Church History Study Guide

Filloque

"and the son" (the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son) - added to the Nicene Creed by the Synod of Toledo in 589 which caused friction between the eastern and the western churches

Haggia Sophia

"holy wisdom;" crowning glory of Justinian's reign --> a church of the same name had been destroyed by riots, so Justinian rebuilt it adding rich mosaics and thousands of candles. Was rebuilt after the Nike revolt which destroyed most of the surrounding area. (537)

Apostolic Tradition

(235 A.D. or 375-400 A.D.) book of church order at least partially originating in Rome that has traditionally been ascribed to Hippolytus which would put the work before 235 A.D., but others postulate that the work was put by Egyptian or Syrian redactors using various sources sometime between 375-400 A.D. It has even been suggested that the liturgy portrayed here was never actually celebrated and was completely hypothetical.

Arius

(256-336) Arius was a leading member of the Alexandrian clergy as presbyter of a church in the harbor area. His bishop was Alexander. Arius was a Libyan by birth but received his religious education from Lucian of Antioch (a martyr in 312). Arius affirmed, "There was (once) when Christ was not." Understanding "begetting" as equivalent to "creating," Arius taught that Jesus Christ was not derived from the substance of the Father, but, as the first and highest of God's creations, became the instrument of all the rest of creation. led to the Council of Nicaea which rejected Arianism.

Theodosius I

(347-395 A.D.) ruled the Eastern half of the Roman empire from 379-392 and ruled both East and West from 392-395. He vigorously opposed paganism and Arianism and defended the Council of Nicaea as the rule for Christian orthodoxy, and convened the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 in order to clarify the statements from the Council of Nicaea. He was also famously put under ecclesiastical discipline by St. Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, for ordering the massacre of a group of people in Thessalonica.

Nestorius

(386-451) The name of Nestorius became attached to the Antiochian theological tradition by its opponents because of the condemnation of Nestorius at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Nestorius was a presbyter and head of a monastery in Antioch when the emperor Theodosius II chose him to be the bishop of Constantinople, a position to which he was consecrated in 428. He soon started a harsh campaign against heretics, but became himself accused of heresy, charges prompted in part by jealousy and in part by his own aggressive personality. Nestorius not really a Nestorian

Polycarp

(65-156[ish]) bishop of Smyrna; According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp, he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to consume his body. Polycarp was so saturated with the language of the New Testament that whatever he had to say was expressed in its wording. He wove phrases from the letters of Paul, Peter, and John into new contexts to express his own message. Polycarp remains a representative of the pious Christian leader, filled with the apostolic teaching, who was concerned for righteous living. The date of Polycarp's death is disputed between 156, 167-68, and 177, but preference is given to the early date. Polycarp is especially remembered for his response to the governor's pleas for him to renounce Jesus Christ: "For eighty-six years I have served Christ and he has done me no wrong; how can I blaspheme against my King and Savior?"

St. John of Damascus

(675-749 A.D.)-St. John of Damascus was an Eastern monk whose writings influenced both the Eastern and Western churches. His most famous work is his three Discourses on Sacred Images defending the veneration of icons in response to the claims of the iconoclasts. His work "The Source of Knowledge" is his most significant work becoming the principal textbook of Greek Orthodox Theology, and formed a foundation for the emergence of scholasticism in the Western Tradition. He was the secretary to the Caliph in Muslum territory, which is significant because he represents how the conquering Caliph allowed Christians to continue practicing their religion.

Perpetual and Felicity

(Perpetua-181-203) The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas with its account of martyrdoms in Carthage in 203 is unique in several respects. This Latin narrative incorporates two writings from the martyrs themselves, and one of these is the diary of one of the few women authors known from the ancient church, Perpetua. The contents of the work are the diary of Perpetua, a vision of Saturus from his own hand, as well as an introduction, account of the martyrdoms, and brief epilogue added by the editor (whom some have identified with Tertullian). Perpetua was a woman of twenty-two, nursing an infant son, of some social standing in Carthage, whose father tried to dissuade her from her Christian confession. She, like the others, was still a catechumen at the time of her arrest, but she was soon baptized. Her diary is notable for her dreams that give insight into popular piety. Felicitas was her slave, who gave birth to a child while in prison.

