energy state, since they speed them up, they lower the activation energy since they take place of the activation energy mostly, thus lowering the energy state and overall making the products more stable than the reactants anyway Also, Catalysts make it so that there is a lower energy barrier for the reaction to occur, so particles will have enough energy to react when they collide Simply swishing particles around in Solution Chemistry gives them enough Kinetic Energy to collide, if set under the right conditions or temperatures Equilibrium is the state at which the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, thus the concentration of the reactants and products do not change unless the conditions under which the products are set at are changed, and although these concentrations do not have to be equal to each other, the reactants forming products react to form the original reactants are occurring this way at the same rate By manipulating factors of kinetics such as concentration and temperature, Equilibrium reactions can be created, changed, or can completely run out of reactants, by they the products or original reactants to work with When ions of different colors participate in Equilibrium reactions, they can often change the color of the solution as you mix it, then wait awhile when they react to form products, and then go back and form the original reactants, thus always being ions are better known as Chemical Clock reactions based on concepts of Equilibrium

The Chemistry of CRT's and TV's (All Concepts and Facts)

- Molding a glass tube and sucking the air out of it while putting metal electrodes- a cathode and an anode in the tube is how to make a successful vacuum - Connecting the negative electrode or cathode in the tube through a small hole of coiled wire to a high-voltage electrical supply box didn't excite the air but it did excite the anode aglow - Cathode Rays were what the glow was called, assumed to be rays since they were cast by shadows which moved in straight lines and carried toward the positive electrode- the anode from the electrode which had the wire connected to the high-voltage box, so they ray had to be negatively charged - William Crookes developed a better tube where he put a positively charged paddle wheel inside one to see if the ray would affect it, and the wheel turned so he concluded they were negatively charged particles - JJ Thomson correctly proposed these negatively charged particles as electrons because he figured out the mass was smaller than that of an atom resulted by measuring the to what extent magnetic and electric fields deflected the new particles & that cathode rays could be deflected by magnetic fields - TV is made by a cathode and anode (CRT) tube where electrons bounce off the cathode to the anode and glow on a sheet coated with chemicals called phosphors as images can be traced on these phosphor sheets to make TV come to life - A Colored screen has three beams and three different colored phosphors where the beam contains electromagnets within the tube it is in - Ambrose Fleming & Lee de Forest innovated the "diode valve"- a metal grid between electrodes in a vacuum tube in which the ray of electrons from the cathode to anode was stopped, supplying an electrical signal to the grid, able to control the electron flow like a valve - Valves can be used as electronic switches in cathode ray vacuum tubes - When there is no metallic charge which means no grid the current flows normally and is considered "on" - When there is a metallic charge which means there is a grid, then the current stops flowing and is turned off to give electrical signal to the metallic grid to produce amplification of electrons such as in the Audion

The Chemistry of Fire (All Concepts and Facts)

Fire is just visible heat and light or thermal and electromagnetic energy emanating from producing it from chemical combustion reactions, while all the Carbon Dioxide Gas and Water Vapor created quickly drives off into the atmosphere Alcohols are very flammable substances and can easily be Oxidized and thus be a useful Reducing Agent, and when you add metals to alcohols, dependent on the metal you will get a certain flame through applications of the photoelectric effect and periodic science, a red flame for Strontium, a yellow flame for Sodium, and a Green Flame for Boron, all thereof their respective emission spectra Cotton Wool, Flour, and Wood Sticks or Matches all burn quite easily, reactively, and readily because they are all carbohydrates, which contain active amounts of Carbon which chemically react with the Oxygen they are burned by to produce Carbon Dioxide, and all the extra Hydrogen