Child Psych exam #2
Rothbart & Bates 1998 results
"Constitutionally based" - Genetic component (some heritability estimates = 0.5) BUT also prenatal & postnatal influences such as: hormones, neural development, nutrition, maternal stress, drug exposure, premature birth
Physical Self-Recognition: The Rouge Test
"mirror test" -- Put rouge on infant's nose/forehead and place in front of a mirror Does infant touch the rouge in the mirror or on his/her face? Mirror: No self-recognition Face: Self-recognition --> typically 18-24 months > critique= if they understand mirrors more, will pass earlier
crawling/ walking down slope ("Babies on the brink")
(Adolph et al.) - have infants walk/ crawl down diff slopes ➤Identify the angle at which infant falls most of the time. ➤Test at varying slopes around threshold ➤Perceptual judgment assessed by infant's attempts to descend slope 14 month old, skilled walker matches attempts to ability - locomotor experience affects perpetual judgement - novice crawlers/ walkers attempt slopes beyond actual ability --> w/ time, attempts match probability of success (more hesitation/ info cues, strategies)
phoneme discrimination
(both biological and environment) - perceptual narrowing (experience refines infants' ability to perceive phonemes they hear regulary
permissive
(opposite of authoritarian) exercise little explicit control/ affectionate/ emotional needs - generally affectionate but exercise little explicit control; allow child to determine own activities
Executive functions
(umbrella term) > a set of skills that support goal-directed behavior - holding multiple thoughts in mind - ability to follow rules, control behavior based on task demands - change behavior when rules/ task demands change ** set of skills that support flexible and controlled thinking - prefrontal cortex (last part of the brain to develop) - long time to fully develop --> continues through adolesence
They are willing to believe....... (limitations of early childhood cognitive development)
(video of jimmy kimmel with his daughter) - what they perceive -- will believe it/ it's true (all the candy is gone!) - what they are told (we ate all of the candy...) - Even if it doesn't make sense(trusts it even if it is unlikely, I ate all of the bubbles!)
Perceptual scaffolding:
** development of early perceptual skills provides a foundation for language acquisition (Infants are already in the process of developing language skills long before they speak their first words!) - prenatal = respond to sounds ~20-24 weeks - newborn = prefer speech sounds/ detect differences in rhythmic patterns - infants love "child talk" (higher pitches/ facial expressions exaggerated) - phoneme discrimination
Natural experiment: 1996 casino earnings
** effects of moving above the poverty line - to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina (Costello et al., 2003; 2010) ~$6,000 per person yearly Frequency of behavioral problems declined 40%, HS graduation rates improved - Greatest benefit for children who were youngest at time of supplement** - Indirect effects partially mediated through parenting quality --> lower financial stress, higher parenting quality
family factors example
** focus on parenting approaches/ income status/ daycare - siblings, stay at home vs daycare, divorce, average age of marriage, childbirth, single parent household, etc)
Still-face Paradigm
** infants have this expectation - caregiver and infant interact normally then caregiver stops moving, maintains neutral face - infant immediately detects change and attempts to solicit the caregiver's attention (smile, wave, reach, etc) - if no success the infant gives up ** very disturbing to infant --> reflects expectation for reciprocal interactions
Sam Stone Study (Leichtman& Ceci, 1995)
** suggestibility A man came into the daycare.... 4 diff conditions - 3-4 year olds and 5-6 year olds - suggestive questions and stereotypes (4 conditions) - in all but control: all experimental manipulations, increased recall errors (larger for younger children) 4 conditions =control, stereotypes, suggestions, both -- All experimental manipulations increased recall errors -- Effects larger for younger children -- Effects largest in stereotype + suggestion condition
Harlow's monkey studies
** unethical now -- wire mother with food vs cloth (comfort vs food) --> goes to cloth monkey -- varying contexts, daily experience, threat conditions (goes to cloth monkey when scared) ** In both conditions, Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent significantly more time with the terry cloth mother than they did with the wire mother
theory of mind
** young children are bad @ this The ability to think about other people's mental states and form theories of how they think. (understand how others think/ feel) - understand self and others as agents who act on the basis of beliefs, emotions, intentions, etc. - At 3 years, children can reason about differences in others' preferences/desires... -- Broccoli vs. crackers (18 months) understand others can have a different opinion/ preferences) --> pick broccoli for adult even tho they don't like it ...but have trouble reasoning about differences in others' beliefs: False-Belief Tasks
Chess & Thomas (1999) Model -- grouping infants by temperament
**grouping infants > Easy: positive mood, adaptable, predictable patterns > Difficult: negative mood, easily frustrated, slow to adapt, irregular/unpredictable patterns > Slow-to-warm: slightly negative, slow to adapt (but not as slow), irregular (but not as irregular) patterns
Face and Emotion Processing
**initial bias to attend to faces guides later learning ~ 3 months: discriminate happy, surprise, anger ~ 7 months: also fear, sadness Recognize match between facial and vocal expressions of emotion
White Crayons Study
- 3 preschoolers given coloring books: limited resource --> 2 white crayons, one colored crayon ** boys more likely to engage in physical aggression (pushing) vs girls more likely to engage in relational ("I won't be your friend," etc)
word discrimination and receptive vocabulary
- 4.5 months: recognize sound of their own name - 6 months: understand words for highly familiar objects - "Mommy", "Daddy" - 9 months: understand common expressions when used in specific routine situations - "Bye-bye", "Cookie?" - 2 years: 200- 500 words ** use assumptions to learn so fast/ new vocab
reliance on scripts (Erskine, Markham, & Howie (2001)) -- McDonalds
- 5-6 yos & 9-10 yos viewed images portraying scenes from McDonald's - Half saw sequence with script-central details left out; remaining saw sequence with peripheral details left out (forgetting to mention ordering versus getting ketchup) - Younger children were more likely to inaccurately recall the script-central detail that had not been part of the sequence (rely on their own script rather than the given one)
moral development
- 6-& 10-mo infants prefer objects that show helping behaviors - By 18 mos, children understand that some activities are forbidden. - 2 yos are sensitive to fairness, sharing, and helping - By the end of early childhood, children can state basic moral rules: "Don't take someone's things without asking."; "Tell the truth."
Emotional development (emotions)
- By 3-4 years, emotions have become more complex based on internalization of standards: - pride -feeling satisfied based on an achievement - guilt = think about negative aspects of something you've done ---> promotes action to change behavior - shame = attribute bad behavior to aspect of self that cannot be changed - correlated with depression -as young as 3 years of age (Else-Quest et al., 2012) --> shame emerges earlier than guilt;
Approaches to increase prosocial behaviors in early childhood?
- Explicit modeling: adults display the prosocial behavior - Induction: adults explain what needs to be done and why children should engage in prosocial behavior - Indirect interventions: e.g., promote emotion regulation
social influences on language acquisition
- No explicit teaching necessary! - "Incidental learning" - Statistical learning tasks -mere exposure supports word segmentation But... Child-directed speech enhances word segmentation 18 month vocabulary predicted by: -- Joint attention with caregiver in first year -- Amount and type of caregiver gesturing
Symbolic Representation -- Scale Models (Judy DeLoache)
- Object hidden in model room - Asked to search for object in real room (same as model room) Dramatic shift between 2.5-3 years --> 30-month-olds fail; 36-month-olds succeed The incredible shrinking machine: -- can alter outcome to have young kids pass --> incredible shrinking machine ("shrunk" toy and then room) --> younger children can make a link and pass (30 months)
Moral development involves an internalization of standards based on:
- Observing others and receiving feedback about behavior (social learning) - Emotional development and sensitivity to other's feelings - Behaving based on standards rather than personal desires (self-regulation) - Cognitive development and reasoning abilities
Stages of play:
- Practice play - Constructive play - Symbolic/sociodramatic play - Games with rules
2 types of aggression
- Proactive (instrumental) aggression: goal is to obtain something (ex: a toy) --> based on reasoning/ think through how to use aggression to get your way ** based on cognitive reasoning - Reactive aggression: elicited in response to a perceived provocation > emotional/ physiological response/ "hot-blooded" --> action done in moment/ automatic response
Conjugate Reinforcement
- Rovee-collier et al. Infant's leg attached to mobile--> Learn that kicking leg makes mobile move Key question: Do infants remember the features of the mobile? •3 mos: remember features for 1 week •6 mos: remember features for 2 weeks •9 mos: remember features for 6 weeks
Interactionism
- Some features of language system "set up" by biological system - Other features require exposure to native language biological= perpetual scaffolding environment/ require exposure= phoneme discrimination, word segmentation, etc
Conclusions from Genie's story
- There is a critical period in early development in which language input is required for language acquisition to occur normally. - The processes underlying vocabulary acquisition may be different from those underlying grammar acquisition. - Researchers must carefully consider the ethics involved in conducting case studies of individuals who have had unique or traumatizing experiences.
