China

Water Margin (Ming novel)

-An episodic story of a band of bandits set at the end of the Northern Song period.

Yuan Dynasty

-Established by Kublai Khan from the Mongols. First foreign dynasty to rule all of China.

widows' conduct

-Widows who did not remarry were considered to be very honorable.

Xunzi

-Written, new version of Confucianism that contradicted another version of Confucianism that came from one of Confucius's followers. People were inherently evil.

tributary system

-mutually beneficial economic relationships. Politically autonomous and usually independant as well. Helped China establish cultural and economic dominance over the region.

Warring States era

-resulted in the unification of the Qin empire. The annexation of other contender states.

Debate on Salt and Iron

A debate during the Han Dynasty, after the death of Emperor Wu, over the government monopolies on salt and iron should continue. Confucian scholars took the position that they should be ended because they believed that they set an example of greed which had a bad influence on the people. The chief minister, representing a more legalist approach, argued that the monopolies helped pay for the cost of defending the Han against Xiongnu invasion and were therefore necessary.

Shangdi

A sky god/deity in China. Identified as Heaven and the Universe.

Liu Bang

After the unraveling of the Qin dynasty, Liu Bang, otherwise known as Emperor Gao, ruled as the first emperor of the Han dynasty from 202-195 B.C.E. In contrast to previous emperors, Emperor Gao was from a family of modest commoners. Emperor Gao lessened the burdens of many commoners by cutting taxes and eliminating some laws. He also gave out large amounts of land to his relatives and chief generals, but later regarded this as a mistake and spent much of his reign eliminating the fief holders who were not relatives. He also failed to control the Xiongnu on the border and eventually agreed to give yearly gifts to pacify border raids, although the raids continued despite these gifts.followed Qin precedents of the workings of government officialdom. took measures that symbolized the destruction of the old Qin order.

Song "economic revolution"

Agricultural prosperity and denser settlement patterns fostered commercialization of the economy. No more focus on just self-sufficiency, sold their surpluses. Products stimulated the shipping industry. The invention of paper money.

Mutual responsibility system

Also called a baojia, the MRS was a system of combining multiple households into larger groups that was started by Wang Anshi during the Song dynasty (~1069). Ten households formed a bao, five bao formed a large bao, ten large bao formed a general bao. The duties of these groups was supposed to be restricted to catching criminals but occasionally it would involve military service or tax collection.

Daoism

Based on the Laozi (attributed to Master Lao) and the Zhuangzi (author of the same name). Daoists disagreed with the Confucian idea that rulers should strive to influence their people, believing instead that people should be left alone in their private lives. Focused on the bigger picture of the natural order of things ("Way of the Dao") rather than human beings and their actions. The Way is the ultimate truth to the universe. The philosophy in the Laozi suggests that people would be better off if they gave up tools and writing and stopped envying others. Daoists also questioned the validity of the knowledge found in books (ironic might I add given that they, you know, wrote books to convey their ideas). included practices of alchemy, sex, breathing exercises and exorcism. constituted a tradition that was independent but still influenced by Buddhism.

Legalism (incl. Han Feizi)

Beginning in the 4th century B.C.E. a number of theorists believed that the way to effective rule was through a strong government and rigorous laws. This went against many of the Confucian principles of the time. The Qin dynasty was the first to adopt a large amount of legalist ideas such as new social rankings based upon military service and appointing new officials. In the third century B.C.E. legalism found its greatest exponent in Han Feizi, who wrote to rulers advising them on many legalist ideas such as the creation of a uniform code of laws that would encourage people to do more work.

Buddhism in China

Buddhism made its way into China through various routes from India and took hold fairly quickly. It appealed to the masses as it offered the opportunity for anyone to seek enlightenment regardless of class, race, or gender. It also spoke of achieving inner peace in a time when China was in a constant state of war. Went against Confucian thought because monks don't have kids which means depriving the state of future labor, a lot of money went into building monasteries, you leave your family for monastic life, and it doesn't focus on continuing the family name. Eventually gained a great deal of political power being sponsored by the government at various points. However this also created resentment from those who saw Buddhists as gaining much but contributing little. Many Confucian thinkers also clashed with Buddhists and despite its popularity, Buddhism always kept the stigma of being a foreign religion.