atoms of the molecules are connected to the Oxygen to form water, as well as energy or fire, and this same energy which emanates widely from these chemicals or materials is the same energy in a different form which is used through the food we eat Adding any material or food into liquid oxygen works better and burns brighter and more widely because the Oxygen is less dense than in the gaseous form, being thus more concentrated and thus easier to react when set aflame to get the reaction going, whether it be Iron and metals, cotton wool, flour, matches, wood, etc. and works so well and so diversely because Oxygen is very reactive Hydrocarbons such as candles and wax work as well, reacting with Oxygen to produce the same products, and we can confirm it produces these products via the apparatus used to make Limewater or Calcium Hydroxide react with Carbon Dioxide, in which heat energy is given off and Carbon Dioxide, and in the process the heat energy breaks and reforms the bonds between Calcium Hydroxide and Carbon Dioxide emanating from the candles, producing a milky solution of Calcium Carbonate as a precipitate in the solution, and Water, as water is a product of all combustion reactions as well Remember Oxygen doesn't burn, so setting a flame an Oxygen Balloon does nothing, it needs to combine with something else in order to burn, such as in water production, and Hydrogen is a good example of a flammable gas unlike Oxygen, which needs the Hydrogen, and burns the Hydrogen, not itself In a bag of Hydrogen Gas, setting a flame to Hydrogen doesn't make it burn, only Oxygen will make it burn, and since Oxygen is a reactant of combustion instead of a product, it will not burn, it needs that Oxygen A balloon containing Hydrogen in a tube of Hydrogen Gas will not stay there, it cannot "float" upon Hydrogen Gas because the balloon's added mass makes it heavier than the Hydrogen, and thus is forced out of the tube if the tube is upside down, with the hole pointing the ground of course At just the right ratio, Hydrogen and Oxygen can react and burn within each other to form Water, and also to form a loud bang and instantaneous explosion, rather than a little candle flicker of light, and in doing so, the more proportionate your substances are, the better bang you will get Although Oxygen needs something else, burning it and itself, for example Hydrogen burning in Oxygen Gas, Oxygen can also be burning in Hydrogen Gas, known as an Oxygen Flame in Hydrogen Propane is another great example at a combustible substance since it burns in air, in Oxygen to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water and Energy, and in order to make Propane burn with a brighter flame and louder bang than the original whisky, slow flame, is to find the right ratio of Propane to Oxygen by balancing its chemical equation, and in doing so 1 molecule of Propane reacts with 5 molecules of Oxygen Gas to produces 4 molecules of water, 3 molecules of Carbon Dioxide, and also energy as always in the form of heat and light, think about it in terms of balls, to make water you need 2 hydrogen, 1 oxygen, so for every 2 hydrogen you have 1 oxygen, and there are 8 hydrogen, which means you would have 4 oxygen, or 2 molecules of 2 oxygen atoms, and then to make Carbon Dioxide you have 3 carbons which each need 2 oxygen atoms, so 3 molecules of diatomic Oxygen plus 2 molecules of diatomic Oxygen equal 5 molecules of diatomic Oxygen, and from there you just need to balance the equation, then you get your big, bright bang You probably have heard of Methane, a Natural Gas with Carbon in the middle and 4 Hydrogens, but with similar periodic properties, replacing it with Silicon gives you Silane, which as a molecule is a little more reactive as a result of catching fire spontaneously instead of with a heat catalyst, and after Silane is produced, it reacts with Oxygen in the air to produce water and Silicon Dioxide rather than Carbon Dioxide, exactly the same way as before and in the same proportions, however replacing Carbon with the element Silicon Silane is produced demonstratively when Acid such as Hydrochloric Acid reacts with a salt plate called Magnesium Silicide, and spontaneously reacts instead of needing a heat catalyst to break, reform bonds and produce Silane Gas, as well as Magnesium Chloride, in which the Silane Gas is then driven off and reacts with the Oxygen Gas in the air in the same way Carbon reacts with the air, producing Silicon Dioxide or sand, and Water Methyl Lithium produces Methane which can then be changed to make Silane which can then react with air to produce sand and water, Methyl Lithium is the simplest organometallic compound known