understanding emotions
- Young preschoolers can refer to causes, consequences, & behavioral signs of emotions: > "He's sad because he misses his mother." > "She's happy because she's running very fast." Can infer how others are feeling based on their behavior. BUT have difficulty with conflicting cues: Picture of happy child with broken bicycle - 4-5 year-olds rely on emotional expression to interpret picture
Self-regulation
- ability to alter subjective experiences, behaviors, and responses in ways that are efficient, adaptive, and in your best interest. •Executive functions support self-regulation: •Involved in deliberate control of thought, emotion, and/or action •Goal-oriented behavior: how do I achieve what I want/need? ** self regulated skills promote/ set trajectory for better achievement later on --> linked to children's prep to enter school environment (child paying attention and raising hand vs interupting / being distracted) - kindergarteners assessed on "hot" and "cold" executive functions (pencil tapping (cold Ef) vs toy sort (hot Ef)) --> Related to math achievement, learning related behaviors, etc
Inhibitory Control:
- ability to refrain from making a cognitive or behavioral response (even if it has already been initiated) •Delay of Gratification •Mischel's marshmallow task: Take a treat now or wait for something better
main points for language acquisition
- acquiring language involves more than simply learning/ remembering the meaning of words - some skills are present @ birth but others develop based on exposure (native language) - **timing and nature of exposure matter
links to child outcomes (parenting styles)
- authoritative: (connect to most positive outcomes) competent, cooperative, high achieving, pro social skills ** best, good self-regulation skills --> need a balance of both support and control - authoritarian: dependent, anxious, aggressive, withdrawn - permissive: impulsive, disobedient, self-focused (lacking boundaries) - uninvolved/ disengaged: rebellious, aggressive, low achieving, delinquency
"disappointing gift" task
- child told they are getting a cool gift --> actually a boring one and researchers look at how they react (gracious or upset) - progression between younger and older children younger children: respond verbally/ outwardly/ say they don't like it older children: internalize correct way to respond to gifts/ regulate responses/ emotion --> older reflect more (thought that counts)
Personality Development:
- children develop unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving across a wide variety of circumstances > behavioral patterns > development of (more) complex emotions > behavioral & emotional regulation > emerging self-concept
** poverty during early childhood is especially detrimental
- children from low-SES homes fall behind quickly in language development (By some measures > 2 years behind by school entry -- hearing fewer words; 525 vs 1,116 words) - effects memory development --> show less effective memory encoding ** suggests impact on early, basic learning processes (not biological, could relate to prenatal care/ environmental effects) - by 11= volume of brain regions involved in memory and emotion processing are reduced
After decades of research studying infant motor learning, Dr. Adolph has found that when infants are at a precipice they _______.
- exhibit neutral or happy expressions rather than fear. - spend most of the time exploring the edge with their hands and feet. a- re less likely to cross as they become more skilled at crawling or walking.
Poverty & Socioeconomic Status
- federal poverty threshold = $25,100 (for a family of 4) - 1 in 4 US children live in poverty (1/2 are chronically poor)
early childhood friendships
- friendships are play-based --> do we like to play with the same toys? (Children develop first friendships during early childhood/preschool years) - 4-5 yrs= 3 out of 4 children have one close friendship; 3 out of 10 have more than one close friendship - number of "best friends" will increase until around age 11 *** common activities important quality for best friend in early childhood
critiques of core knowledge
- how data is interpreted (based solely on looking) Rich Interpretation of VoE paradigms (M. Haith) - Troubling terminology: "representation", "surprise", "expectation", "reasoning" - All we know for sure is that infant looked longer at one event compared to another - Possible perceptual interpretation of looking time data - effects contingent on familiarization/habituation period ** Ages tested -rarely see effects among newborns (starts at 3 months) claim present at birth but little evidence
1st stage (first 2 years) -- Sensorimotor Stage
- infants organize the world via their senses and their actions (perception-action loops) - little "thinking" --> reacting to events that happen achievements= -- shift from reflexes to goal-directed actions -- development of object knowledge -- increasing awareness of outside world
Providence Talks
- initial pilot programming LENA recordings of daily word counts + in-home training sessions > increased number of words produced, reciprocal exchanges --> introduce them to more vocab > most dramatic effects seen those those starting < 50th percentage
Evidence for nativism
- language is species- specific among humans - universal language developmental milestones - seemingly effortless -- no explicit teaching - anatomical foundations (broca's area= speech, wernicke's area (comprehension) ** old theory
infant attention
- learning/ memory is affected by developing attention - increasing control (duration of attention, eye movements, less distracted) - increasing flexibility (disengage easily, social referencing, joint attention)
Games with rules:
- make up rules for a game or play games with already established rules
By early childhood Children can talk about........
- objects, events, and people in the world around them - their own experiences with the world ("I'm mad...no I'm sad")
main points about infant social and emotional development
- prepared to join a social world/ form meaningful attachments @ birth - early social skills provide foundation for future social relationships - balance security and exploration
The Strange Situation task includes multiple phases in which the infant and caregiver play together, the caregiver leaves the infant alone in the room, and the caregiver and infant are reunited. Which behaviors are researchers measuring during these phases?
- proximity seeking - exploration - resistance to comforting
daycare and development
- rise in number of children who go to daycare (rise in maternal employment)
Sally-Anne (false belief) task
- sally has a marble which she puts in her basket and then leaves. Anne moves the marble to her box and sally comes back. Where does sally think the marble is? - children have to seperate their own beliefs vs Sallys - 3 year olds typically fail: say Sally thinks it is in the box (projecting their own beliefs on her) - pass around 4-5 years
Main points of socialization
- social world expands during childhood via daycare, new siblings, playdates, preschool, etc > learning to navigate new kinds of social interactions: how to develop friends, how to respond when upset, how to help others, what does society consider "normal" or "OK" behavior ** this learning leads to the emergence of aggressive and pro-social behaviors/ early moral understanding (based on social interactions)
we can test infants' knowledge by measuring surprise when expectations are violated (duck)
- stimuli that is contrary --> surprising to infants 5 month old= duck with 4 locations, A-not-B using expectations paradigm
infant emotions
- subjective feelings - Neural responses (especially the limbic system) - Physiological factors, i.e. hormones, heart rate - Cognitive interpretations of physiological responses - Desire to take action or change the environment
symbolic thinking
- symbols or internal images are used to represent objects, people, and events that are not present/ internal thought -- Infancy: Understand the world through acting & perceiving -- Early childhood: (Also) understand world by thinking about it --> ask questions "Why??"
