chpt 7-8

30. Quartering Act

): The Quartering Act was first introduced in 1765 and required certain colonies to provide food and living spaces for British troops. The British had supported an army of 10,000 after the French and Indian War as a way to defend the frontier and prevent uprisings such as Pontiac's Rebellion from occurring. Thus, to help alleviate some of the cost to the British crown, Parliament placed some of the burden on the American's shoulder, feeling that the colonists should take some of the responsibility anyways since they were the ones being protected. The law was reformed in 1774 to give power to local authorities to lodge British troops anywhere, even in private homes, a measure that the colonists found particularly annoying and frustrating, not to mention intrusive.

10. Baron von Steuben

A German drillmaster who was a key figure in whipping the poorly trained American rebels into shape to fight the British troops. Even though he spoke no English when he initially arrived in America, von Steuben was an organizational genius and came to teach his recruits that bayonets were not for broiling beefsteaks over open fires. As a result of von Steuben's training among that of other drillmasters, the soldiers of the colonies soon provided a formidable opposition against the British troops. The training provided by drillmasters such as von Steuben allowed George Washington to lead successful military campaigns once the Revolutionary War began.

15. Ann Hulton

A Loyalist who described in a letter to a friend in England in 1774, the political divisions within the colonies and her fears for her own safety. In her letter, she says that, "However, I don't despair of seeing Peace and tranquility in America, though they talk very high and furious at present. They are all preparing their arms and ammunition and say if any of the leaders are seized, they will make reprisals on the friends of the Government."

7. Richard Henry Lee

A Virginian who at the Philadelphia Congress laid down the decisive course of action in his words, "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." His words summed up the growing sentiment that the colonies should just separate from Britain altogether and Lee's resolution came to adopted by the Congress nearly a month later on July 2, 1776. However, with that adoption, there was the need for a formal document to be made to recognize this huge step in political history. For this purpose, the Congress appointed a committee to write what later became known as the Declaration of Independence. Thus, the reason for Independence Day on July 4, 1776, the day the Declaration of Independence was signed and not July 2, the day Lee's Resolution was accepted.

27. Battle of Yorktown

A battle in which American and French troops cornered British troops under Cornwallis who were waiting for supplies from the navy. Cornwallis had moved to Yorktown in the Chesapeake with the hope of seaborne supplies and reinforcements. However, the colonial forces discovered the plan and George Washington quickly rushed his troops down from New York to team with the French troops under Rochambeau to siege Cornwallis's troops from the land. At sea, the Admiral de Grasse (French) held off the British. This complete surrounding of Cornwallis's troops eventually forced him to surrender, resulting in a big victory for the Americans at the Battle of Yorktown. The Battle of Yorktown is known as one of the concluding battles of the American Revolutionary War.

16. Natural Rights

A concept first developed during the Enlightenment period by John Locke, it came to be used as a key component of the Declaration of Independence and in subsequent democratic documents such as the American Constitution. Thomas Jefferson argued in the Declaration of Independence that the colonists had natural rights not only as English subjects, but as men. With this as the basis, Jefferson proceeded to say that the violation of these rights by the king justified the colonists' breaking of ties with their former ruler, the British. To illustrate his point, Jefferson lists out twenty-seven grievances that the colonists have against the king as well as the fact that they have appealed again and again, but to no effect.

17. Republicanism

A concept of government founded on the belief that power flowed from the people themselves, not from a corrupt and despotic monarch. Paine used language filled with biblical imagery to convey his point that all government officials, whether they be governors, senators, judges, or representatives in the house of commons, should derive their authority from the popular consent. Ironically, the British claimed to have a republic form of government and to a certain extent they did. In fact, Paine borrowed the idea from them, citing flaws that could be corrected within the British system to come up with a true republic like that found in ancient Greece and Rome. Americans had practiced republicanism, especially in the New England area, through town meetings, committees of correspondence, and the like.

19. Second Continental Congress

A convening of the delegates from all thirteen colonies on May 10, 1775 in Philadelphia. At this time, the conservative sentiment among the delegates was still strong and many still wished to pursue eventual reconciliation with Britain. Thus, they focused on drafting appeals and grievances to Parliament and the king. However, they also anticipated a possible rebuff and thus began making preparations for an army and navy of their own. One important major decision was the appointment of George Washington as the head of the hastily assembled army. At the time, the colonists outside of Massachusetts had become jealous of the attention being give to Boston and so the Congress sought to pick a commander from Virginia, the most populous state, to offset these tensions. Washington was an ideal pick on numerous aspects, including status, leadership, and character.