Song science & technology

Built impressive ships. Composite crossbow.

Southern Song

Capital was in Hangzhou and it confronted Jurchen Jin and later Mongol Yuan on its northern border. The South was the more profitable region. Established by brother of the captured emperor.

eunuchs

Castrated men who served at court. At various points during the Han and later in the Tang Dynasties eunuchs were able to dominate court affairs and politics through weaker emperors.

Confucianism

Central ideology in China based on the teachings of Confucius. Focuses on five major relationships (parent-child, older brother-younger brother, husband-wife, ruler-subject, and friends) and the responsibilities involved on either side of each. Confucian thought and literature was central to the examination system and the scholarly class. Spread to Korea and Japan along with the Chinese writing system. Early on in Chinese history Confucianism had to compete with legalism as well as many other schools of thought but emerged as the primary school of thought in Chinese government.

孝 (xiao: filial piety)

Central to Confucian ideology. Includes reverent obedience toward one's parents as well as strict mourning rituals when they die. In Confucian thought it is important to aide one's parents in making good decisions and preventing bad ones but one should never anger or disrespect them in doing so.

文 (wen: writing/civilization)

Chinese writing was extremely influential in East Asia and tied closely to the idea of civilization. (Cultures who could write in the Chinese writing system considered themselves more civilized than those who could not). Written languages of Korea and Japan initially used Chinese characters. In China, as well as in other countries, the ability to write and read Chinese characters was essential to achieving high social and/or political status.

Fang Xiaoru (Ming scholar)

Confucian scholar official who defied the ascent of the Yongle Emperor in Ming Dynasty China. When the Yongle Emperor used the "Duke of Zhou" story to justify his usurpation of his nephew, Xiaoru famously asked "Then where is King Cheng?" (Duke of Zhou had come to the aid of his nephew King Cheng in the way that the Yongle Emperor claimed to have come to the aid of his own nephew when he took the throne). Fang Xiaoru was executed for his defiance along with his relatives.

"King Cheng" story (Zhou dynasty)

During the Zhou dynasty the King of Zhou asks his uncle, Gongzi Cheng, to join him in wearing trousers of the northern Hu so others don't make fun of him. The Uncle refuses the emperor and insists that changing the clothing they have always worn would not be favorable. The King, upon hearing this, goes to his Uncle's house in person and convinces him that clothing has unique qualities depending on the region it came from. The Uncle then apologizes profusely and is given a pair of Hu trousers. This passage shows the effect that different garments had in China during this time.

Qing Kangxi Emperor

Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) became the second ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty. He led an army into Mongolia and effectively ended two thousand years of border control issues by demonstrating Qing supremacy in the region. He also took a personal interest in the Jesuit missionaries who served in Chinese courts. However, when the pope denounced ancestral altar rights he objected strongly and eventually outlawed Christian missionaries except the Jesuits (scientists and painters) serving in Chinese courts.

Empress Wu

First and only woman to take the title of "emperor" of China who took power first as regent when her husband suffered a stroke and later as "emperor" following his death. Was originally a lesser consort of the Emperor but rose to the position of Empress. Many stories circulated of evil ways in which she did this, including one in which she smothered her own baby and blamed the Empress causing her to fall out of favor. While many disapproved of her rule, she kept power until she was convinced to abdicate in her 70s.

Song Dynasty women's lives

Focus on beauty, footbinding.

Sui Wendi Emperor

Founder of the Sui dynasty. Encouraged the spread of Buddhism.

Guanyin

Guanyin is an East Asian spiritual figure of mercy, and a bodhisattva associated with compassion as venerated by Mahayana Buddhists. The name Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means "Perceiving the Sounds (or Cries) of the World."

Hangzhou

Hangzhou was one of two capitals of the Song dynasty along with Kaifeng. Thought to have over 1 million inhabitants during its height, the capital city was described as a, "flourishing commercial city." Full of markets, restaurants, and various other forms of entertainment, the city is a great example of the Song's large economic activity and various forms of long distance trading.

concubines

It was a common practice among wealthier Chinese citizens to take concubines in order to increase their chances of bearing sons. Concubines often came from poorer families that preferred the idea of their daughter being a concubine to a rich man rather than the wife of a poor one. Generally did not enjoy the same rights as the primary wife however at various points in history the children of concubines were given the same rights of inheritance as the children of the main wife. Also later on became a source of conflict between Jesuits and converted Chinese Christians.