Narsai

(born approximately 399-410s A.D. and died 502 A.D.) a great Nestorian writer who oversaw the school at Edessa (437-459). During the Monophysite controversy, the school at Edessa was allowed to flourish under the oversight of Ibas the bishop of Edessa. After Ibas's death, the Nestorians were expelled from Edessa and founded a school in Nisibis. Narsai oversaw this school till his death in 502. Narsai wrote a lot including works about the Bible, liturgy, theology, and moral subjects.

St. Clement of Rome

(c. 88-101 A.D.)- wrote the most important Christian work from the first century besides the New Testament (and the Didache, depending on how one dates that text). His letter to the Corinthians (commonly referred to as I Clement) was written to settle a controversy between the Corinthian church and its leaders. This is also seen to have ecclesiological ramifications for many Christian groups (i.e. a primitive expression of papal authority, an organic growth towards the monarchical episcopacy, etc.)

St. Ephraem the Syrian

(c.306-73) classic writer of the Syriac-speaking church, from Nisibis and later Edessa; established a school and a women's choir in Edessa. Represents pre-Nicene (but anti-Arian) Semitic Christianity; so influential that all branches of later Syriac Christianity look back to him as a spiritual teacher Works: Prose - commentaries on biblical books, commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron, sermons, refutations of heretics; Most known for metrical homilies and hymns; called him "Harp of the Holy Spirit." Drew imagery from nature and the Bible. Influence: Integrated theological commitment with spirituality and orthodox faith with worshipful humility. His hymnody impacted Byzantine hymnody through the 6th Century.

Gospel of Judas

(late 2nd century, 175-199 A.D.) the Gospel of Judas is a Gnostic gospel written in the late 2nd century. It portrays Judas as obeying the commands of Jesus in Judas's actions. The other disciples had not learned the true message of Jesus, which Jesus had only revealed to Judas who is the sole disciple of Jesus who is among the "holy generation" described by Jesus in the text.

Decius (249-251)

1st empire-wide persecution of Christians--survival of empire depended on restoration of old pagan cults; his Edict said that anyone suspicious of Christianity had to have a certificate (libellus) that they offered sacrifices or die. Universal order to sacrifice to the gods.

Catechumen

A Christian convert under instruction before baptism. A lengthy period of instruction and a rigorous moral examination preceded admission to the final stage of preparation for baptism.The intensive preparation for baptism began on the Thursday before Easter Sunday (the preferred time for baptism). The time was spent in fasting, prayer, confession of sin, attendance at Scripture reading and instruction, and receiving exorcism of demons.

The First Ecumenical Council- The Council of Nicaea (325)

Addressed the heresy of Arianism (Christ is ὁμοούσιος (in Greek), or homoousios, or consubstantiálem (in Latin) with the Father). It also established a uniform method for determining the date of Easter. It also promulgated the beginnings of canon law.

St. Ambrose of Milan (340-397)

Ambrose was a doctor of the church in special reference to his teaching on the proper relationship of church and state. Ambrose also contributed to the Western exposition of the Trinity and to moral theology. Ambrose was involved in four conflicts in the government: 384, Ambrose influenced emperor Valentinian II to reject restoration of pagan symbolism, 385-86, maintained orthodox possession of a basilica in Milan, 388, Ambrose opposed that the Christians had to rebuild a Jewish synagogue that rioting Christians destroyed, saying Christian money could not be used to build a Jewish synagogue, and 390, Ambrose refused Theodosius' (emperor) communion until he did penance for the 7000 he massacred in Thessalonica after a riot. (lured into stadium and soldiers killed them) Represented influence over government in the West because of position of power His De Fide was an important contribution to the Latin doctrine of the Trinity.

Nazoreans

An early Christian sect active in the early 2nd century. They were Aramaic-speaking Jews (probably). They believed in Jesus as Messiah even as they continued to observe Torah. They preferred Gospel texts written in Hebrew or Aramaic. Prefer the Gospel of Matthew. They were okay with Paul but did not love his writing. They accept the miraculous birth of Christ. Okay with Gentiles not converting to Jewish traditions.