21. Declaration of Independence

A document that formally established the colonies at "free and independent states." The inspiration for the Declaration of Independence had been a long time coming but came to the forefront with Lee's Resolution on June 7, 1776. At that time, the colonists were just beginning to lean towards strict separation from Britain and the delegates at the Philadelphia Congress were inclined to side with this view. As such, the Congress appointed a group under Thomas Jefferson to draft a document that would espouse their views and conclude with something along the lines of Lee's Resolution. This, Jefferson and his group accomplished and the Declaration of Independence was eventually approved and signed on July 4, 1776 after a view amendments.

33. Committees of Correspondence

A group of local committees first organized by Samuel Adams beginning in 1772. Adams established the first committee in Boston in 1772 and the movement soon spread to over eighty towns within the colony of Massachusetts. These committees served an important role in spreading the spirit of resistance through the exchanging of letters. Later on, the committees of correspondence served as the beginnings of an inter-colonial system of communication that allowed messages about British troop movements and battles to travel quickly up and down the coast, an invaluable resource to the American forces.

23. Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty

A group of middle and upper class citizens within the colonies who decided to take matters into their own hands as the situation escalated with more and more acts. Such groups began to develop within the colonies around the time of the Stamp Act and were known for crying, "Liberty, Property, and No Stamps." As individuals coming from a more educated background and often with more influence within society, they strictly enforced the nonimportation agreements and would tar and feather those who did not comply. Though they were initially peaceful, they soon joined the mobs in ransacking the houses of unpopular officials and were responsible for the Boston Tea Party.

20. Common Sense

A highly influential pamphlet published by Thomas Paine. The pamphlet, which argued that the colonists hesitance went against common sense because in the physical universe, the smaller heavenly body never controlled the larger one like Britain was doing with the colonies, was an instant bestseller, even though Paine had only been in the colonies for over a year. Selling 120,000 copies within a few months, a number that was unprecedented at the time, the pamphlet incited many Americans to action as they now saw that they were in a way entitled to take the down the oppressive British.

25. Bunker Hill

A hill that was actually inaccurately claimed (actually Breed's Hill) by the American colonists in June 1775. The hill provided strategic position from British onslaughts from Boston as the colonists were shooting down on the British. The British used poor military maneuvers and mounted a frontal assault instead of outflanking the colonists and cutting off any retreat paths. As it stood, the British suffered costly losses with a lot of bloodshed while the Americans were able to hold their own with relatively few casualties before retreating because they were heavily outnumbered.

4. Benedict Arnold

A key figure in the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he continued to be a contributing force throughout the war. His major action was to capture Fort Crown Point, shortly after the fighting had begun with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Shortly thereafter, he teamed up with General Montgomery's troops in an attack on Quebec, but because his troops had become exhausted marching through the woods of Maine and living off dogs and shoe leather, they were unfit to fight and suffered a defeat at Quebec. Arnold himself was shot in the leg and was forced to retreat up the St. Lawrence River. General Arnold later constructed a tiny fleet to hold off the British fleet just long enough to force a winter intermission in the war. However, he later became a traitor when a plot was discovered in which he would sell the key position of West Point to the British for money and an officer position. Washington lamented by saying, "Whom can we trust?"

12. Patrick Henry

A man who was among the most radical of the revolutionaries, he is best known for his speech before the Virginia Assembly in which he said, "Give me liberty or give me death!" This flaming outcry raised the spirits of many individuals and Henry's words came to embody the revolutionary spirit, a clear advantage for the Americans, who were fighting for their own lives, homes, and families, whereas the British soldiers and German mercenaries did not really have their heart in the game. Henry later became the Governor of Virginia on two separate occasions and was an anti-federalist, believing that the government established by the Constitution would take away many of the rights they had just won in the war.

16. John Dickinson

A man who was among the wealthiest in the British colonies, he was an American lawyer who was deeply involved in all the political proceedings in the Revolutionary days. Serving as the delegate for different states on different occasions, and then later on as the governor of more than one state at separate times, Dickinson was a well-respected figure within Revolutionary society. Thomas Jefferson is known to have made a special recognition of Dickinson at the time of Dickinson's passing. In the text, Dickinson tells the American colonists, "Let us behave like dutiful children who have received unmerited blows from a beloved parent." In this, he expressed the common sentiment at the time, which was to peacefully oppose the acts while still remaining loyal to the crown. Over time, this viewpoint came to change within the public opinion.

7. Crispus Attucks

A mulatto who is recognized as the first one killed in the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. In response to the growing unruliness of the American colonists, the British officials had placed two regiments of troops in Boston in 1768. The existence of these troops was already an insult to the Americans and further worsening the situation was the fact that the soldiers were often drunken and profane characters. All of this came to a boiling point and a mob came to gather around a group of ten redcoats on that fateful night. Attucks was recognized as a colored man after the incident had occurred but his actual race is unclear. Various groups, including African Americans and Native Americans, have used him as a representative for their involvement in the American Revolution and the truth may be that he did indeed hail from all those races and was just a man of mixed races.