which can also react with the air and burn a bright red flame because of the present Lithium becoming ionized through applications of the Photoelectric Effect, and the Methyl free radical, and when Methyl reacts with moist air, it produces Lithium Hydroxide and Methane, 1 atom of Hydrogen reacting with the Methyl group to produce Methane, and the Hydrogen and Oxygen being in the Lithium Hydroxide compound Fire Extinguishers contain mostly pressurized Carbon Dioxide, that when shot out of the Extinguishing Device make it so that the petrol burning stops reacting with the Oxygen and reacts with the Carbon Dioxide, producing some compound, however stopping to burn, and the Carbon Dioxide acts like Argon, Helium, or any other known Gas Shield, potentially stopping substances from reacting with the air because a medium is placed with or contained inside of them, and this is why putting a flame in a tube of Carbon Dioxide makes it run off and disappear right away, but Carbon Dioxide isn't the best gas Shield, it is for things that burn with Oxygen, however being heavier than air and thus stays in the tube or tank you put the Oxygen flame in, rather than rising or being driven off, and Carbon Dioxide is good at putting out fires in which Carbon Dioxide is a product, however Magnesium is extremely reactive and reacts with Oxygen only to produce Magnesium Oxide, which doesn't produce Carbon Dioxide, rather the heat that is also produced can break and reform Carbon Dioxide's bonds so the Magnesium burns even more, and black Carbon is left over, so the Magnesium reacts with Carbon Dioxide to produce Magnesium Oxide and Carbon bits as well as energy, so Carbon Dioxide works for fires of Hydrocarbons, Carbohydrates, and even Silane, but when it comes to metals like Rubidium, Cesium, Sodium, or Magnesium Carbon Dioxide just feeds the fire So, in order to burn out fires of metals like Magnesium, we may have to use other substances other than Carbon Dioxide, and we know Gas Shields work, but such gases are Noble Gases, which we don't have, and we know water won't work because any metal which reacts with water produces Hydrogen Gas, acids won't work because any metal which reacts with acid produces Hydrogen Gas and a salt, Anhydrides won't work because that will produce a base, and most Oxides won't work because Magnesium isn't reactive enough to reduce the Oxides and produce a metal or metalloid and produce Magnesium Oxide, or any other Metal Oxide for that matter However, Silicon Dioxide isn't as stable, and Carbon Dioxide doesn't work, but Sand or Silicon Dioxide might, but if you try it, you find out Silicon Dioxide doesn't work either, nothing does! Nonetheless, when Magnesium reacts with Silicon Dioxide it produces Magnesium Silicide and Oxygen Gas, and as the Gas is driven off, Magnesium Silicide remains Oxygen Gas isn't the only combusting gas out there which will react with such substances such as Carbohydrates, Hydrocarbons, Metals, Reactive Nonmetals, Silane, and other substance, because there are more reactive gases such as Fluorine or Chlorine Gas, which will react with all of these listed substances These substances are those such as Hydrocarbons including Ethyne or Acetylene Gas, and when Chlorine Gas reacts with Acetylene Gas given a sufficient amount of energy, it produces Hydrochloric Acid and black bits of Carbon These substances are those such as good old Hydrogen, which reacts with Chlorine given Acetylene light and heat energy and fuel as a catalyst, to produce Hydrochloric Acid as well as lots of heat and light energy and there is no Carbon, just Hydrogen, not Hydrocarbons, so no Carbon or Oxygen, but Hydrogen and Chlorine, 2 elements which in diatomic gaseous forms replace the original atoms or elements and are just synthesis rather than combustion reactions, but still produce lots of heat and light energy as it is an exothermic reaction And just like before, Hydrogen and Chlorine in the right macromolecular ratios will produce a brighter, louder bang, rather than just mix and glow a nice bright yellow and then fade out real quick, and to form Hydrochloric Acid as they obviously will do, this is a famous demonstration which uses electromagnetic energy or light energy, without heat, so without a flame and just a high frequency, high energy wave emanating from a lamp or laser, and that will allow this special chain reaction of Hydrogen and Chlorine synthesizing and acting like a Combustion reaction to produce Hydrochloric Acid, Magnesium works as well in order to produce Magnesium Oxide based on the chain reaction's initiation step with electromagnetic energy