仁 (ren: goodness, the human way)

Key concept of Confucianism. According to the Analects: "The way of the Master is doing one's utmost and putting oneself in the other's place."

Tang cosmopolitanism

Larger cities than had been built before. Stimulated by the presence of envoys, merchants, and pilgrims. Heavy foreign influence. Many different religions.

中國 (Zhongguo: Middle Kingdom)

Middle Kingdom was China's name for itself. It implies the centrality and also the dominance of China over surrounding civilizations. Speaks to the way China perceived itself in the world and is related to China's insistence on the tributary system.

Ming commercialization

Ming China was the very center of the world economy. One half to 3/4 of the precious metals mined in the New World end up in China! The population more than doubled to 150-200 million people, and coupled with the economic growth, allowed industrial cities to grow to over 1 million people. Land under cultivation increased by 25-30%, as well as new crops being introduced that could then be distributed widely via an effective canal network.

Tang Dynasty legacy & accomplishments

New examination system. Blending of different cultures and societies. Greatest empire in Chinese history.

Matteo Ricci

One of the founding fathers of the Chinese Jesuit missionary practice, Ricci, who lived in China from 1583-1610, helped to initially spread Catholicism to China. He was adept at Chinese literature and culture, impressing even well versed scholars with his knowledge on the Confucian Classics.

Chang'an

Originally a capital city of the Han, it was pillaged by the Xianbei and rebuilt in the Sui Dynasty, eventually flourishing as the capital city of the Tang Dynasty. At the time it was the largest capital that had been seen and grew to more than 2 million people. It was constructed with a grid-like layout which was copied by many other capital cities in East Asia such as Heian (Kyoto) in Japan. It had a very active marketplace which attracted merchants from many countries bringing a huge diversity of cultures and religions to the city.

Footbinding

Practice which began in the Song period, but was not recommended by Confucian scholars. Women's feet were wrapped tightly in order to keep them small and to bend the toes under making the feet appear narrow and arched which was considered beautiful. Began among the elite but later spread to all classes in north and central China. Women who underwent this process suffered limited mobility as a result.

Neo-Confucianism

Reaction to Taoism and Buddhism with Confucianism at the core. Brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi started their own sect of buddhism that focused more on metaphysics and ethics and argued that moral self-cultivation was more fundamental than service to the ruler. Their explanations of the workings of principal (li) and vital energy (qi) can be seen as a response to the sophisticated metaphysics of Buddhism. Followers of the Cheng brothers called the school the, "Learning of the Way," or ,"daoxue." The term neo-confucianism is used to stress how different it was from classical Confucianism.

Analects selections from class

Record of conversations between Confucius and his disciples that were recollected and passed down. It is the way in which Confucius's ideas were passed down. Much later the Analects were used in the formation of many European Enlightenment ideas.

Mandate of Heaven

Starting in beginning of the Zhou dynasty, the, "Book of Documents," assumes a close relationship between Heaven and the king, who was called the, "Son of Heaven." Heaven gave the king the power to rule as long as he ruled in the interest of the people. This helped legitimize the Zhou Dynasties lineage in the eyes of the recently conquered Shang.

Tang Xuanzong Emperor

Surrounded himself with capable advisors. Brought culture and power to China. Had dancing horses that were killed by cruel soldiers.

ancestral rites

Symbolic burning of food as a sacrifice to one's ancestors. A long standing tradition in Chinese culture which dates back to the earliest dynasties. Later on was the center of the rites controversy involving Jesuit missionaries and the Catholic church.

Tang Taizong Emperor

Talented general. Great with strategy. Killed his brothers and all of their sons. Chose wise advisors and issued a new legal code.

Chinese law (Tang, Ming)

Tang Dynasty legal code influenced much of East Asia and included a system of punishments which were not uniformly enforced but varied depending on the relationship of the perpetrator to the victim. Also included "equal field" property laws, as well as the notable inclusion of some legal rights of slaves. Ming emperors created a society with a great deal of social mobility but early Ming emperors harshly dealt with opposition executing 10s of thousands for actual or perceived plots against them.