29. Townshend Acts

A series of acts passed by Parliament under the influence of Charles Townshend. Among the various duties that had to be paid were light import duties on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. The tax on tea was especially protested since tea was such an integral part of the daily diet. Many Americans consumed tea at least twice a day if not three times. A key distinction in this act from previous acts was the fact that it was supposed to be an internal tax as opposed to an external tax. As such, this tax was an indirect customs duty payable at American ports. Despite this distinction, the Americans were still very angered by the increased taxes and eventually forced the British hand through boycotts and other means. All of the taxes except that on tea were repealed, but that last tax remained a sticking point between the two sides.

38. Intolerable Acts

A series of acts passed by the British Parliament in 1774 in response to the events of the Boston Tea Party. Most of these acts, such as the Boston Port Act, which closed the tea-stained harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured, were directed at the Bostonians and the inhabitants of Massachusetts as opposed to the colonies as a whole. Nonetheless, all the colonies came to assist Bostonians in some way, often by providing foodstuffs as a means of sustenance for those living in Boston and Massachusetts. Other parts of the Intolerable Acts included the removal of many basic rights, the restrictions on town meetings, the sending to Britain for trial without jury, and the expanded power of the Quartering Act.

18. Mercantilism

A system of economic practice practiced by the British government and its affiliates in its various colonies, especially the American colonies. Mercantilist principles rested on the basis that wealth was power and therefore a country's wealth was indicative of how much power it had. Well, in order to accrue more wealth, a country needed t export more than it imported. Possessing colonies was one such way of accomplishing that goal because the mother country would receive natural resources from those colonies and then those same colonies would serve as the markets for finished products. Ultimately, the mercantilist system was highly unfair to the American colonists because it essentially jettisoned their personal livelihood for the benefit of Britain.

6. John Adams

A well known lawyer who later became the second president of the United States, he is noted in the text as being the representative for the defense in the case of the Boston Massacre. Through his efforts, all but two of the soldiers involved in the incident were acquitted on charges of manslaughter. Even then, the two that were convicted were released after being branded on the hands, a relatively minor punishment compared to the severe punishments the colonists had been seeking. Therein lies a great irony because the very man who defended the British soldiers on this occasion would later become an influential figure in the American Revolution in various political bodies and even serve as the second President of the United States after George Washington.

14. Ethan Allen

Allen was a notable figure in the American Revolutionary War. He first became involved in conflict with the British government when he purchased land within the New Hampshire Grants but then became embroiled in a land dispute. Thus, once the American Revolutionary War began Lexington and Concord, Allen was quick to take to action to fight for his own land. Leading his group, known as the Green Mountain Boys, Allen was able to quickly capture Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. However, he was captured four months later in an attack against Montreal. After his release in 1778, he returned and remained a key figure within the New Hampshire area. Eventually, after the war was over, he became the founder of Vermont.

13. John Jay

Along with Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, John Jay served as a representative to Paris for the peace negotiations after the American Revolutionary War. Though they had been instructed by Congress not to pursue a separate peace from their allies the French and to a certain degree the Spanish, Jay sensed that the French could not satisfy both the Americans and the Spanish and felt that the French would be more inclined to give the trans-Allegheny area to the Spanish, even though American colonists had already been settling on it. Therefore, Jay went against his instructions from Congress and pursued a separate peace with Britain in 1782. From this basis, the Treaty of Paris of 1783 was conducted, in which Britain recognized the independence of the United States and granted them the land up to the Mississippi River.

5. Charles Townshend

Also known as "Champagne Charley" because he could deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament, even when he was intoxicated with alcohol, this man was the driving force behind what later became known as the Townshend Acts. These acts were passed in 1767 and mandated the payment of taxes on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea among other things. Though the tax was small, the fact that there was a tax at all, especially on tea, angered the Americans. Townshend tried to disguise the tax as being suitable for payment under the provisions of "taxation without representation" by making it an internal tax as opposed to an external tax, but the Americans still violently disagreed. Further angering the Americans was that the revenue generated from this tax would be used to pay the salaries of royal governors and judges in America, two offices that they utterly resented. Eventually, everything except the tea tax was repealed, but Townshend's actions had seriously worsened relations between the British government and the colonists.