Concepts Associated with Polymers and Events Associated with the History of Polymers (All Concepts and Events)

In ancient times, the only other material that could be molded or shaped in different forms wasn't plastic but ceramics (clay and pottery) and glass (handled carefully at high temperatures), and although these materials were used for and applied to storage, they were quite heavy and sometimes sticky with other substances In 1839, American Chemist Charles Goodyear (who came around to founding Goodyear Tires Company) serendipitously (accidentally discovered) heated crude rubber in the presence of Sulfur and let it cool afterwards, and the rubber he made, which had already been invented, and through a chemical reaction the Sulfur attached adjacent polymer strands, in which the rubber was stronger and more elastic, Goodyear had discovered a way to make rubber stronger, by means of Vulcanization, which could also be used in the presence of solid tellurium o This reaction produces one of two types of polymers called an Addition Polymer, for it was one substance, and then Sulfur was added shortly after to produce a new substance, rubber, however vulcanized rubber In 1846, Swiss Chemist Charles Schonbein serendipitously spilled a nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture on cotton, and working together with Rudolf Bottger, had established producing this new plastic through a chemical reaction in which the (hydroxyl groups) cellulose in the cotton (the primary substance) played a role o The Cellulose reacted with Nitric Acid to produce Cellulose Nitrate, as well as some of the Oxygen from the Sulfuric Acid mix, as the Sulfur catalyzed the reaction to produce Cellulose Nitrate, water was a byproduct as well due to this particular reaction o Also, this reaction produces Nitrocellulose, one of two types of polymers called a Condensation Polymer, in which an Acid or Acid-like substance and Alcohol or Alcohol-like substance react to produce the polymer, an ester, or dependent on the acid, for example hydrochloric acid being used would end up making the ester a chlorate, and also water being produced as a byproduct always, so as a result, he made Nitrocellulose In 1870, American Inventor John Hyatt began studying and working with such materials like Nitrocellulose and was able to chemically react Nitrocellulose with Camphor to make Celluloid, a plastic polymer used for a variety of purposes, so he made Celluloid In 1909, Leo Baekeland produced Bakelite (named after himself of course, now known today as a Phenol-Formaldehyde resin, and the most popular of such plastics, began working with such materials like organic phenols (the alcohol in this case), and formaldehyde (the acid in this case), and through a chemical reaction produced a condensation polymer, so it also produced water, known as a condensation reaction, producing a hard, heat-resistant, electrical-resistant insulator, used for insulation, and Baekeland ended up producing the first of a large, popular class of plastics known as phenolic resins o The Hydrogen in the water comes from the hydrogen in the Benzene Rings, and the Oxygen in the water comes from the Oxygen of the Formaldehyde, and in creating the first ever thermoset polymer, meaning after heating it cannot be remolded or reshaped, he produced the brittle thermoset plastic Bakelite o More on Bakelite You can add Formaldehyde, but you can also add various acids, such as Acetic or Hydrochloric Acid, as catalysts for this particular reaction, making the Formaldehyde attack the Phenol at positions closer to the Hydroxyl group, joining many of these rings together as CH2 groups, since the Hydroxyl left to join the Phenol So first, each CH2OH joins onto each C6H6OH, and then the OH of the CH2OH from one of the molecules joins with a Hydrogen atom from the other molecule currently a Benzene ring, to produce the byproduct of water, and the CH2 from the CH2OH that once was now reacts and connects to the Benzene ring, and this is on the outside of every one of these molecules, producing a 3-dimensional chain of rigid, brittle CH2-Benzene-OH molecules In 1930, American chemist Walter Carruthers was working with organic chemicals, specifically diaminohexane (the alcohol with Hydrogen on the ends available due to the amine NH2 groups on the ends of the molecules) and Adipic acid (just another random organic acid containing the Hydroxyl Groups of the ends), and the two chemicals reacted (and will still react) to produce water (given the Hydrogen on the ends of the Amine groups and Hydroxyl groups on the ends of the Organic Acid), and Nylon, a condensation reaction producing a condensation polymer, and one of lightweight yet strong and durable