Simon Stylites

Athlete of God, lived on a platform on a pole for 37 years near Aleppo, Syria, to not sin and escape temptation, extreme example of asceticism, 388-459

Clement of Alexandria (150-215)

Clement's three great works: Exhortation to the Greeks, (an apology, drawing intimations of Christianity from Greek philosophy and literature) Instructor (the first Christian work on ethics, Jesus Christ as the teacher instructs in morals and Christian conduct in society), and Miscellanies (a patchwork of reflections on various aspects of Christianity in relation to intellectual concerns of the day). Becoming like God is a moral action, possible through grace. Validity of philosophy for believers: covenant was given to the Jews as philosophy was given to the Greeks (by angels), the truth the Greeks had was taken from Scripture, and the truth that existed among Greeks came from God and could be rightly claimed by Christians for their own use. Saw philosophy as three uses for the Christian: to unmask philosophers errors, to make the covenant of the faith more precise, and to help one pass from naïve to scientific knowledge. Gave high value to gnosis, not the extreme sides of Gnosticism.

Origen

Concepts: Prolific Christian writer from Alexandria and a pioneer in scholarly study and interpretation of the biblical text. Later adherents' teachings were condemned as heretical. Particularly his take on universal salvation apokatastasis or "origenism." Significance: Great scholar and interpreter of the biblical text/Considered to be the greatest theologian of the early church. Role in Church History: The Hexapla was the scholarly work containing six parallel columns of comparing line by line Hebrew OT, Greek transliteration, Greek translations, Symmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion. Text was a foundation for his commentaries. Wrote the longest and greatest Greek apology Against Celsus. Also wrote the first systematic theology called On First Principles. Extra: Father died as a martyr, and Mother hid his clothes so he couldn't leave the house; made himself a Eunuch to he could teach without temptation

St. Cyprian of Carthage

Considered a Christian saint. Key figure in North African church. Bishop of the church of Carthage. Lead the church in times of persecution. Cyprian, in his "treaty on the lapsed" explained what should be required for lapsed Christians to be readmitted to the church, taking a moderate view that readmittance should be possible, but not easy. He writes extensively on purity and discipline in the church especially after the Lapsed people return to the church following the persecution. Bishop of Carthage who goes into hiding when Desius (emperor) in the 3rd century begins to persecute Christians. Controversy over hiding during persecution while his congregation faced the government and then comes back to preach against lapsed faith.

Didache

Didache (Teaching of the Lord through the Twelve Apostles to the Nations): is a text in the collection of orthodox writings not included in the New Testament and known as Apostolic Fathers. Didache is a manual of church life in three parts: 1) "The Two Ways" of life and death, on the moral teachings given to new converts; 2) instructions on baptism, fasting, prayer, eucharist, treatment of itinerant prophets and teachers, the Sunday assembly, and election of local leaders; and 3) an eschatological conclusion. Didache is differently dated from 70 to 180, was probably composed in rural Syria, evidences the Jewish setting of early Christianity, and reflects the continuing concern in Christian history with how properly to conduct church affairs (i.e. moral life, worship, polity). Important to developing canonization as scripture was considered, but since apostolic authorship could not be confirmed, it was values didn't make the cut

Diocletian

Diocletian (created new structure) was an Augustus along with Maximian starting in the year 284. The reforms of Diocletian recognized that the strength of the Roman Empire- numerically, financially, and culturally- was in the East. The "Great Persecution" began in 303 at the instigation of Galerius, but with support from Diocletian. Four edicts were issued: Christian buildings leveled, imprisoned bishops, bishops released if they sacrifice, sacrifice to the gods was mandatory for everyone. (Constantius Chlorus was other Caesar-father of Constantine)

Donatists

Donatists argued that Christian clergy must be faultless for their ministry to be effective and their prayers and sacraments to be valid. The problem of Donatism arose during Constantine's reign. Schisms in the church began to arise in Alexandria and Rome, but the Donatist Schism in Africa became one of the most important. Already in 313 the imperial government became involved in the dispute when Constantine made two grants to the Christian clergy that extended to them privileges that belonged to pagan priests: a distribution of money and an exemption from the civic responsibility of collecting taxes. The Donatists claimed the money and the exemptions on the grounds that they were the true church in North Africa. They appealed their case to Constantine, who referred the matter to the bishop of Rome, Miltiades. The latter assembled a small synod, but the results were inconclusive. In response to the Donatists' demand for another trial, a larger synod met at Arles in Gaul in 314. Lucilla's martyr bone supporting Majorinus against Caecilian and created need for the synod.