2. Lord North

Also known as Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, this man served as the prime minister of Great Britain beginning in 1770 and through most of the American Revolutionary War. Serving under King George III, Lord North had a corrupt government and the ill-timing of his rise to power had significant ramifications as to what he could accomplish. Coming after Charles Townshend, Lord North had to deal with the outrage, even from British manufacturers, stemming from the Townshend Acts and was eventually forced to push Parliament to repeal the acts. Nonetheless, a three-pence tax on tea still remained in place as a reminder that the British government still had the right to tax and eventually, North's actions would lead to the American Revolutionary War and to the subsequent defeat of the British in that war.

8. Horatio Gates

An American general who secured the surrender of British troops at the Battle of Saratoga in October 17, 1777. Actually, most of the work had been done by Benedict Arnold, but Arnold had been shot in the leg in the proceedings allowing for Gates, a former British soldier to take credit for the victory. The victory at Saratoga is a very important one because it revitalized the flailing colonial cause and prompted foreign aid from France, a key factor in helping the Americans achieve their independence.

15. Richard Montgomery

An Irish-born general who led a campaign against French Canada. The Americans felt that if they could take over Canada, they would add a fourteenth colony to their ranks and would also deprive Britain of a stronghold from which to attack them. Thus, under Montgomery, one group pushed up the Lake Champlain route and was able to capture Montreal. Montgomery's army then pushed on towards Quebec where he joined forces with Benedict Arnold. Unfortunately, the two armies were exhausted in many ways and their assault on Quebec on the last day of 1775 was repelled. In

26. Declaratory Act

An act passed by Parliament in 1766 in conjunction with the repeal of the Stamp Act. While recognizing that they had failed with the Stamp Act, Congress still wanted to show the Americans that they held the real power and thus decided to declare there power to tax the American colonies in the Declaratory Act. Essentially, they built off of the principle of virtual representation to say that they had power to tax the colonists.

24. Quebec Act

An act passed in 1774 by the British government as a way to administer to the French in the Quebec region. In the act, the French were allowed to practice their Catholic religion and retain their old customs and institutions. Among these traditions was the lack of a representative assembly or trial by jury, two things that Americans greatly espoused. This combined with the religious differences eventually all came to the forefront when the act enlarged the area given to the French of the Quebec area to include the Great Lakes region. Americans were infuriated that they were not allowed to take that land and also felt that the British were purposely making these concessions to anger the colonists.

20. Nonimportation agreement

An agreement among American merchants to not import any British goods until certain Acts were done away with. This method of boycotting was practiced on numerous occasions by the colonial merchants but to varying success. The first successful and extended term of the nonimportation agreements was in response to the Stamp Act. During this time, woolen garments of homespun wool became fashionable and the eating of lamb chops was discouraged so that wool-bearing sheep would be allowed to mature, thereby making the American colonists less dependent on British textiles. Nonimportation agreements were used thereafter as a means to protests the acts.

31. Boston Massacre

An outbreak of violence on the streets of Boston as a result of protests against the Townshend Acts. The colonists protests against the Townshend Acts had caused the British to place two regiments of soldiers in Boston in 1768 as a precautionary measure. However, this action only increased the anger among the colonists and on March 5, 1770, the mob began taunting and throwing snowballs at a group of ten soldiers. They were apparently protesting the death of an eleven-year-old boy who was shot in a dispute with a merchant. Acting apparently without orders, the troops opened fire and killed or wounded eleven people, including Crispus Attucks. The attack was labeled as a massacre and soon gained ground in colonial society as a clear example of British oppression.

17. Adam Smith

Commonly known as the founder of capitalism, Smith served a significant role in the world of economics both at his time and even now into the present day. As the American colonists were being oppressed by the system of mercantilism, Smith spoke out on their behalf, saying that, "To prohibit a great people, however, from making all that they can of every part of their own produce, or from employing their stock and industry in the way that they judge most advantageous to themselves, is a manifest violation of the most sacred rights of mankind."

1. George Washington

George Washington was appointed the head of colonial forces for the first time by the Second Continental Congress. As a wealthy Virginian with high morals, leadership, and character, he embodied everything that the Congress wished to have in an ideal military leader. Washington eventually led the colonial forces throughout the American Revolutionary War, leading key victories at Trenton after crossing the Delaware, Princeton, Saratoga, and Yorktown. Eventually, he was elected as the first President of the United States, largely based on his standing as the successful commander of the American Revolutionary War. Throughout his time as army commander and President, Washington refused to be paid, saying instead that he served out of loyalty and patriotism. His two terms in office set a precedent for Presidents that has only been broken by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Today, he is commemorated by being on the one dollar bill among various other recognitions.