properties, it is applied in many areas, even clothing In 1945, and shortly after the end of WW2, these guys became the pioneers of polymers, and while many individuals succeeded on their own, many groups of chemists and inventors began using similar processes to produce classes of addition polymers, including Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Styrofoam, and Vinyl; and of condensation polymers, including Dacron (made from Terepthalic Acid and Ethylene Glycol), and other forms of Nylon o Addition Polymers are divided into two large classes as well, homopolymers (additions of the same monomer), and copolymers (addition[s] of [a] different polymer[s]) o Addition Reactions [producing plastics] can involve rearranging electrons in originally double-bonded molecules in a monomer to now form single bonds with other molecules o Various polymer chains can interact and cross-link by forming strong and/or weak bonds between monomers on different polymer chains, and as an interaction can give rise to the properties of certain polymer plastics including how soft or hard they are, stretchy or rigid, clear or opaque, as well as how reactive or inert they may be

Concepts Associated with Inorganic Chemistry & the ATMOSPHERE (All Concepts)

The Atmosphere is all around us and is considered a Homogenous Mixture or Solution, in which case the Nitrogen is the solvent, and Oxygen and other Greenhouse Gases are the multiple solutes Composition of the Atmosphere The Troposphere, which is generally warmer than the rest of the divisions, and is the lowest division, we will be focused on the Troposphere and Stratosphere The Stratosphere, which contains the Ozone Layer, unique trace Gases, and Carbon Dioxide traces The Mesosphere and Thermosphere are higher above in kilometers in the atmosphere, and after the Thermosphere which is called that as rockets heat up quickly in this part of the atmosphere, is space itself Composition of the Air The breathable air on earth consists of Nitrogen Gas (78%), Oxygen Gas (21%) and trace greenhouse gases of Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen, Helium, Methane, Nitrogen Dioxide and Water Vapor Greenhouse Gases are most of the Gases which explode from the depths of the Earth in Volcanoes anyway such as the ones described above and are given such a title Atmosphere's Relation with Hydrosphere and Lithosphere Most of the Carbon Dioxide and Methane comes from the exhausts of gases Volcanoes produce Most significant of the Lithosphere's core is the liquid and solid discoveries through seismic wave readings is the Iron and Nickel, which are both good conductors of heat and electricity and produce magnetic fields Earth's Magnetic Field The Iron and Nickel produces the Magnetic Field, which outside the axis is present around Earth and has multiple functions such as protecting the Earth from harmful "solar wind" or electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet radiation and heat energy that is further absorbed by the Ozone Layer and Greenhouse Gases The magnetic field as discovered by William Gilbert acts like a huge bar magnet and allows for the convection currents in oceans and the mantle to occur since they are propelled by the Earth's magnetic field The overall magnetic field generated is similar to that of a bar magnet, therefore the reason we have north and south poles which lie close to the actual north and south poles of the spin axis of the Earth This Iron and Nickel convects currents as this motion generates magnetic fields, like plasma in the sun generating sun's and other star's magnetic fields These unknown forms of energy that come through at the North and South poles or weak ends of Earth as a bar magnet welcome some particles of solar wind in, which collide with the gas particles in the air and the atoms absorb the unknown quanta of energy as transfers of electromagnetic radiation from the sun This energy is thus absorbed by the atom and the electrons are slowly quickly in the excited state moving out of the shell, leaving the atom as photons, and also creating wavelengths in between the energy levels that result as colors and was theoretically proposed as the photoelectric effect by Einstein These magical colors and forms are produced as solar wind contacts gas particles and through the photoelectric process creates magical colors and spaces for this heat to move at the poles of the Earth, thus called the Aurora Borealis Gases Trap Heat These magnetic fields deflect most of the charged particles from solar wind or electromagnetic radiation of the sun like Cosmic Rays, and the solar heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the air as