conservation tasks
- tasks that involve changing the shape of a substance to see whether children can go beyond the way that substance visually appears to understand that the amount is still the same - Conservation of number - Conservation of Mass/Solid Quantity - Conservation of Liquid Quantity ** children often get stuck on how it looks different
Executive Attention:
- the ability to ignore distracting or conflicting information •"Flanker" task: indicate direction of central target •Young children show poor accuracy when surrounding distractors point in opposite direction
recall information processing
- understand thought processes by comparing to function of computers/ how efficiently this happens - incremental, gradual changes in storage, retrieval, and processing capacities (input, process, output)
PERCEPTUAL FEEDBACK REFINES ACTIONS --> falling experiment
- walkway with foam/ squishy area that makes you fall adults= one trial to learn --> don't like falling will fix it 15 months= multiple trials required despite many cues --> eventually gain prospective control (slower) **feedback loop = foundation for learning
biological growth
- weight 3x, height 2x by 12 months - bones harden, muscles strengthen
Trusting perception can be considered an achievement rather than a failure
-- 3-4 yr olds show emerging understanding of the concept of appearance vs reality but must be primed: when deceived, child will trust her/ his own perception Become the deceiver: when trying to fool an adult with a fake sponge, 3-yos accurately report what it looks like, what it actually is, and what the adult will think it is
Temperament
-- Constitutionally based individual modes of responding to the environment that are relatively consistent across situations and stable over time -- Measurable behavioral characteristics in early infancy
Newport's "Less is More" hypothesis
-- Limitations in perception and cognition (e.g., attention, memory) allow children to process smaller chunks of language -- Maturation of these mechanisms ultimately interferes with rapid language acquisition
young children and self esteem
-- Young children tend to have very high self-esteem -- Often not tied to reality - "I am very strong!" "I'm never scared" Why? - Relative comparison: comparing abilities to their own previous abilities/ aware of how they are growing/ evolving - Unable to engage in social comparison-- comparing their abilities to another person's abilities
Working Memory:
-- ability to maintain and manipulate information over a delay, often in the face of competing information > Capacity at 2 years = 2 items > Capacity at 5 year = 4 items > Adult capacity = 7 +-2 items
Gender self-socialization theory:
-- gender identity reflects one's own thoughts & feelings about belonging to one's gender --> no predefined masculine or feminine characteristics (**starts with individual) Five identity dimensions: - Membership knowledge: do you feel you belong in a category? - Gender contentedness: are you satisfied with your gender? - Pressure to conform: do you feel expectations (from self or others) to adhere to gender stereotypes? - Gender typicality: do you feel similar to others of the same gender? - Gender centrality: do you consider gender to be important?
Sensitive period:
-- period of time when language develops readily 0 to ~5-8 years of age -- ** Successful language acquisition is facilitated by exposure to language during the critical period. After this time, first language acquisition becomes more difficult case study = Genie ** timing matters
"Poverty of the stimulus"
-simply not enough exposure to sufficient language in such a short time frame to support rapid language learning
Child-directed speech
-stress patterns cue word boundaries
Early morality is externally controlled by......
......adult responses
reflexes: goal-directed actions
1-4 months= circular reactions (loops) - reflexes result in positive feeling/ outcome (continue this action) -- development of motor schemas 8-12 months= combining motor schemas: use motor schemas to achieve goals (grasping, hitting, mouthing) 12-18 months= experimenting: repeat motor schemas to explore different outcomes
Component Processes for Executive function
1. Holding multiple thoughts in mind - Working Memory 2. Controlling behavior based on rules/task demands - executive attention 3. Changing behavior when rules/task demands change - set Shifting
core knowledge (4 domains)
1. Object representation: Reasoning about the inanimate world (gravity, continuity, contact) 2. Number representations: Reasoning about quantities (abstract, imprecise) 3. Spatial relations: Reasoning about the environment (distances, angles, layout of surroundings) 4. Agents and actions: Reasoning about individuals & goal-directed actions (reciprocity, eye-gaze)
critiques of false belief tasks
1. Theory of mind is not the only cognitive process necessary to pass the task: •keep track of action of characters in the story (attention, updating) •understand content of story (language comprehension) •remember the original and updated locations (working memory) •understand the question being asked (language comprehension) 2. Task only allows for dichotomous outcome (pass vs. fail) -but development of theory of mind may be more graded *** Development of theory of mind may not reflect a qualitative shift in thinking, but may reflect the co-development of several cognitive systems. •Attention, memory, language, executive function...
perception-action loop
1. perception info affects actions --> 2. actions alter perceptual input --> 3. perceptual feedback allows for refinement --> 4. continual loop supports learning and navigation of the environment --> ** loops
Insecure Attachment
15% -- Anxious-avoidant 9% -- Anxious-resistant 15% -- Disorganized
size constancy
2-3 months (big ball and small ball are both a ball but just diff sizes)
gravity test
3-6 months (block possible vs impossible position) --> blocks slide over and end up in a possible or impossible position at end of block it is sitting on -- infants look longer at impossible event 6 months= understanding of gravity (becomes more nuanced over time)
duck object permanence
4 spots on a square: duck appears 4x in one spot --> appearing in that spot again is possible but appearing in another spot is impossible (surprising to infants)
relation between physical/ relational aggression and proactive/ reactive aggression
4 types (shown in chart on slides): - proactive physical (I'm going to push that kid over to get his toy) - proactive relational (a girl might exclude another girl to stay "queen bee" - reactive physical (if someone pushes a kid, a kid might shove them back as a reaction) - reactive relational (someone takes a kids toy, if you don't give it back we can't be friends anymore)
shape constancy
4-5 months -- is the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the angle from which we view it.
Number concepts in infants
5 months --> looked @ impossible event - controversual= some evidence of babies tracking numbers but be cautious -- Replicated with addition & subtraction with different number sets But...others have failed to replicate
example of perpetual narrowing (faces)
6 months= can discriminate human and monkey faces 9 months= only discriminate human faces (not monkey faces like adults) - adults have increased difficulty recognizing subtle differences in faces from other races -- newborns also lose this at 9 months
productive vocabulary
8-12 months: 1st word "Dada" -- holophrases: use single word for entire phrase 13-14 months: 8-10 words 18 months: 50 words -- followed by an exponential increase (explosion/ dramatic increase)
cognitive processes
= complex operations through which we acquire, store, and use knowledge about the world --> "thinking"
In the video "Boys and Girls on Aggression", children's descriptions of their interactions with friends is most consistent with which of the following findings?
> Many children engage in rough-and-tumble play that is not intended to harm. > Levels of aggression typically decline with age as children learn emotion regulation skills. > Boys engage in more physical aggression than girls.
Rothbart et al Model -- temperament through scores for each category
> Reactivity: to what extent does infant react (positively or negatively) to sensory stimulation > Self-Regulation: to what extent is the infant able to regulate those reactions? -- get score for each category below (high or low) vs the other model (dimensional) Extraversion: positive anticipation of pleasurable activities, positive affect, energy Negative Affect: negative mood, frustration, unable to adapt Effortful Control: focuses attention, soothes quickly
Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for:
> Underestimating age at which children discriminate social conventions and moral issues > Overemphasizing reasoning skills and minimizing the role of empathic responding > Narrow view of morality as justice, fairness > Moral reasoning ≠ moral behavior! ** Moral reasoning is correlated with prosocial behavior...BUT.....Children with advanced reasoning skills still misbehave if they think they can get away with it!
producing sounds
> cooing ~8-12 weeks of age > babbling ~7 months (repetitive vocalizing combining a consonant and vowel sound) --> left hemisphere > Variegated babbling/Jargoning: ~9-18 months babbling with stress and intonation of actual speech of native language -- communicative
early personality
> little to moderate stability in temperament from infancy to early childhood > increasing autonomy around 2-3 yrs of age (terrible two's) > ~ 18-24 months = secondary emotions (embarrassment, positive self-evaluation) > self-conscious emotions
The "RULER" approach to teaching emotion regulation
> recognizing > understanding > labeling > expressing > regulating
In the "Smarties" task, a child is shown a candy box that is revealed to contain something much less exciting than candy, such as pencils. After this reveal, the child is asked to describe _______.