St. Irenaeus of Lyons

Early bishop of Lugdunum (now Lyon) in modern France. His best known work is Against Heresies, an attack on gnosticism, particularly the teachings of Valentinus. To counter these doctrines which offered "secret wisdom," Irenaeus offered three pillars of orthodoxy: the scriptures, the tradition handed down from the apostles, and the teaching of the apostles' successors (helping to establish bishops as a direct link to apostolic authority). This definition of orthodoxy would help shape the church's discussions over the coming centuries as they attempted to agree on common theological ideas. Intrinsic to his writing is that the surest source of Christian guidance is the church of Rome, and he is the earliest surviving witness to regard all four of the now-canonical gospels as essential.

Evagrius of Pontus

Evagrius of Pontus was the philosophical theorist of monasticism; Gregory the Great later adapted Evagrius' and John Cassian's lists of sins. He carried some of Origen's ideas to lengths judged unacceptable by most in the church, but he became the philosophical theorist of the monastic life.

St. John Chrysostom

Extremely eloquent, earning him the nickname Chrysostomos (golden tongue). Born and educated in Antioch, his preaching gifts put him in high demand - high enough that he was kidnapped and consecrated as archbishop of Constantinople by force, which he construed as God's providence. Even in the capital city, he preached strongly against wealth and abuses of power, making him many enemies, such as the empress Eudoxia(16) who helped get him deposed. Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria, called a council that got John deposed and sent into exile. The forced journey across Asia Minor led to his untimely death Role in church history: later called Doctor of the Church for the sheer volume of writings left behind (600 sermons and 200 letters survive), hailed as one of the greatest of the early Fathers in the East

Athanasius' Festal Letter

Festal Letter 39 for 367) the first ancient list of canon to correspond exactly to our present canon of twenty-seven books. Prior to this document Eusebius had categorized the books of canon into groups: accepted everywhere, widely acknowledged but disputed, not genuine and not considered heretical, heretical to be avoided. Athansius' Letter combined the first two categories and removed any reservations about them. It wasn't decided by a council. It was the progression of acceptance and decision over time.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq

He lived from 809-873, He was an Arab scholar whose translations of Plato, Hippolytus, Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, and the Neo-platonists from Greek into Arabic, made these works available to Arabic Philosophers and scientists. He was a Nestorian Christian who traveled to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to find the works that he translated. He worked at a translating school in Baghdad and was the chief physician of Caliph al-Mutawakkil. His translation of Galen's works is important as many of Galen's works in Greek are missing. 44) Communicatio idiomatum- (Latin: communication of properties)

Eusebius

He was very interested in determining the limits of the canon, and sought to determine the canon of Origen from Origen's writings. His conclusion matched what he found in Origen, with the difference that he reduced the results. He saw the "recognition" of Christianity as an act of God's providence determining a period of peace and prosperity before the end of the world. He became an heir of Origen's theology and erudition through the influence of his teacher Pamphilius and access to the latter's library, built up from Origen. Interested in apologetics, biblical interpretation, and theological issues of the time. He wrote a Church History collection that collected info from the beginning of the church to his time. Used as representative of the schools of thought - wrote a letter to home church from Nicaea and we learn about the argument between homoousios and Homoiousios

Monarchianism

Heresy that emphasizes the unity of God but not the diversity of persons: 1. Dynamic Monarchianism: a form of Adoptionism, wherein Jesus was so worth that God adopted Jesus as a son (at the resurrection, baptism, or in foreknowledge of Jesus' virtues at birth). 2. Modalist Monarchianism- Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were successive modes of activity and revelation of the one God

Hippolytus (c 170-236) and Callistus (bishop exiled by Maximus Thrax to Sardinia)

Hipploytus was a rigorist and Callistus believed the church should be a place of forgiveness and his position eventually won out; compared church to ark with both clean and unclean animals. conflict renewed a generation when their differing points of view were picked up by Novatian and Cornelius

Psuedo-Dionysius the Areopagite

Imprecise in his Christology. Neo-Platonist and a mystic who focused on union with God, whose mysticism influenced both east and west. Defined the goal of salvation as divinization. Three stages of mysticism: 1. purification, 2. illumination, 3. perfection. Three stages in describing God: 1. Affirmative Theology (Give God a name), 2. Negative Theology (Deny this name) 3. Superlative Theology (reconcile the contradiction by looking beyond human experience)

Jacob Baradaeus

Indefatigable bishop (d. 578) who traveled extensively, installing Miaphysite leaders and fortifying churches against imperial persecution; the Syrian Orthodox are sometimes called "Jacobites" due to his impact; dressed as a beggar to disguise himself

The Third Ecumenical Council- The Council of Ephesus (431)

It condemned the Nestorians and Pelagians, declaring Mary to be Θεοτόκος (theotokos, literally "God-bearer"), commonly translated as "the Mother of God" in English contexts. It also condemned departures from the Nicene Creed, and the involvement of the Church of Antioch in the affairs of the Church in Cyprus.