created by volcanoes as evidently shown on their absorption/emission spectra, without the iron-nickel liquid convection currents inducing the magnetic field, the electromagnetic radiation or solar wind would eventually erode the Earth Their emission/absorption relativity structure show little or no wavelengths of light, thus trapping the electromagnetic radiation in the form of light and heat, and this is why gases are colorless, odorless, and do not trap heat, evidently shown by the emission/absorption spectra of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, and Hydrogen The Carbon Cycle The Carbon Cycle works when plants absorb Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it to sugars and complex starches that store these sugars and give off Oxygen as well The plants are either eaten where the Carbon is transferred in the forms of Carbon Dioxide and Carbohydrates Or the plants are destroyed, dying, decaying, and all the stored Carbon in the Starches decays into Carbohydrates left for bacteria in the soil, fossils of the plants, and simple carbon in the form of fossil fuels The animals may give off Carbon in the form of Methane Gas, Poop, or Farting or they may die and decay producing fossils, fossil fuels, and carbohydrates for bacteria in the fossil fuel process as subjected by heat and pressure in the continental crust of the lithosphere as well The Carbon Dioxide given off by Animals (Methane, Poop, Farting), Plants (Oxidized Starches, Respiration), and even us humans (Methane, Poop, Farting, Combustion of Fossil Fuels) returns to the atmosphere where plants retake it in and soda companies use it for soda as well, which thus completes the Carbon Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle works when Nitrogen in the air is attracted to Oxygen by process of a lightning catalyst which induces an electromagnetic field and also is strong enough to break the bonds between the triple bonded nonpolar diatomic strength of Nitrogen Gas to form Nitrogen Oxide Nitrogen Oxide condenses with Water to produce Nitric Acid and more Nitrogen Oxide as balanced by chemical equations The Nitrogen Oxide condensed with more evaporated water to precipitate and form Nitric Acid and that process continues This Nitrogen Oxide and Nitric Acid is further converted through biochemical reactions for bacteria, fertilizer production, and plants to convert them into Nitrates and Ammonia as the Nitric Acid and rainwater mix into the soil after being rained down Through a process called Nitrogen fixation, the Nitrogen in the air is "fixed", in other words the bacteria around them absorb powerful nutrients they break down and decay such as Ammonium, Nitrite, and Nitrate and through complex chemical reactions, the Ammonia is thus converted into Nitrate and Nitrite Through this process, the bacteria breaking down the Nitrogen into Nitrate and Nitrite do the same job when break down Carbohydrate filled organisms into Fossil Fuels they cannot use Once Nitrites and Nitrates, which can be used to build plant's hereditary material and metabolic reactions, and Nitric Acid in the rainwater and soil, the Organic Nitrogen (like Carbon in the Carbon Cycle) goes up the food chain! Animals eat the plants, plants decay, animals decay, humans eat the animals, Humans give off Nitrogen, and all this Nitrogen is thus deposited in the soil and atmosphere like Carbon in the form of Carbon Dioxide, Bacteria food, and Fossil Fuels Then the Nitrogen in the form of Nitrates and Nitrites deposited continues this cycle and recycles Nitrogen, Amino Acids, pee and poop of humans emit it, and then it comes in contact with "Denitrifying" bacteria which metabolize Nitrogen Oxides in complex chemical reactions, turning them back into Nitrogen Gas, absorbing the Oxygen and being Oxidized, reducing the Nitrogen back to Nitrogen Gas using a special enzyme called Nitrate reductase which lives up to its name well, and thus, the Nitrogen Cycle is completed Briefly, Atmospheric Gaseous Nitrogen is broken by lightning in the air as being triple bonded and converted to Nitrogen Oxides which react with water and are further converted to more Nitrogen Oxides and Nitric Acid which are further converted by react with special enzymes made by bacteria that force the Nitric Acid rainwater precipitating into the soil to be absorbed and thus decay in the eating of it by bacteria and thus the Nitrogen goes up and around positions of the food chain and is deposited everywhere until denitrification using special enzymes produced by the chemicals of bacteria denitrify it back into Nitrogen Gas and the cycle is thus completed The Oxygen Cycle The Oxygen cycle works when Oxygen