> what they originally thought was inside the box > what will a third person expect to find in the box > what was actually inside the box
main points of early childhood cognitive development
> young children show both great achievements and major limitations in their thinking > variability is the norm and performance often depends on context
Genie Wiley
A feral child who was the victim of extraordinarily severe abuse, neglect, and social isolation. Genie's case provided an opportunity to study aspects of human development -- could learn language and vocab but not grammar
The Strange Situation task
A method developed by Mary Ainsworth and colleagues to measure the quality of infant-caregiver attachment. The strange situation task involved a baby and caregiver being brought into a playroom, where a series of scripted events occurred, including the caregiver leaving the room, and a stranger coming into the room.
Social development
A two-sided process in which children simultaneously become differentiated as distinctive individuals and integrated into the larger social community.
A-not-B task in 3 step test and criticism
A-not-B task= hide toy in well A --> infant searches, after several A trials switch and hide toy in well B, but the child will still look and continue to search in well A (not until older will look in well B) **most advanced -- complete object permanence when infant passes A-not-B task (~12 months) > some people believe it is reaching to A out of habit not object permanence --> look @ B, reach for A --> motor habit (diff outcomes based on varying context)
What is not aggression?
Accidental acts (cause harm but not aggressive) •Bumping into someone •Accidentally wrecking what someone has been working on Rough-and-tumble-play •Physical play that is not intended to harm (mutual understanding between kids playing) - fine line --> can lead to physical aggression
Affluence
According to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation& National Academy of Sciences: •The level of stress experienced by affluent, high-achieving children is similar to those who: (extreme affluence) •live in poverty/foster care •are immigrants •have incarcerated parents **SES effects are not limited to low-SES families ** at risk for poor outcomes --> across the spectrum
Individual Differences in Infantile Amnesia
Age of earliest memories varies depending on -- Event salience: highly salient events are more likely to be remembered -- birth of sibling --accident/hospital visit -- vacations Social influences: parents' approach to engaging children in conversations about the past
Violation of Expectation (VoE) Paradigm
Assumption: our knowledge guides our expectations -- "Violation of Expectation" paradigm: certain stimuli and events will be very familiar to infants because of their existing knowledge of the world -- Any stimuli that is contrary to existing knowledge will defy expectations and will be surprising to infants. -- Therefore, we can test infants' knowledge by measuring surprise when expectations are violated **** Piaget's critics used VoE paradigm to examine cognition at much younger ages ****
Cross-cultural Attachment Patterns
Attachment can vary in quality (secure vs. insecure) -- Overall stability of attachment quality is high -- But in most cases, it is inaccurate to say that an attachment does not exist.
What changes with development?
Basic executive function skills (amount of info in working memory, ability to inhibit response) •Language use •Rule complexity •Increasingly symbolic strategies •Cognitive regulatory processes - hot and cold thinking - emotions influence cognitive reasoning - cognition influences emotional reactions ** use executive functions to engage in cognitive "regulatory" processes -- ignore upsetting info, inhibition/ delay of gratification, shifting attention/ focus
Is the increase in daycare use effecting developmental outcomes? > more stressful? > increased insecure attachment?
Basic finding: No overall negative effects on child development, but the quality of care matters!! no evidence of increased insecure attachment: only if children experience poor quality care, 10 plus hours of child care per week, or multiple child care arrangements AND parents aren't sensitive and responsive more stressful? children in larger center-based daycare show increased levels of stress (cotrisol= physiological measure of stress) > But, depends on..... child characteristics (age, anxiety levels, self-regulation skills, aggression, etc); infant-caregiver attachment; daycare quality
emotion schemas and "emotional display rules"
Both can emerge early in development and be reinforced over time
appearance vs reality task show us....
Conclusion: younger children lack ability for dual encoding -- Unable to represent two features of a stimulus at the same time.
How can we measure memory among pre-verbal infants?
Conjugate Reinforcement
developing emotion regulation
Controlling emotions --> soothing strategies emerge in infancy and expand during early childhood Expressing emotions --➤understanding when it is socially appropriate to express emotions - Disappointing gift task
Autobiographical memory
Development of personal narratives - Cultural transmission: culturally-dependent elaboration of personal narratives (experiences) - models culturally accepted ways to organize & share information - infantile amnesia --> how parents talk to children/ recall shared experiences --> how children think/ talk about narratives
Second language learning
Differential brain organization depending on age of acquisition - Language processing is typically left-lateralized - 2nd language acquisition later in life associated with less left-hemisphere lateralization Study of immigrants -- 2nd language proficiency based on age of first exposure rather than duration of exposure
pre-operational period (2-6 years)
Early childhood as a transition between infancy and middle childhood ❖ Major achievement: Symbolic thinking But...thinking fluctuates between logical and illogical - Young children = pre-operational **Unable to reliably perform logicalmental operations
infant amnesia= Encoding/retrieval incompatibility
Early memories are encoded nonverbally, but we attempt to retrieve them later using verbal thought processes -- Nature of thinking has changed
Emergence of sense of self
Emergence of a sense of self -- Year 1: Self-world differentiation -- An agent who can make things happen Year 2 (15-24 months): > Accurate use of pronouns: I vs. you > Visual perspective-taking > Possessiveness > Physical self-recognition
Behavioral Inhibition (BI):
Extreme negative emotionality and motor reactivity in infancy - Vigilant & withdrawn responses to novel people & situations (don't like new toys/ ppl) - More likely to be diagnosed with anxiety disorder in adolescence or adulthood
True or False. According to Ainsworth, infants' attachment styles develop based on differences in the extent to which they face novel, strange, or changing situations on a regular basis.
False Correct= According to Ainsworth's "caregiver sensitivity" hypothesis, infant attachment styles develop based on caregiving quality, not exposure to novelty, early in development.