The Fourth Ecumenical Council- The Council of Chalcedon (451)

It defines Christ as having both a divine and human nature in one person and hypostasis. Also passed canons regulating various parts of the church's life including ordination, the relationship between the local bishop and the monastery, etc. This council affirmed monasticism, bringing a potential competitor to church life into the fold.

Communicatio idiomatum- (Latin: communication of properties)

It means that the properties of the Divine Word can be ascribed to the man Christ, and that the properties of the man Christ can be predicated of the Word. Another definition from Oxford Reference: The doctrine that, while the human and Divine natures in Christ were distinct, the attributes of the one may be predicated of the other in view of their union in His Person. The idea was first put forth in a primitive form by St. Ignatius of Antioch (abt. 100 A.D.) and further elaborated by Tertullian (abt. 200 A.D.). The idea was even further defined at the councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). Continue discussing the unity of Christ as one nature.

Ebionites

Liked James the Just, and were antagonistic towards Paul. Gentiles must submit to Mosaic Law. Jesus was a man (no virgin birth) who destroyed temple and its cultus, by bringing in baptism by water for the remission of sins. They rejected the monarchy and some Old Testament passages. Prohibited meat, emphasized poverty, and maintained ritual washings.

Manichaeism

Mani (216-76) received a heavenly call in 240 to become the "apostle of light" and founded a new religious movement in Mesopotamia and Persia, along the lines of preceding Gnostic sects. Mani raised among an Elkesaite community and incorporated that with ideals from Marcionites, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and orthodox Christianity. Belief: extreme dualism of light and darkness; particles of light are trapped in the material world and redemption is the liberation of the light so it can return to the heavenly realm. The "elect" or perfect members of the sect were vegetarians, abstained from sex and avoided most work; supported by the "hearers" who lived in the world until near death. Spread: aggressive evangelists spread Manichaeism into the Roman Empire of the West and in the East to central Asia as far as India and China. Produced beautiful manuscripts of their teachings and liturgies. Surviving written refutations against them mostly appear in the 4th Century. Augustine initially converted through Manichaeism, but left it.

Marcion (85-160)

Marcion was a member of the church of Rome until being excommunicated, where he resumed teaching in Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Marcion tried to make sense of the relationship between Jesus and the Father. He taught that there were two gods. The God of the Old Testament was the Creator God, who was essentially uninvolved with the current affairs of creation. Jesus is the redeemer god, a lower and less powerful god. He worked with a limited canon consisting only of an edited form of Luke and ten of the Pauline epistles (omitting the Pastoral Epistles). Marcionism is one of the major heresies leading to the council of Nicaea. The church fathers considered the separation of Father and Son to be an enormous heretical threat. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian all denounced him with their writings.

Monophysitism

Miaphysitism holds that in the one person of Jesus Christ, the nature of Divinity and the nature of Humanity are united in one "nature" ("physis"), the two being united without separation, without confusion, and without alteration.

Montanus (late 2nd Century)

Montanus was active in the second century. His teaching, called "The New Prophecy" by his followers and Montanism by the orthodox church, was later considered as heresy. Because much of what is known about Montanism comes from anti-Montanist sources, it is difficult to know what they actually believed and how those beliefs differed from the Christian mainstream of the time. As the name New Prophecy suggests, much of his teaching revolved around ecstatic prophecy. The prophecies of him and other founders were thought to be the Holy Spirit's revelation for the present age. Thus, they distinguished between ordinary believers and the spirit-filled (pneumatikoi), those who were more advanced that received a special baptism of the Holy Spirit. Tertullian was initially converted to this movement, attracted by the greater rigorism. The early meetings held by bishops to counter Montanism laid the groundwork for the idea that the Holy Spirit worked through synods. Women publicly preached and prophesied - Priscilla and Maximilla.