"barbarians" (yi 夷)

Term used to describe foreign tribes. Uses characters for "big" and "bow". Translated as "Barbarians" which is an inaccurate translation as it carries implications that do not exist in the original Chinese use of the word.

Gentry Class

The Gentry Class was the highest ranking social class in China. From the Han to the Qing dynasty, the Gentry, otherwise known as scholar officials, helped the emperor perform day to day tasks and govern provinces.

Huangdi (Emperor, China)

The Yellow Emperor, or simply by his Chinese name Huangdi, is a deity in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors and cosmological Five Forms of the Highest Deity. Could also just be referencing that emperor translates to, "huangdi."

Koutou

The act of kneeling and bowing one's head until it touches the ground. This action was used as the ultimate sign of respect, especially in regards to the Emperor. It was an act that many missionaries disapproved of, but performing the Koutou was crucial for foreigners to be received well by the Emperor.

Qin Shi Huangdi (First Qin Emperor)

The founder of the Qin dynasty, and the first unifier of China, King Cheng, decided that the title of king was not grand enough. He invented the title, "emperor," Huangdi, which literally translates to, "august theocrat." He called himself the First Emperor in anticipation of a long line of successors.

Great Wall

The majority of the Great Wall was built during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and connected many smaller walls together. It contained watchtowers at every half mile, although the wall functioned more as border control than actually stopping any determined threats. The wall, at an average of 20 feet across, also helped facilitate trade for the surrounding regions that it was built through. A symbol both physical-a manifestation of Chinese strength-and psychological-a representation of the barrier maintained by the Chinese state to repel foreign influences and exert control over its citizens.

examination system

The system used to appoint scholar officials. Consisted of three levels (local, provincial, and national). Those who passed the highest level could be appointed to very high government positions. Encompassed a variety of topics including politics, Confucian thought, and poetry writing. Open to members of any class making it possible, at least in theory, for anyone to rise to a position of power, although it took a great deal of effort and time in order to study for the exams giving higher classes an advantage. Copied in Korea and Japan although in a much more exclusive fashion. In Korea in particular the yangban dominated the system to such an extent that it was virtually impossible for anyone else to succeed.

Poem "A Woman's Hundred Years (~10th c.)

This poem describes the life of an aging women ever ten years. By stressing how life inevitably leads to change and sorrow, it plays upon a familiar Buddhist theme of the transience of life but does not make an explicit reference to Buddhist principles.

scholar-officials

go through a system of exams including calligraphy, poetry, rhyme-prose, essays on classics an politics, eulogies, legal knowledge, and specialty questions on law, mathematics, paleography, ritual, Daoism, and history. Took about 20 to 30 years to prepare for the exams. Started at a county level, then provincial, then national/palace, then an interview with the emperor. Move from wanting to be a warrior to wanting to be educated.

Zhu Yuanzhang (Ming Hongwu Emperor)

o Defeated the Mongol led Yuan Dynasty and founded the Ming dynasty o Was from an the lowest class o Would punish or execute anyone who may/did criticize him o Was the general of the Red Turban army o Abolished high chancellor o Lighten the government burden on the poor

Zhu Di (Ming Yongle Emperor)

o Known as Chengzu o Military man like his father Taizu o Sent Zheng He and his armada on voyages o Used fear and terror to keep subjects in line o Expanded and regulated the court diplomatic system o Set about publishing the Yongle encyclopedia o Moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing o Extensively renovated the Grand Canal

Yue Fei (Song martyr/poet)

o Was a general and a scholar o Hanged by the Southern Song Emperor o best known for leading Southern Song forces in the wars in the 12th century between Southern Song and the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty in northern China o Son of a farmer

Zheng He and his armada

o Was taken as a young boy to be castrated o Was the Yongle Emperor's most trusted eunuch o Went on a series of sea expeditions/voyages to demonstrate the power of the Ming empire o Was Muslim o Aided in establishing maritime trade routes o The end: lack of funds, very little returns, rising threat of Mongol presence o Boats remained in harbor until their lumber was used for other constructions