25. Navigation Acts

Having been in existence for a long time, the Navigation Act sought to control trade within the American colonies and ensure that Britain got all of the profit. During the period of salutary neglect following the fall of the Dominion of New England in conjunction with the Glorious Revolution, the Navigation Act became loosely enforced and smuggling abounded, mainly with the French and Spanish colonies in the region. Eventually, as the British began to tighten their control once again, they realized that Boston harbor, one of the busiest ports in the world, was exporting quite a small number of goods compared to its original trading volume. Thus, the British government suspected smuggling and began to strictly enforce the Navigation Acts under George Grenville, even going as far as undertaking "illegal searches and seizures" of homes, businesses, and basically any buildings suspected of hiding smuggled goods.

27. First Continental Congress

In response to the Intolerable Acts, the First Continental Congress was summoned to meet in 1774 in Philadelphia. Every colony except Georgia sent delegates to the Congress with many notables such as the Adams brothers, George Washington, and Patrick Henry on hand. The First Continental Congress deliberated for seven weeks from September 5 to October 26, 1774. John Adams led the push for revolution, defeating a contingency who advocated a moderate form of American home rule within the British system. After prolonged argument, the Congress ultimately drew up the Declaration of Rights as well as solemn appeal to other British colonies, the kind, and the British people. Parliament's rejection of these appeals added further fuel to the fire.

37. Stamp Act Congress

In response to the Stamp Act of 1765, the Stamp Act Congress was called together in October 1765 in New York. Twenty-seven delegates representing nine colonies were in attendance, but the views established by this Congress would eventually be adopted by all the colonies. Essentially, the Congress looked to come up with a document to cite their grievances against the king and Parliament, especially with regard to the Stamp Act, the first act to widely affect the bottom line of many Americans. The Congress also produced a statement of rights to accompany its statement of grievances. Though the Congress had little impact both within Britain and the colonies, the precedent it set was important because the convened delegates now saw that they had a unity about them and were capable of uniting in the future if necessary.

35. Boston Tea Party

In response to the tea tax under the provisions of the Townshend Acts as well as the monopoly granted to the British East India Company to sell tea within the American colonies, the Sons of Liberty organized the Boston Tea Party as a protest. On December 16, 1773, a group of a hundred or so Bostonians dressed themselves in Indian garb and boarded the docked ships of the British East India company, tearing open 342 chests of tea and dumping them into the harbor. The British as well as the company were infuriated with this action because it cost them significant losses with wasted products. Thus, they responded by closing down Boston harbor until reparations were paid. Luckily, the Bostonians were able to survive off of help from neighboring cities and colonies.

1. John Hancock

John Hancock is best known as the man who was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence. As the president of that Congress, Hancock was bestowed with that honor and signed with a very graceful and big signature. Because of this, the words "John Hancock" have come to mean "signature" in the American language. While some sources, including the textbook, cite Hancock as having amassed his considerable fortune through smuggling, this fact is historically debated and he may have just acquired his fortune through regular merchant dealings. Nonetheless, Hancock's possible activity in smuggling shows that many respectable Americans were involved in the trade, especially as the British government began to implement taxes on more and more items and the Americans decided to boycott many goods. Hancock would serve numerous times as the governor of Massachusetts and used his considerable influence to make sure that state ratified the Constitution.

22. Loyalists/Tories

Loyalists were those who remained loyal to the British crown. They were also known as Tories because that was the dominant political faction in Britain. Loyalists constituted approximately sixteen percent of the population and hailed mainly from the older generations who were too settled in to consider revolution. Loyalists also were hesitant to join the rebel cause because loyalty to the king was the foremost among the virtues and the chances that the British won were extremely high. Loyalists often considered themselves the "better lot of people" and thus earned the scorn of the commoners who had come to fill the colonies. Loyalists had a tough time after the war when they were viewed as social outcasts for their traitor status.

36. Loyalists

Loyalists, or Tories, were people who remained loyal to the British crown, even as the Revolutionary War began to take place. In fact, the British even enrolled fifty thousand of these Loyalists in their ranks in the fight against the rebels. Loyalists constituted approximately sixteen percent of the population and often hailed from the older generation and higher classes. These educated and conservative people had become use to British government.

14. Edmund Burke

Originally of Irish descent, Burke moved to England and served as a statesman in the House of Commons. During his time there, he came to be known as a supporter of the American Revolution while disagreeing with the happenings of the French Revolution. As such, he came to be labeled as an Old Whig. Burke's viewpoint of the American Revolution can be seen in his speech to the House of Commons in 1775, in which he says, "As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty...they will turn their faces toward you." Burke goes on to make his case for reconciliation with the colonies, seeing that such an proceeding would be beneficial for both parties.