Justin Martyr

Most important and most influential of the second-century Christian Apologists. He embodied in his life and death the two Christian responses to persecution that produced literary works: apologetics and martyrdom. Justin was born in Samaria (but was neither a Samaritan nor a Jew) in the Roman colony of Neapolis (Nablus). He studied philosophy and came to regard Christianity has the philosophy. Justin moved to Rome where he taught Christian doctrine in a private school. Accused by a Cynic philosopher (Crescens), Justin was executed about 167. Justin fought his apologetic battles on four fronts: against pagan intellectuals, the state, the Jews, and heretics. Works by Justin: two Apologies and Dialogue with Trypho 1 Apology is an address to the emperor, perhaps occasioned by the martyrdom of Polycarp. Justin asks for a regular trial and argues against the practice of condemning Christians solely for "the name." 2 Apology is a petition to the Senate occasioned by another martyrdom. Work about Justin and account of his trial: Acts of Justin

St. Pachomius

One of the first monastics in the Church; wrote a monastic rule; realized the advantages of living in a community vs. as a hermit. Initially formed monasteries connected to villages and later withdrew based on earlier forms of asceticism. An anonymous author wrote Life of Pachomius that was preserved in various forms. Former soldier-military like order.

St. Anthony of Egypt

One of the first monks in the history of the Church; his biography by St. Athanasius helped spread the monastic movement; one of the first ascetics to enter the Egyptian desert

St. Basil the Great

One of the most influential Fathers of the Church; created the rite used in the Eastern Christian world for Mass; Basil and the two Gregories (Cappadocian Fathers) represent the height of Christian culture in the fourth century, a uniting of Greek literary and rhetorical education with a deep Christian faith and loyalty to the church. As bishop, he became a pioneer in establishing Christian benevolent institutions- homes for the poor, hospices for travelers, and hospitals. Basil stood his ground in the Arian controversy, successfully resisting efforts at his banishment, and began the literary refutation of the Neoarian Eunomius. Wrote the Rule of Monasticism (Asketikon)

Apostles Creed

One of two great creeds, or statements of belief, of the Church. It is considered to be a summary of the Apostles' faith. It is the ancient baptismal symbol of the Church of Rome.

Valentinus (100-160)

Originally from Alexandria, Valentinus was a figure in the Roman church. Valentinus is one of the most well-known Gnostic figures from this time. After being passed up for the job of bishop of Rome, he founded his own Gnostic school. Our records of his writings are fragmentary, mainly preserved in opponents quoting (or misquoting) him in order to refute him. Like other Gnostics, he taught that salvation came from advancement in hidden knowledge and that Jesus was simply a man who was blessed with the spiritual power of Wisdom (Sophia). In Irenaeus's Against Heresies, he deals with Valentinianism extensively. Eventually, he was also declared heretical, and he was one of the reasons for the Council of Nicaea being called.

St. Cyril of Alexandria (376-444)

Principal opponent of Nestorius was Cyril. Defended Theotokos, and applied a grammatical way of understanding the incarnation. He emphasized the union of the divine and the human in Christ, therefore believing that Christ "suffered impassibly". Terrible personality, but was better at speaking in Chalcedon

Gospel of Thomas (60-140)

Proto-Gnostic Sayings of Jesus Collection (114)

Constantine the Great

Roman emperor from 306 to 337. As the story goes, on the eve of his battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), he had a vision of the cross, which he took to be a promise of victory. Instructing all soldiers to paint crosses on their shields, he ended up winning the battle and converting to Christianity. In 313, his Edict of Milan officially legalized Christianity, putting a halt on the persecutions that were common up to that point. He passed much legislation benefiting Christians. He supported the Christians financially, building basilicas such as Old St. Peter's Basilica and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. He also recognized the issue of Arianism facing the churches. Wanting to preserve Christian unity, the first of the great ecumenical councils, Nicaea (325), was called and hosted by Constantine. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils. It also began a trajectory of what would become known as "christendom," the inseparability of church and state, that would remain through the Protestant Reformation.

Eudoxia

Significance: An enemy of John Chrysostom and an Empress, She and the local clergy resented his preaching against luxury, and sought to have him banished. Quoted paraphrase "once again Herodia calls for the head of John" Role in Church History: Work to get John Chrysostom deposed. Major Concepts: Deposed John Chrysostom and had him exiled.