Familiarization (Saffran et al., 1996) -- statistical learning
Familiarization - 2 minute exposure to continuous stream of nonsense "words" ex: bidakupadotigolabutudaro... -- All cues removed except probability of "syllables" occurring together Test -- Hear "word" vs. "non-word"tudaro vs. dapiku Infants reliably look to non-word side (bored of words but interested in "non-words" (based on statistical info of syllables occurring together) ** infants detect word boundaries based on statistical info
frequency and disruptions (IJA and RJA)
Frequency of both RJA and IJA behaviors increases between 9 and 12 months. Disruptions to both RJA & IJA are a hallmark of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
Measuring Executive Functions: cultural influences
Germany vs. Cameroon Germany: 36% delayers, 64% non-delayers Cameroon: 74% delayers, 26% non-delayers -- children in Cameroon were more likely to wait as taught respect by parents/ obedience, social harmony, etc - Cameroonian mothers more likely to emphasize respect, obedience, social harmony --> Socialization strategies predicted D-of-G performance in early childhood
Expressing Emotions
Happiness -- Recall: social smile emerges ~2.5 months; laughter emerges 3-4 months Fear (stranger anxiety) --increases after 6 months
Hot and Cold Thinking
Hot system: - Emotional - Simple - Reflexive - Fast - Develops early - Accentuated by stress - Stimulus control Cold system: - Cognitive - Complex - Reflective - Slow - Develops late - Attenuated by stress - Self-control **behavior in early childhood is largely driven by emotional reactions
Deferred Imitation
Infants are given the opportunity to reproduce target actions after a delay (repeated tasks) -- Sequence of actions is modeled -- Infant's reproduction of actions tested after 24 hour delay ** 6 month olds can imitate novel events after 24 hour delay -- by age 2, events can be retained for months and recall is less cue-dependent
preference for social stimuli
Infants are prepared for a social world at birth > biased to look at faces > prefer human voice > prefer smell of mother's body or milk
social referencing
Infants look to their caregivers for an indication of how they should feel and act in an unfamiliar or alarming setting
Bowlby's theory of attachment
Infants' instinctual responses promote attachment over the first 2 years - Reciprocal emotional relationship with caregiver provides security while exploring - "A secure base from which to explore" - Internal Working Model
developing early peer relations
Interactive play increases from 2-5 years of age: four types of play
Maynard the Cat Study
Is Maynard a cat? -- get to play with Maynard --> Yes, Maynard is a cat -- Give Maynard a dog mask --> - 3-year-olds: Maynard turned into a dog! - 4-5 year-olds: generally confused - 6-year-olds: Maynard is a cat ** 3 year olds rely on appearance, 6 yr olds understand appearance doesn't always reflect reality
how important is live social interaction? (study done to look at live vs not)
Kuhl et al. 2003: 9-10 month-olds 1.Intervention group (Mandarin) 2.Control groups (English & Mandarin) 3.Test: phonetic contrast unique to Mandarin Intervention conditions: 1.Live exposure: 12 weeks of "tutoring" by native speakers 2.Audio exposure: same speech, same native speakers (heard it) 3.TV exposure: same speech, same native speaker ** live exposure works best
Are language systems innate? Nativist theory - Noam Chomsky
Learning/conditioning cannot account for language acquisition - "Poverty of the stimulus" - Language acquisition occurs primarily through maturation
memory
Memory improves rapidly over the first year --- Implicit memory: previous experiences aid task performance without awareness of these previous experiences --- Explicit memory: conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information
Infantile Amnesia
Most of us cannot remember events from the first 2-3 years of life WHY? possible ideas: Physiological, Encoding/retrieval incompatibility, identity development (learn each of these**)
Successful language acquisition is facilitated by exposure to language during the critical period. WHY?
Newport's "Less is More" hypothesis
Are boys more aggressive than girls?
Not necessarily. (white crayon study) • Boys tend to show higher levels of physical aggression • Girls tend to show higher levels of relational aggression
Pre-operational Period: Primary limitation
One-sided thinking - ** Inability to focus on more than one piece of information at a time. - Conservation tasks - Appearance vs. Reality - Egocentric thinking
temperament: Early precursor to personality?
Overall, stability of infant and toddler temperament is LOW. (changing a lot) BUT: Behavioral Inhibition (BI): Extreme negative emotionality and motor reactivity in infancy - Vigilant & withdrawn responses to novel people & situations - More likely to be diagnosed with anxiety disorder in adolescence or adulthood
what about facetime?
Roseberry et al., 2014 -- 24-30 mos learning novel verbs Three intervention conditions: Live interaction Live video chat: Skype call Yoked video: recording of a Skype interaction -- learned best in live and Skype but not recording --> needs to be reciprocal conversation/ back and forth **Word learning depends on contingent social interaction.
Piaget's theory summary
Sensorimotor Period (0 -2 years) •Skills based on expanding sensorimotor interactions with the world, not pre-existing knowledge•Lack of mental representations/thinking Piaget's critics: •Young infants are capable of much more advanced cognition. •Object knowledge•Number cognition
What processes are involved in Dimensional Change Card Sort ?
Set shifting= Adjust behavior based on two different rules Working memory= Select the appropriate rules and maintain them in memory Inhibitory control= Refrain from making previously dominant response Executive attention= Ignore the feature that was previously relevantbut no longer relevant
joint attention
Shared focus of two individuals on an object, event, or person. -- achieved via pointing, eye gaze, and/or verbal cues gaze cuing= birth - 6 months gaze following= 9-12 months
Is attachment behavior driven by.....
So is it all physiological? Is attachment behavior driven by: satisfaction of primary needs (e.g., food) OR comfort and security provided by the caregiver? -- Harlow's monkey study
continuity of aggression
Some degree of aggression is normative during early childhood. --> Especially reactive aggression (poor emotion regulation) - but most children learn to regulate aggression by middle childhood BUT children who do not learn regulation skills during early childhood may continue to be aggressive later in childhood and adolescence --> can lead to poor developmental outcomes/ social problems ** aggression increases as the social world expands
KOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage theory based on moral reasoning abilities. - looking at how to measure moral development Kohlberg relied on vignettes (e.g., the Heinz Dilemma) to assess children's moral reasoning. ex: "A woman was dying from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her...but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce...The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone to borrow the money but could only get $1000. He told the druggist his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the store to steal the drug? Why or why not?" - Level 1: Pre-conventional (EARLY CHILDHOOD)• -- Obedience & punishment orientation (avoid punishment!) -- Self-interest orientation (what's in it for me?)
critics of idea of pre-operational period
Symbolic Thinking -may not be fully mature by early childhood Appearance vs. Reality -depends on context/ variability Egocentric Thinking -not all or none, depends on context -- Ability to maintain and shift between multiple thoughts develops throughout preschool and beyond -- Requires interaction of multiple developing cognitive systems (attention, memory executive function)
Empathy can lead to (2 diff paths)
Sympathy: feelings of concern or sorrow for another's situation (outward response) OR Personal distress: a self-focused, anxious response. (inward response) Affected by= - Emotion regulation -better regulation associated with increased prosocial responding, less personal distress - Attachment quality -secure attachment & maternal responsiveness associated with increased prosocial responding, less personal distress
strange situation test
The Strange Situation: Task designed to test the quality of the infant-caregiver relationship (M. Ainsworth) - involves the mother leaving the child for a short while, to play with available toys in the presence of a stranger & alone, and the mother returning to the child - Does the child use the caregiver as a secure base while exploring? - Does the child display separation anxiety? - How is the child comforted when the caregiver returns?
empathy
The ability to feel with another person and respond emotionally in a similar way. • Infancy: crying when others are upset • Toddlerhood: expansion in purposeful helping behaviors • Early childhood: increased ability to take others' perspectives and reliance on words to communicate empathic feelings
development of "cold" cognition
The development of "cold" cognition (Executive functions!) is more prolonged •Significant development from 3-6 years, but continues through adolescence •Regulation of emotional responding shows development over the same time period as cold cognition. •"Not doing" is as important as what you do!
Attachment:
The emotional bond between infants and their caregivers > Seek proximitySeparation distress > Evolutionary foundations: infants cannot survive without their caregivers! > Infants AND caregivers have developed behaviors that promote attachment. > oxytocin ("cuddle chemical")
Main points of family contexts
The family is a system that involves bidirectional effects. - Parents affect children's behavior. Children affect parents' behavior. - The family has critical contextual influences on development that are shaped by both internal and external factors. > Internal: parenting styles > External: daycare, socioeconomic status (effect how a family functions) ** Family influences are dynamic and constantly changing
self-concept
The way in which individuals see themselves in relation to the world
major achievements and limitations of pre-operational period
Transitional period between infancy and middle childhood. --- Major achievement: symbolic thinking (able to form representations and think about the world) ---- Major limitation: inability to focus on more than one piece of information at a time -- Conservation tasks, Appearance vs. reality, Egocentric thinking
Assumptions constrain learning and facilitate learning of new vocabulary:
Whole-object bias, Mutual exclusivity constraint, Taxonomic constraint
language
a communicative system for combining sounds to create new meanings -- symbolic representation of objects, actions, events, and ideas -- not restricted to immediate context -past, present, future
Internal Working Model
a mental representation of relationships that children construct as a result of their experiences with caregivers **provides a guide for future interactions with others
gender identity: sex
a person's biological status (male, female, intersex) indicated by chromosomes, genitalia, etc
physical aggression
a physical act or threat of a physical act intended to harm another person (ex. hitting/ shoving/ pushing, or threatening to do so)
Identification
a psychological process in which children try to look, act, feel, and be like significant people in their social environment
holophrase
a word used by an infant to express a complete idea
Socialization:
acquiring the standards, values, and knowledge of their society (how to interact with others) - social roles: categories that reflect social expressions
perception and motor development are intertwined
action --> depends on constraints -- imposed by body: size, strength, flexibility, coordination -- imposed by environment: objects, surface areas, gravity ** both environment and body are changing and offering new challenges
direct aggression (overt)
acts that are carried out directly by aggressor towards victim - Physical aggression is typically direct (e.g., hitting victim)
Indirect aggression (covert)
acts that are carried out indirectly • example: damaging a favorite toy - Relational aggression is typically indirect (e.g., spreading rumors about victim/ gossip)
Behaviorism
adults consciously or unconsciously reinforce gender-appropriate behaviors. > Both boys and girls receive positive reinforcement for gender-typical behaviors... > Boys more likely to receive active negative reinforcement for "feminine" behaviors
According to Dr. Phillips, executive function skills are like ________ because they _______.