39. Battle of Lexington and Concord

The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first shots of the American Revolutionary War. They occurred in April 1775 as a result of the British commander in Boston sending a detachment of troops to seize what was believed to be a store of colonial gunpowder and weapons at Lexington and Concord. The troops also went with the intent of capturing the leaders of the rebels, Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Though the Americans were forced to retreat at Lexington, largely due to superior numbers on the British side, the people rallied together at Concord and provided an overwhelming opposition against the British, eventually forcing the British all the way back into the city of Boston. This victory for the Americans signaled the beginning of the American Revolutionary War in earnest.

11. Thomas Hutchinson

The British royal governor who refused to give in to the American refusal to comply with the tea component of the Townshend Act among other things. Hutchinson had already seen the power of American mobs when his home was destroyed in 1765. Nonetheless, Hutchinson wanted to make a firm stand, claiming that while the tax was unjust, the American colonists were in no position to go against the law. Further complicating the situation was a letter that he supposedly wrote in which he said that "an abridgement of what are called English liberties" was necessary to govern the colonists. In response to Hutchinson's forced importation of tea, the Boston Tea Party was organized and eventually Hutchinson returned to Britain, never to return to America again.

23. Patriots/Whigs

The Patriots were the rebels who fought against the British crown. They were also known as Whigs because that the minority faction in Britain that supported the American Revolution. Patriots were also a small contingency in the American population as the majority of Americans remained undecided and idle in the action. However, the Patriots were much more adept at convincing these middling people to join their side as opposed to the British, often saying things like the British cannot be trusted. The Patriots hailed mainly from the younger generation which was less inclined to remember affiliation with Britain and know only of the injustices they had suffered in recent years.

32. Stamp Act

The Stamp Act of 1765 was the first act passed by the British Parliament that directly affected the pocketbooks of all Americans, not just a few. The act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps to certify the payment of such a tax. All legal documents were taxed as well as some common items such as playing cards and dice. Since the taxes were so far-reaching and encompassed so much of society, it was natural that it would draw the most protests up to this point. Indeed, American response to the Stamp Act was huge and the colonists forced all the stamp distributors to resign before or shortly after they took office. Furthermore, the Stamp Act Congress convened to cite the colonists' grievance of "taxation without representation" and the Sons of Liberty began to rise as a result of this act. Ultimately, the act was repealed without ever really having gone into effect.

28. Sugar Act

The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first law passed by Parliament with the specific intent of raising tax revenue in the colonies. Prior to this, the colonists had paid no tax with the purpose of raising money for the British crown. The act called for an increased tax on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies and thus the effect of this act was limited to people and merchants who were in the sugar and molasses trade. While the effect was relatively small, the idea nonetheless was important as Britain had now established a precedent to tax the Americans to pay off their debt from the French and Indian War.

6. Thomas Paine

The author of the highly influential pamphlet "Common Sense" (1776), he had come over just a year earlier from Britain. Paine's basic argument was that in the physical universe, the smaller heavenly body never controlled the larger one as the British were controlling the American colonies. Thus, the colonists should rise up to challenge the British authorities. Paine's words inspired many individuals to action. Furthermore, Paine advocated the principle of republicanism, in which all governmental power is ultimately derived from the people. This concept had been around for a while, but Paine helped it to gain prominence within the American consciousness, ultimately resulting in the formation of a republic of sorts with the Constitution.

26. Battle of Saratoga

The battle of Saratoga was originally intended by the British to be a battle to divide New England from the rest of the colonies and therefore snuff out the rebellion in this way. However, while advances from the north by General Burgoyne and St. Leger were successful, General Howe bailed on the effort to pursue after Washington outside of Philadelphia. As a result, a combination of General Benedict Arnold and Horatio Gates was able to trap the British Army at Saratoga and come up with a huge American victory. The victory at Saratoga greatly revitalized American morale and caused the French to enter the war on the side of the Americans, a key deciding factor in the outcome.

2. William Howe

The general who commanded the British in the Battle of Bunker Hill and later pursued Washington as he retreated from the New York area. Howe, however, was not a great military strategist and did not like winter time fighting. Therefore, he allowed Washington to escape and inflict two defeats at Trenton over the surprised Hessians on Christmas Day and later at Princeton. These two victories for the Americans greatly boosted their morale and came as a result of Howe's reluctance to wipe out Washington's army when he had the chance. Howe later crushed Washington in battles outside of Philadelphia, forcing Washington's army to take refuge at Valley Forge over the winter, but he was supposed to be aiding General Burgoyne in an attack on New York and thus in this matter, he failed as well.