Gas in the atmosphere is absorbed by humans and animals who then undergo respiration or breathing and release Oxygen in the form of Carbon Dioxide which is then taken in by plants which undergo photosynthesis and produce Glucose sugars for itself to store in starches as a part of the Carbon Cycle, and Oxygen Gas which returns to the atmosphere and thus the Cycle is complete Also, when oxidizing or combusting or burning fossil fuels, oxidizing iron for rust, weathering of rocks, and decomposing and decaying animals that release Carbon Dioxide, metabolism in humans, plants, and animals for food, all natural processes which produce the Carbon Dioxide and is then absorbed by living organisms such as plants which reproduce Oxygen Gas that returns back to the atmosphere and completes the cycle A Better Understanding of Inorganic Cycles, and the Phosphorus & Sulfur Cycles Included The Carbon Cycle (For the Fossil Fuels) The Carbon Cycle works when plants absorb Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it to sugars and complex starches that store these sugars and give off Oxygen as well The plants are either eaten where the Carbon is transferred in the forms of Carbon Dioxide and Carbohydrates Or the plants are destroyed, dying, decaying, and all the stored Carbon in the Starches decays into Carbohydrates left for bacteria in the soil, fossils of the plants, and simple carbon in the form of fossil fuels The animals may give off Carbon in the form of Methane Gas, Poop, or Farting or they may die and decay producing fossils, fossil fuels, and carbohydrates for bacteria in the fossil fuel process as subjected by heat and pressure in the continental crust of the lithosphere as well The Carbon Dioxide given off by Animals (Methane, Poop, Farting), Plants (Oxidized Starches, Respiration), and even us humans (Methane, Poop, Farting, Combustion of Fossil Fuels) returns to the atmosphere where plants retake it in and soda companies use it for soda as well, which thus completes the Carbon Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle (For Fertilization) The Nitrogen Cycle works when Nitrogen in the air is attracted to Oxygen by process of a lightning catalyst which induces an electromagnetic field and also is strong enough to break the bonds between the triple bonded nonpolar diatomic strength of Nitrogen Gas to form Nitrogen Oxide Nitrogen Oxide condenses with Water to produce Nitric Acid and more Nitrogen Oxide as balanced by chemical equations The Nitrogen Oxide condensed with more evaporated water to precipitate and form Nitric Acid and that process continues This Nitrogen Oxide and Nitric Acid is further converted through biochemical reactions for bacteria, fertilizer production, and plants to convert them into Nitrates and Ammonia as the Nitric Acid and rainwater mix into the soil after being rained down Through a process called Nitrogen fixation, the Nitrogen in the air is "fixed", in other words the bacteria around them absorb powerful nutrients they break down and decay such as Ammonium, Nitrite, and Nitrate and through complex chemical reactions, the Ammonia is thus converted into Nitrate and Nitrite Through this process, the bacteria breaking down the Nitrogen into Nitrate and Nitrite do the same job when break down Carbohydrate filled organisms into Fossil Fuels they cannot use Once Nitrites and Nitrates, which can be used to build plant's hereditary material and metabolic reactions, and Nitric Acid in the rainwater and soil, the Organic Nitrogen (like Carbon in the Carbon Cycle) goes up the food chain! Animals eat the plants, plants decay, animals decay, humans eat the animals, Humans give off Nitrogen, and all this Nitrogen is thus deposited in the soil and atmosphere like Carbon in the form of Carbon Dioxide, Bacteria food, and Fossil Fuels Then the Nitrogen in the form of Nitrates and Nitrites deposited continues this cycle and recycles Nitrogen, Amino Acids, pee and poop of humans emit it, and then it comes in contact with "Denitrifying" bacteria which metabolize Nitrogen Oxides in complex chemical reactions, turning them back into Nitrogen Gas, absorbing the Oxygen and being Oxidized, reducing the Nitrogen back to Nitrogen Gas using a special enzyme called Nitrate reductase which lives up to its name well, and thus, the Nitrogen Cycle is completed Briefly, Atmospheric Gaseous Nitrogen is broken by lightning in the air as being triple bonded and converted to Nitrogen Oxides which react with water and are further converted to more Nitrogen Oxides and Nitric Acid which are further converted by react with special enzymes made by bacteria that force the Nitric Acid rainwater precipitating into the