air traffic control; manage multiple streams of ongoing information
relational aggression
an act that is intended to harm a relationship (ex. "you can't come to my bday party if......") --> hurting relationships you have with others > present @ a young age
socioeconomic status (SES)
an index reflecting relative ranking on a combination of valued commodities - measures= income, education, occupations ** reflects income vs needs, enrichment opportunities
language acquisition device (LAD)
an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language -- Innate module or "program" that is present at birth and guides language acquisition -- Language acquisition occurs primarily through maturation Offered as explanation for: -- Language is species-specific and ubiquitous among humans -- Universal language development milestones -- Seemingly effortless - no explicit teaching necessary Anatomical foundations= Broca's area (speech), Wernicke's area (comprehension)
optical expansion
an object occludes more of its background as it approaches (sensitivity of motion) --> gets bigger as it gets closer (~ 1 month)
J. Flavell studies
appearence vs reality --> rock or sponge? Sponge that looks like a rock but the kids get to play with it/ touch it Rock or a sponge? -- How does it look? What is it really? -- 3-4 year-olds: It really is what it looks like (a rock) - Training doesn't help!/ even get to feel it but stuck on the appearance -- 6-year-olds: It's a sponge (even though it looks like a rock)
authoritative
attempt to control child by reasoning with them; emphasize achievement and independence - high on both control and caring about emotional support
When Jenna takes Mark's toy, Jenna's mother comes over, grabs her arm and says in an angry voice, "Haven't I warned you about taking others' things? You better return that toy now or else. I'm tired of you disobeying me!"
authoritarian
4 types of parenting styles
authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, disengaged
When Kareem takes Troy's toy, Kareem's mother takes him aside and points out that the toy belongs to Troy and that Kareem has made Troy upset. She also says, "Remember our rule about taking others' things." Her tone is firm but not hostile and she waits to see if Kareem returns the toy.
authoritative (helping him understand the rules)
Objective Self:
awareness of one's own characteristics (how one describes themselves) ~18-24 months --> develops - young children's self-descriptions are a list of concrete, loosely connected characteristics > list physical things, things around them, almost stream of consciousness
new motor skills alter perceptual input
baby crawls/ walks towards mother --> monitoring where their gaze is crawling= focus on floor walking= mom's face, room, etc
gross motor skills
based on large muscle groups (arms, legs) myelinated first
fine motor skills
based on small muscle groups (hands, lips, fingers)
Universal grammar:
basic set of rules for all languages
Interdependent:
behavior of one family member affects the others - direct effects= e.g., parents' relationship can affect child behavior (ex stress between parents effects child/ parenting skills) - indirect effects= parent loses jobs (happening outside the family) stress --> effects child
binocular disparity
brain computes the difference between the signal it receives from the two eyes (4 months, rapid)
infant amnesia= Physiological
brain regions supporting explicit retrieval of early memories reorganize around 3-4 years of age
Constructive play:
build or make something for the purpose of play
Are children sensitive to gender stereotypes?
by age 3: children sort toys by gender, sort occupations by gender, endorse rigid stereotypic behaviors - by 1 year: no difference by 2-3 yrs: boys and girls differ in their own preferences/ what toys they pick
One problem with the classic visual cliff task is that infants _________.
can learn after one trial that it is safe to crawl over the cliff.
early emotion regulation HIGHLY dependent on.......
caregiver; child progressively becomes more able to regulate his/her own behavior. > Parents' frequent use of words to describe & label emotions related to better understanding and coping with emotions among young children --> Ability to talk about feelings at early age supports better regulation of feelings: -- "I want another cookie!" "I'm mad I can't have another!" -- vs. a temper tantrum ** better emotion regulation related to= reduced impulsivity, aggression, delinquency and higher academic achievement, increased sympathy
accommodation
changing existing schema to fit a new experience (restores equilibrium) => how we learn new information/ categorize it
private speech
child has spoken running monologue (talking to themself) - normative and adaptive --> becomes inner monologue later - having imaginary friends is also normal
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder:
child indiscriminately/ randomly forms relationships and does not form special attachment with caregivers -- associated with history of institutionalized care
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD):
child is withdrawn & unable to form attachments with caregivers -- associated with history of maltreatment
Scale errors (Judy DeLoache)
child makes an attempt to perform an action that is impossible due to the size of the objects involved. (do they understand scale?) --> try to get in smaller objects even though they see a size change - Occurs between 18 -30 months of age
collective monologue
child talking to each other without listening (not responding to one another)
Associative play
children engage in separate activities but share toys and comment on one others' behaviors (doing own thing but some engagement back and forth)
Social learning theory
children imitate behaviors associated with gender roles -- Parents may not reinforce gender-specific behaviors, but society still does -- reenforced through imitation of society as a whole --> promoting these ideas
Cooperative play:
children play together oriented towards a common goal (ex: all building a tower) •e.g., make-believe stories: all help with story/ narrative
Cognitive developmental theory (Kohlberg)
children's understanding of gender depends on their level of cognitive development - Gender Identity stage (2 years): gender depends on external appearance - Gender Stability stage (3 years): gender is continuous over time (girl becomes a woman, boy becomes a man)--> But, gender depends on one's behaviors and can change - Gender Constancy stage (5 years): gender remains constant despite superficial changes or behaviors --> Less rigid in adherence to gendered characteristics
Possessiveness:
claiming ownership over toys, etc. -- linked to physical self-recognition and use of pronouns
Empiricists:
cognitive capacities develop through interaction with the environment (learning) -- attention and memory --Developing attention and memory systems support early learning from environment.
Schema
cognitive framework to categorize concepts, objects, experiences (ex a child gets a dog, mom calls it "dog")
emotion schemas
cognitive frameworks that we develop to interpret our emotional experiences ("I'm sad because I have no friends")
mental operations
combining, separating, or transforming information in a logical manner (thinking logically) -- pre-operational= can't do this yet/ unable to reliably perform logical mental operations
Secure Attachment:
comfort/security and exploration are balanced (62%)
Aggression
committing an act intending to hurt another person
individual differences in children
connect to "goodness-of-fit" > right balance for each child > ethnic/ cultural differences in parenting (Authoritarian parenting is less likely to be associated with maladaptive child outcomes when consistent with cultural norm)
visual cliff experiment
created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth -- depth perception -- shallow and deep side (checkerboard) --> do they cross? glass is covering the deep side yes= no sensitivity to depth cues, judge it as safe to cross no= picking up depth info/ input to inhibit movement (around 7 months)
** continuous development theories
criticism of Piaget's theory
Habituation:
declining attention or sensitivity to a repeating stimulus
monocular depth cues
depth cues requiring only one eye (pictorial depth cues) ~ 6-7 months
family dynamics
describes how families function, particularly patterns of interactions and communications among family members -- dynamic: always changing ** recall ecological systems (focus on microsystem)
After receiving intervention, Genie was able to _____ but could not ______.
develop vocabulary; use rules of grammar
Piaget's Constructivism
development occurs thru cognitive adaptation to environment -- perception-action loops -- children build knowledge in the world thru interactions/ experience** - stage theory (discontinuous) 2, 7, 12 years, similar for all children
Researchers were interested in understanding Genie's language development because she ________.
did not experience any language input during early development due to severe neglect.