22. "virtual representation"

The idea that Parliament represented all parts of English society even if members from that specific part of society were not explicitly represented in Parliament. In response, to the Stamp Act and various other taxes, the colonists essentially argued that because they had no representatives in Parliament, that legislative body had no authority to tax them. Rather, only their own legislative bodies held that power. In response to this argument, the British government said that Parliament represented the colonists through virtual representation, citing the British poor as an example.

18. Natural Aristocracy

The idea that a government had to be ruled by certain leading individuals, often hailing from the higher classes, in order for order to be maintained. Advocates of this concept denounced an outright form of republicanism because they felt that at least a fluid class system was needed to maintain social order. In their view, a complete push for liberty with all the "lower orders of society" being able to have the same political power would cause utter chaos because those people were not informed enough to make proper political decisions. Thus, a natural aristocracy had to still remain in place to make the right decisions for the republic. The debate between a natural aristocracy and an outright republic would continue on in America for at least the next hundred years.

19. "No taxation without representation"

The key overriding concept throughout the succession of Acts, the slogan "no taxation without representation" was first officially coined in response to the far-reaching Stamp Act. Indeed, the Virginia Resolves and the documents passed by the Stamp Act Congress both allude to this point, which was within the English Bill of Rights. The colonists essentially argued that because they had no representatives in Parliament, that legislative body had no authority to tax them. Rather, only their own legislative bodies held that power. In response to this argument, the British government said that Parliament represented the colonists through virtual representation, citing the British poor as an example.

9. King George III

The king of England in the time leading up to and during the American Revolution. At first, the colonists viewed him in good faith, seeing their problems as being mainly with the Parliament and the King's ministers, who passed numerous measures to oppress them. To this point, a leaden statue of King George III was erected in New York in response to the repeal of the Stamp Act. Indeed, many colonists wanted to remain loyal to the crown and made efforts to do so. However, as the situation became increasingly worse and the King rejected the Olive Branch Petition, the colonists came to view him in a negative light and he was eventually targeted as the source of all the Americans' problems. As such, all the grievances in the Declaration of Independence were directed at him.

28. Hessians

The name given to German mercenaries hired by King George III to help with the conflict in the colonies. The name was given because most of these German soldiers came from the principality under the control of Prince Hesse. However, other principalities contributed as well, many because they needed the money and King George III was desperate for men. The Americans saw this as an unfair move in an already lopsided war. They questioned the need to bring in outside forces in an essentially internal battle. Luckily for the Americans, the Hessians did not have great loyalty to the British crown and were attracted by booty over duty. Many eventually deserted because of the promise of American land and became well-respected citizens.

3. George Grenville

The prime minister who was responsible for the first major steps towards the American Revolutionary War. Among his actions while in office was the ordering of the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Acts. Such enforcement caused more and more American merchants to turn to smuggling while the general population advocated boycotts and nonimportation agreements. Grenville was also responsible for the passage of the Sugar Act of 1764 as well as the Stamp Act of 1765, which was violently opposed in the colonies. In fact, the act never even really took off because the colonists forced all the tax collectors to resign within days of or even before they took office. Grenville was removed from office while the Stamp Act was being implemented, but his actions got the ball rolling towards the revolution.

24. Treaty of Paris 1783

The treaty that formally ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty came about after an uneasy period in which King George III still wanted to continue fighting, much to the dismay of the British people, and the French were unsure how to hand out the spoils of victory appropriately between themselves, the Americans, and the Spanish. Ultimately, John Jay pursued a separate peace with Britain that became the basis for this treaty, in which Britain recognized the independence of the United States and granted them the territories up to the Mississippi River. The Americans also received a share of the valuable fisheries in Newfoundland. On the Americans' part, the Loyalists were not to be further persecuted and Congress was the recommend the return of confiscated Loyalist property. Debts to England still had to be repaid among other things.

3. Nathanael Greene

a Quaker-reared tactician who was able to wear down the British forces using a strategy of delay and retreat. Even though he lost numerous battles in this manner, his strategy forced the British army to pursue after him and therefore expend their resources, mainly foodstuffs in this way. Thus, using this method, the "Fighting Quaker" was able to win campaigns while losing battles and eventually get rid of most of the British troops in Georgia and South Carolina basically singlehandedly.

11. Marquis de Lafayette

a wealthy young French nobleman who loved glory and liberty, he came to America seeking relief from the boredom in his homeland. The "French gamecock" as he came to be known was made a major general in the colonial army at age nineteen, largely because of his family influence and political connections. Eventually, the Marquis de Lafayette would prove to be invaluable to the colonists because he supplied them not only with military service, but also with his own personal funds and his appeal to France to further support the Americans. After the Revolution, Lafayette returned to France to become a key figure in the French Revolution.