Catacombs

Significance: they hold some of the earliest Christian art and inscriptions, especially depictions of Bible stories (Lazarus, and Jonah were popular), and Christian symbols like fish, doves, and Christ as good shepherd. Ferguson, 167 Concepts: Underground burial places containing large numbers of slots or slabs for placing bodies. Extra: Contrary to popular legend, the catacombs were not used as secret worship places during the persecutions.

Didascalia Apostolorum

Syriac document providing rich information about third-century church order and Christian life; It means "teaching of the 12". It was modeled after Didache and expands on those teachings. It is presented as a work of the original twelve apostles but is more likely to have been created long after they died, around 230.

The Fifth Ecumenical Council- The Second Council of Constantinople (553)

The Christological writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, The Three Chapters, (the other two documents included can be found below in the term list) were condemned along with the statement that Mary could not be called Θεοτόκος. It was an attempt to reconcile the Chalcedonians and the Miaphysites, and to condemn Nestorianism in a more concrete way. Origen's teachings were also condemned, such as the pre-existence of the soul and the doctrine of ἀποκατάστασις, apokatastasis, which means that all souls will eventually be saved.

The Seventh Ecumenical Council- The Second Council of Nicaea (787)

The Second Council of Nicaea approved the usage of images and icons, and stated that veneration should be given to them, but not adoration which is only reserved for God.

The Second Ecumenical Council- The First Council of Constantinople (381)

The gave the wording of what is commonly called the Nicene Creed in liturgical contexts. It also condemned Apollinarianism, which stated that Christ had no human soul or mind. It was not attended by Western bishops, but the Western episcopacy affirmed the council as being ecumenical.

Sabellius

The most important representative of Modalism (one God who has different modes to interact with humans) was Sabellius, who became so influential that he gave his name (Sabellianism) to the doctrine in the East. For Sabellius, the one God revealed himself successively as Father, Son and Holy Spirit, whereas for the Logos theologians these distinctions in the Godhead were simultaneous distinctions.

The Sixth Ecumenical Council- The Third Council of Constantinople (680-681)

This council condemned monothelitism (Jesus has two natures but only one will) and monoenergism (Jesus only had one "energy"). It stated that Jesus had both two energies and two wills.

Three Chapters

Three Chapters-(544) 1. The person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia 2. Certain writings of Theodoret of Cyrus 3. The Letter of Ibas to Maris These were condemned by Justinian in a failed attempt to try to bring together the Chalcedonians and the Miaphysites, by condemning the common enemy of Nestorianism.

Emperor Justinian (527-565)

Tried to gain back territory formerly held by the whole Roman Empire. Brilliant legal mind that codified imperial laws. Valued art, architecture and grandiose display; had built some of the most impressive structures (including churches like Hagia Sophia) of the time period. Issued the "Three Chapters, which opposed three theologians. Wanted to restore the Empire. Failed to win back and appease the Miaphysites.

St. Ignatius of Antioch (died early second century)

While travelling to Rome, where he was martyred, he wrote a series of letters to encourage the churches, some of the earliest surviving Christian works. Perhaps the most well-known of these letters is directed to Polycarp (at that time, bishop of Smyrna). Not only do Ignatius's letters serve as an early glimpse of Christian theology (before government got too involved in church affairs), he also helps us see the emerging attitude of honor at being martyred in the face of persecution.

Henoticon

Zeno regained power and in 482 modified the repudiation of Chalcedon with the Henoticon, an edict of reunion. It condemned both Nestorius and Eutyches, exalted the Twelve Anathemas sent by Cyril to Nestorius, and made no mention of Leo's Tome. This compromise intended to please moderates on both sides failed. The Church of the East in Persia rejected this compromise in 497, and instead adopted an explicitly "Nestorian" creedal statement.