When Heather takes Alonzo's toy, Heather's mother pays no attention. She decides she will mention it to Heather's father when he gets home. Later, when Heather asks for a hug her mother she says that she is busy and tells her to go play with her sister.
disengaged
According to Dr. Adolph, in the "visual cliff" experiments, infants who have several weeks of crawling experience _______, which has been interpreted as _______.
do not cross over the cliff; a fear of heights
self-conscious emotions
emotions that depend on a sense of self (how an event makes you feel) --> reflect on how an event makes you feel about yourself
basic emotions
ex: Happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust Universal: consistently identified by adults across cultures BUT, infants unable to discriminate these complex emotions at birth -- positive (approach) vs. negative (withdrawal) --> process of refining positive and negative emotions
Early childhood prosocial behaviors
examples: sharing (dividing up or bestowing), helping (acts of kindness, removing distress), cooperation (working together to reach a goal) ** require understanding others' emotions/ development of empathy
Anxious-avoidant:
exploration weighted over security (15%) -- Responses: Avoids caregiver while playing; fails to greet her when she returns
performance
expression of our knowledge/ skill under specific circumstances
"emotional display rules"
extent to which it's appropriate to express emotion -- internalize rules about what is appropriate -- varies across cultures and families ex: "boys shouldn't cry"
Executive functions continue to develop through adolescence and early adulthood as functioning of the prefrontal cortex becomes increasingly segregated from other regions of the brain.
false -- become more connected to other regions of the brain
Solitary play is the most basic form of play.
false; unoccupied play is
Responding to Joint Attention (RJA):
follow others' cues to achieve common point of reference
socially responsible
follow societal expectations
possible vs impossible actions
gather info about bodily and environmental constraints - visual system/ info, vestibular system (balance and position), proprioception (space) - use info to make decisions/ anticipate necessary movements - visual cliff
Initiating Joint Attention (IJA):
generate cues to direct others' attention to target
motor development
gross motor skills and fine motor skills --> timing linked to brain development
high competence + low performance
happens, example: test anxiety - know the material but struggle to perform well
timing of motor skill development linked to brain development
head --> torso --> arms --> hands --> fingers ** need to be able to walk before you hold a pen
event salience
highly salient events are more likely to be remembered (hospital visit, accident, etc)
core knowledge
humans born with a small number of core systems which form the foundation for more advanced skills and knowledge -- Universal; Common across humans and non-human primates -- Supports efficient learning within each domain (object representation, # represented, spatial relations, agents and actions)
word segmentation
identifying boundaries between words (where they begin and end) ex: "prettybaby" = pretty baby vs pre-tyba-by? - 7-8 months recognize familiar words in a continuous stream (familiarity= identify words) - stress patterns cue word boundaries - statistical learning
Disequilibrium
imbalance that results when new experience cannot easily fit into existing schema (ex child sees a cat, doesn't fit into dog schema, different)
Goodness-of-fit:
importance of caregiver responsiveness -- example if baby is classified as difficult but if caregiver can support/ meet them it is fine ** classifications are important but not the whole story
reactive vs proactive aggression
in response to something or in order to get something?
Development of object knowledge: Solid
incapable of having other objects pass through
Assimilation
incorporating new experiences into existing schemas (ex: kid goes to dog park: assimilate new type of dog into a dog category, schema)
mixed-gender play
increased parallel play/ segregation of gender (individual choice --> choose this way) - if a girl goes to group of boys to play, more likely to say no --> may simply reflect style of play/ social behaviors
same-gender play
increased verbal engagement, physical contact, working interactively toward common goal - by 3-4 yrs: boys prefer to play with boys and girls prefer to play with girls
Disorganized:
infant lacks an organized method for dealing with stressful situation (15%) -- Contradictory responses: e.g., calm and then angry, fearful while approaching -- it is NOT an attachment disorder (relatively rare = tends to be associated with poor parenting/ chaotic households)
neo-nativists
infants are born with sets of core knowledge that serves as a foundation for the development of cognitive capacities -- core knowledge
newborns can see difference in monkey faces/ diff races but
infants don't maintain this ability --> perpetual narrowing
recall piaget's ideas.....
infants organize the world via their senses and their actions -- development of object knowledge/ goal oriented actions (achievements) -- limitations: not retaining info for long time/ "thinking" ** early childhood is a transition between infancy and middle childhood
Physical vs. relational
intended to harm physical or via a social relationship?
training (twin study)
jimmy trained (obstacle courses) and Johnny didn't -- training does have an effect Jimmy could roller skate and do impressive feats -- but other twin was okay --> still met developmental milestones conclusion= training can help but isn't necessary
What time of aggression is this? A group of boys is playing tag and one of them tags another quite hard, such that the boy falls down and starts crying.
just rough-and-tumble play
Tools of the Mind:
kindergarten classroom curriculum was organized to promote self-regulation through interactions with classmates •Intervention resulted in: • improved academic achievement/ improved executive function skills • math, reading, vocabulary • improved executive function skills
cognition
knowledge and understanding acquired through thought, experience, and perception
Fast mapping
learning new words based on a single exposure
Authoritarian
less responsive to emotional needs/ high on control/ use punitive measures to control child's behavior; obedience is emphasized
eyewitness testimony (memory)
look at accuracy of children's memory --> can we trust it? > young children are vulnerable to suggestion --> how they are questioned can effect answers > gist rather than specific details > reliance on scripts (specific event vs in general events > younger children forget more quickly)
symbolic play
major achievement of early childhood - occurs across cultures, but content is culture-specific (own experiences) - Often involves private speech - Children who engage in private speech during difficult tasks are more successful in completing task - Can be with partner or solitary (imaginary friends)
parenting approaches: Baumrind Model
major dimensions (extent to which parents are) > Warmth/responsiveness: acceptance of child, emotional involvement > Control/Demanding: extent to which rules are set forth and enforced
sequence of motor milestones is universal...... but
major individual differences -- timing: some skills skipped entirely -- cultural effects: norms based on US research in the 1930s and 40s --Contextual effects: e.g., infants sleeping on back to prevent SIDS --Training: e.g., Jimmy & Johnny twin study (M. McGraw)
economic stress related to:
marital conflict and parenting style, physical health problems, mental health problems, school readiness/ cognitive skills
Disengaged
minimal attempts at controlling OR displaying affection towards child (extreme example= neglect) low on both
young infants are capable of ___________ complex cognition than initially believed
much more; infants cannot talk/ tell us -- harder to measure/ access
Strategies used during delay of gratification task: (marshmellow task)
non-symbolic: line of sight, physical restraint, interaction with parent symbolic: rule reminder, pretense, private speech(talk/ sing) -- require advanced symbolic representation -- is it all about inhibitory control? Decision-making: reliability of researcher •Initial art task •Reliable condition: researcher returned with promised art supplies •Unreliable condition: researcher failed to return with art supplies *** 3-5 yos more likely, waited longer for 2nd marshmallow when researcher was reliable
stranger anxiety
normative fear of unfamiliar adults (7-9 months)
During the Strange Situation task, infants who are classified as having an avoidant attachment style are__________ and _________.
not distressed when their caregiver leaves; ignore their caregiver when they return
symbolic representation
of objects, actions, events, and ideas (not restricted to immediate context (past, present, future)
Development of object knowledge: Continuous
one unit even if the whole object can't be seen
Mutual exclusivity constraint
one word per object; new words for new objects (link them)
When Genie first received intervention she was 13 years old but displayed mental abilities of a
one year old
gender identity
one's sense of oneself as male, female, or other/ alternate gender
depth perception
optical expansion, binocular disparity, monocular depth cues, perceptual constancy
perceptual narrowing
overtime this ability becomes sculpted/ narrowed based on their experiences --> better at things they experience on a regular basis (lose info on other things) ** both improvement and regression
_________ play describes a situation in which children play with toys next to each other without engaging with each other.
parallel
Bidirectional
parents affect children's behavior, but children also affect parents' behavior
Coordination:
patterns of infant-caregiver reciprocity (reciprocal interactions)
social reasoning
perceive and think about your own and others' emotions and social behaviors -- reason about it/ respond
object segregation
perceiving boundaries of partially covered objects (if you go behind something it isn't split in half) -- < 3 months see it as a single object Use box and rod experiment to show this (is it one or two objects?)