8. Marquis de Lafayette

a wealthy young French nobleman who loved glory and liberty, he came to America seeking relief from the boredom in his homeland. The "French gamecock" as he came to be known was made a major general in the colonial army at age nineteen, largely because of his family influence and political connections. Eventually, the Marquis de Lafayette would prove to be invaluable to the colonists because he supplied them not only with military service, but also with his own personal funds and his appeal to France to further support the Americans. After the Revolution, Lafayette returned to France to become a key figure in the French Revolution.

9. John Paul Jones

a young Scotsman who was among the first naval officers for the colonies. Even though the initial naval establishment consisted of only a handful of nondescript ships, the navy was able to make significant contributions by taking the fight to the merchant ships in the British Isles. Therefore, even though they could not stand up against the British navy, the fledgling American navy under John Paul Jones still provided meaningful assistance in the American Revolutionary War.

10. Thomas Jefferson

a young, tall Virginia lawyer who was given the task of drafting the Declaration of Independence. Despite his youth, many of his contemporaries already recognized him as a brilliant writer and therefore he was chosen for the task. Jefferson's masterpiece argued for the natural rights of man, not just English subjects, and argued persuasively that because the king had violated these rights, the colonists were justified in cutting their connections. To illustrate his point, Jefferson lists out twenty-seven grievances that while biased to favor his point of view, nonetheless conveyed certain historical truths. Ultimately, with a few revisions, the Philadelphia Congress approved the Declaration of Independence and it was signed on July 4, 1776, formally making the colonies "free and Independent States."

13. Benjamin Franklin

an important figure even before the Revolution began to come into prominence, Franklin's wisdom and knowledge was still greatly admired and his experience in many fields and thorough knowledge of Enlightenment ideals as a Philadelphian made him a valuable resource to the Founding Fathers. Even though he was often the oldest member of the political bodies that assembled, he remained quite involved in the proceedings and voiced several important opinions, among those the need for compromise between the two sides on any issue in order for the new government to work. In 1775, he wrote that "We have an old mother that peevish is grown; She snubs us like children that scarce walk alone."

5. Charles Cornwallis

the British general who lost a significant advantage in Georgia and South Carolina when he pursued after Nathanael Greene and later surrendered his entire army at Yorktown in what has come to be known as one of the concluding battles of the American Revolutionary War. Cornwallis had moved to Yorktown in the Chesapeake with the hope of seaborne supplies and reinforcements. However, the colonial forces discovered the plan and George Washington quickly rushed his troops down from New York to team with the French troops under Rochambeau to siege Cornwallis's troops from the land. At sea, the Admiral de Grasse (French) held off the British. This complete surrounding of Cornwallis's troops eventually forced him to surrender, resulting in a big victory for the Americans at the Battle of Yorktown.

4. Samuel Adams

the brother of the great lawyer and later second President of the United States, John Adams, Samuel himself was a key figure in the entire revolutionary process. In response to the growing oppression from the British government, Samuel organized local committees of correspondence within the Massachusetts region. His work in Boston beginning in 1772 was eventually spread to eighty towns within the colony and enabled the quick spread of the spirit of resistance and later on messages across the countryside. Such a network was vital to the Americans' later success in the Revolutionary War. Samuel was also a leading figure in the Boston Tea Party and served on the First Continental Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, and served in Congress until 1791.

34. Hessians

the name given to the German mercenaries hired by George III to come fight in the American Revolutionary War. They were so named because the ruler of Germany at the time was Prince Hesse. King George's use of thirty thousand of these mercenaries was a decisive move in many ways. For one, it greatly increased the number of troops in the colonies but that did not always translate to better results for the British. As German soldiers, the Hessians had little loyalty to the British crown and were often uninspired to fight, seeking for booty instead of duty. As such, they often succumbed easily to determined American onslaughts and this came to an advantage for the Americans. The use of Hessians was also cited among the twenty-seven grievances in the Declaration of Independence.

21. "royal veto"

the right possessed by the British crown to nullify any legislation passed by the colonial assemblies. Most often, this veto was used in response to any laws that combated the mercantilist system, which was the essential component of colonial administration in the eyes of the British government. Despite the fact that the royal veto was used a relatively small number of times, the colonists fiercely opposed the right simply because it existed. Later on, the concept of the royal veto would be included in the Declaration of Independence as a grievance against the King.

12. Abigail Adams

the wife of John Adams, she was also a prominent Patriot during the Revolution. As a woman, she was among the first to see that successful women involvement in the revolutionary efforts would lead to a changing in the status of women within society. Indeed, the basic rights and liberties espoused by the revolutionaries should be applied to all of mankind, including both genders and Abigail realized this. Thus, she became one of the leading figures in the women's rights field. She was the second First Lady of the United States and was also the mother of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States.