soil to be absorbed and thus decay in the eating of it by bacteria and thus the Nitrogen goes up and around positions of the food chain and is deposited everywhere until denitrification using special enzymes produced by the chemicals of bacteria denitrify it back into Nitrogen Gas and the cycle is thus completed The Oxygen Cycle (for Photosynthesis and Respiration Processes) The Oxygen cycle works when Oxygen Gas in the atmosphere is absorbed by humans and animals who then undergo respiration or breathing and release Oxygen in the form of Carbon Dioxide which is then taken in by plants which undergo photosynthesis and produce Glucose sugars for itself to store in starches as a part of the Carbon Cycle, and Oxygen Gas which returns to the atmosphere and thus the Cycle is complete Also, when oxidizing or combusting or burning fossil fuels, oxidizing iron for rust, weathering of rocks, and decomposing and decaying animals that release Carbon Dioxide, metabolism in humans, plants, and animals for food, all natural processes which produce the Carbon Dioxide and is then absorbed by living organisms such as plants which reproduce Oxygen Gas that returns back to the atmosphere and completes the cycle Photosynthetical Oxygen is produced and taken in again through Respiratory Oxygen Phosphorus Cycle (for our Poop and Pee) Important since most organisms, humans, plants, and animals constitute of about 1% Phosphorus in our bodies and mostly waste products which go to our pee and poop of course, but like Phosphorus, we need Nitrogen to make Amino Acids Has its own cycle despite the fact it can't molecularly exist as a gas in the atmosphere, although the Lithosphere (named after Light Lithium coming off of the Iron based on the Big Bang) has some Phosphorus of its own such as sedimentary rocks and Phosphates, bacteria tend to digest Phosphorus called Lithotrophs and as water erodes Phosphates and dissolves them which can be carried to soil or found in "hard water" containing Phosphates Now, inside the plants from the changed water, these plants can either be eaten by animals who undergo the same biological processes as we do and are either killed with phosphates in them for us to eat, digest, and biologically decompose into urine or pee, so poo is Nitrates, pee is Urine, Urea (Nitrate/Amine), and Phosphates waste from the eating of the animals, eating of the plants and goes down the toilet, in the purification factory and released back into the air Plants eaten by animals can also decay, the animals can decay, and even humans (unfortunately) can decay, and thus these Phosphates are released in this process as well into the soil or water, and if any case they are released into the atmosphere, they will burn and create white or red phosphorus spontaneously and immediately and can't be recycled or reused Decomposed Phosphate can be assimilated into organisms to continue the cycle and recycle the phosphorus again It can also be assimilated into multiple organisms in the water such as bacteria or cyktoplankton one atom of Phosphorus can be found recycling and reusing itself in species covering the waters for hundreds of thousands of years before it travels all the way back to the water flowing to plants, plants to animals, plants to humans, animals, animals to humans, and humans themselves Soon it re-enters the soil or lithosphere until it is underground so much where bacteria can't live anymore and undergoes erosion until it becomes a phosphorus-containing phosphate as sedimentary rocks and minerals Water Cycle (for our Water and for Weather) You already know about this one, Erosion, Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Recollection Electrical Energy Conversion Cycle (for our Toasters and TV's) Coal is burned in the presence of humid water vapor which is converted into superheated steam which converts chemical energy into thermal energy of the steam which is then used to spin a turbine connected to a copper wire-based generator which converts thermal energy into mechanical energy to spin the turbine and excite electrons at one end to the other end of the Copper Structure in the generator to make it move, so the mechanical energy is then converted back into electrical energy since it is a generator, and the electrical energy carries the flowing electrons through wires underground and their voltages are transmitted in different quantities in large transistors and pylons carrying the electrical energy and current through large transistors which distribute the voltages to houses equally in the appliances of the houses, where your toaster or TV converts this electrical energy into thermal and electromagnetic "light" energy