When Jeff takes away Angelina's toy, Jeff's mother doesn't intervene. She is usually affectionate with her son but she worries that if she disciplines him too harshly it will hurt his self-esteem.
permissive
newborn vision (recall)
poor acuity until around 6 months -- poor color until 3 months -- can scan the environment --> attached to visual stimuli
False belief tasks assess a child's ability to ______.
predict another person's beliefs.
sensation
processing of sensory information from the external world (similar across humans)
A boy is playing with the blocks. A girl accidentally knocks over his block tower as she walks by. The boy pushes her.
reactive physical aggression
A group of girls is playing at the water table. A boy approaches and asks to play. One girl turns to him and says, "You can't play. Girls only."
reactive relational aggression (based on exclusivity)
A boy is playing with some cars. A girls asks for some cars. The boy says no. The girl says, "You're stupid."
reactive verbal aggression
Primary Intersubjectivity:
reciprocal emotional sharing between infants and caregivers - dyadic interactions --> social smiling "Conversational cooing" (exchange, conversation) = **develop expectation
Dishabituation:
recovery of interest or sensitivity to a novel stimulus
A young child is showing distress and anxiety. Her teacher redirects her attention to her classmates, uses a calm voice to speak to her, and rocks her to provide comfort. These are all examples of which component of the "RULER" approach to teaching emotion regulation?
regulation
subtypes of aggression
relational aggression, physical aggression, verbal aggression
teasing
relational forms of rough-and-tumble play --> can also lead to aggression
Practice play:
repeat behavior for sheer joy of it (sensorimotor stage) (sensorimotor stage) ex: making a mobile move; positive and negative response
Development of object knowledge: Subject to gravity
requires support to avoid falling
socially responsive
respond to others' behaviors -- participation in social relationships = engage with others
verbal aggression
saying something to another person that is intended to hurt that person (ex. "you're ugly")
Anxious-resistant:
security weighted over exploration (9%) -- Clingy while playing; distressed when left alone but rebuffs efforts to be comforted
Social reciprocity
self is "mirrored" in reaction of others
infant amnesia= Identity development
sense of self necessary to organize memories into autobiographical narrative
Friendship
shared sentiments, reciprocity, voluntary shared experiences
secondary intersubjectivity
sharing between infants and caregivers that references objects, people, and emotions beyond themselves - triadic interactions - intentional communication and co-experience - social referencing - joint attention
Gender schema theory
societal norms provide a framework for understanding the genders and associated behaviors, abilities, and occupations > learn and try to fulfill that framework Framework = expected behaviors, abilities, occupations
Parallel play
solitary play near other children with similar materials (but not interacting)
Development of object knowledge: Permanent
still present even if concealed
Attachment quality can vary dramatically (stable over time)
strange situation task
Scripts
support retrieval of memories for familiar events > Event schemas that specify who participates in an event, what objects are used during the event, where the event takes place, and the sequence of actions that make up the event. •Increasingly detailed with age •Often become incorporated into imaginary play ** organizing the event/ young children are accurate and consistent in recalling familiar events -- events that deviate from the script can be more easily recalled (surprising events are remembered/ isolated events remembered better than single event)
Set Shifting
the ability to flexibly alternate across multiple thoughts, tasks, or responses •Flexible thinking: Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task --> color game (sort by color) and then change to sort by shape --> hard for 3 years to switch/ continue with the first > 4 yrs olds can > can't switch behavior (sort by 1st rule) even when told rules on every trial, verbal knowledge of new rules / dissociation between knowing and doing *** need all processes to be successful on DCCS -- set shifting, working memory, inhibitory control, executive attention
perceptual constancy
the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color, etc., in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object - size and shape consistancy
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events -- varies in humans/ fluid ex= gold/ white dress --> same sensation but diff perceptions of object
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races --> reflects the role of experience (retain more if surrounded with multiple diff races)
why is it important that muscles strengthen/ biological growth occurs?
these skills come back when needed --> foundations for more skills - muscles need to strengthen to use in walking (important)
development of object knowledge
through these loops: - continuous= one unit even if partially hidden - objects subject to gravity - solid= other objects can't pass through - permanent= still present even if concealed
Egocentrism/ egocentric Thinking
to consider the world entirely from one's own view
Children who appear to have attention problems in school may actually be struggling with self-regulation skills.
true
True or False. An infant who did not cross a precipice as a skilled crawler will usually try to cross it when they first begin walking.
true
True or False. Interpreting the findings of Genie's case study can be difficult because she experienced severe trauma and may have had pre-existing cognitive delays.
true
By 4 years of age, most children can respond accurately during False Belief tasks by holding another person's point of view in mind.
true (2/3 year olds can't)
competence
underlying knowledge or skill that is reflected in behavior --> can only be measured indirectly thru assessing performance
Subjective Self:
understand that the self is distinct from others, a person who exists over time/ I exist as a separate, individual person ** Self-Recognition Infancy: sensitive to effects of own actions, behavioral reciprocity Toddler (18-24 mos): sense of self - Rouge test -recognize self in mirror Toddler (18-24 mos)—"self as actor" - utterances refer to child's own actions
Visual perspective-taking:
understanding that the view might look different for me and you
low competence + high performance
unlikely to happen (luck) --> usually if you don't know the material or skill can't perform well in it
nonsocial activity
unoccupied, onlooker behavior, solitary play
Symbolic/sociodramatic play:
use symbolic representation and imagination for play
Prosocial behavior:
voluntary actions intended to benefit others (voluntary not forced to)
Whole-object bias
word refers to the entire object
Taxonomic constraint:
words refer to categories of similar objects rather than thematically related objects (similar to schemas) (ex: group cow and horse but not cow and milk)
Egocentric speech
young children focus on themselves
Piaget's critiques
young infants are capable of much more advanced cognition (object knowledge, number cognition) - habituation and dishabituation
3 step test: object permanence
~9-12 months 1) hide toy under cloth --> does infant search for it? (if infant passes this go to next step) 2) hide toy under cloth and move out of reach --> does infant reach and search for toy? 3) A-not-B task= hide toy in well A --> infant searches, after several A trials switch and hide toy in well B, but the child will still look and continue to search in well A (not until older will look in well B)
Variegated babbling/Jargoning:
~9-18 months babbling with stress and intonation of actual speech of native language - communicative
Long-term memory
•no deliberate strategy for memory encoding (< 5-6 years) •more likely to encode gist (general sense) than specific details •gradual improvement in ability to remember associations between stimuli
main points of social development
➤Social development is a two-sided process. During early childhood we see: ➤Greater consolidation/coherence of self-identity and the child's personality. AND ➤Expanded social experiences and socialization as a result of these experiences. ** Developing self-regulation skills contribute to both aspects of social development.