Pliny the Younger

governor of Bithynia; exchanged letters (Epistles 10.96) with emperor Trajan in 112 to clarify the legal situation surrounding Christian persecutions. At the time, it was assumed the legal charge was "the name," claiming to be a Christian was a crime. Pliny determined three classes among those being accused: 1- those who confessed they were Christians and remained steadfast; ordered them executed or sent to Rome if they were citizens. 2- those who denied ever being Christian; released because they recited a prayer to the gods and offered incense/wine to the emperor statue (considered this a reasonable test). 3- those who apostatized, had been Christians but ceased as such and proved it by worship to the emperor statue and the gods, as well as cursing Christ. **Pliny learned what he knew about Christians from this group, declaring it an extravagant and perverse superstition." Asked Trajan three questions: 1- Are any distinctions to be made for age or weakness? 2- Are apostates to be pardoned? 3- Does punishment attach to "the name" itself or to crimes connected with "the name."? **Significant because if punishment was for "the name" those were no longer Christians could be pardoned, but if it were for crimes attached to "the name" the legal inquiry had to proceed and the guilty punished no matter how long ago it happened. Faithful Christians wanted the punishment tied to actual crimes because they did not commit any; apostates wanted it on the basis of the name because they were no longer members. Pliny wanted to side with and encourage apostates because he thought they could be reclaimed. Response: Trajan gave Pliny what he wanted. Christians were not to be sought out, but if accused and convicted, they should be punished. No anonymous accusations could be accepted, follow judicial process. Deniers to be pardoned, so punishment was based on "the name."

John Cassian (360-435)

introduced monasticism to the West."if Benedict is the father of Western monasticism, Cassian is the grandfather. Brought Egyptian monk wisdom. Formulated 4 meanings of scripture that guided biblical interpretation: historically, allegorical; anagogically (mystical or spiritual interpretation of statements), and tropologically (morals). Beginning of human salvation is founded on God's grace, based on accepting that grace. Rejected Pelagianism in a writing called Conferences (13).

The Shepherd of Hermas

longest work in the Apostolic Father is the Shepherd (Pastor), a collection of Visions, Parables (Similitudes), and Commandments (Mandates) by Hermas. The unity of the work has been questioned but the best explanation has been that it is the work of a single author active in Rome over three to four decades in the first half of the 2nd Century. Contents: refers to the church as eternal and gives information on its contemporary organization; sometimes a tiresome document, but valuable for its picture of Christian community in the third generation. Shepherd specifically reflects on the continuing problem of Christians living in the world while not being "of the world" and how to encourage a faithful life among those whose first love has cooled. Place in canon: rejected for not carrying the weight of Apostolic authorship or proximity to Apostolic authority; considered acceptable reading for Christians, especially new converts, to learn about 'true religion' and faithful living. (quoted phrase from Athanasius' Festal Letter)

Homoiousios

of like substance; Significance: Concerned about possible Sabellian implications of Homoiousios. Wanted to preserve the distinctness of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Role in Church History: Rejected the extreme Arians; early leader: Basil of Ancyra Major Concepts: same substance. Extra: Wide support in the Eastern church

Celsus

philosopher that wrote the first major surviving attack on Christians, The True Word (contents largely restored from Origen's response, Against Celsus - the longest and greatest Greek apologies for Christianity in the ancient church). Complaints: despised Christians as unprofitable members of society; weaklings consisting of women, children and slaves; called on people to 'believe' and did not engage in rational demonstration. Philosophical Questions: (later elaborated by Porphyry and Julian) If Christianity were true, why did it come so late in human history? Weren't miracles of Jesus just magic? How is incarnation possible, since it involves the deity changing? Isn't immortality of the soul a more desirable goal than resurrection of the body? Connection: Origen responds that God prepared the way for Christians and fulfilled prophecy, so it's older and true. Miracles were not magic because they brought moral improvement to human life and were not used for personal gain. Incarnation brought a change in circumstance, but not in nature to the Logos, or Word. Resurrection involves change into a higher form of body, and the rapid spread of Christianity would not have been possible without divine assistance.

Julian the Apostate

the Apostate (361-63)'s imperial rule marked the turning point to the third phase of the Arian controversy. Raised a Christian but reacted to the insincerity he saw in people, so he kept his sentiments private until he came to power. His goal was a universal pagan monotheistic cultus. He did not attempt to direct persecution, but he did seek to remove Christians from privileged positions (there were a few martyrs in his military ranks). Actions: Allowed banished bishops to return to the sees, which was interpreted by most to be a cynical move intended to destroy Christianity from within through theological conflict. (Ferguson notes: If that was the purpose, Julian did not realize theological debate is an expression of deeply held convictions and Christians thrive off of conflict.) Forbade Christians to teach pagan literature, the basis of educational curriculum, in order to halt their advancement. Outcome: His reign brought together the disparate elements favorable to Nicaea and opposed to the Homoean interpretations imposed by Contantius. Julian died in battle in Persia. Christian legend says his last words were, "O Galilean, Thou hast conquered."

Early Christian Art Motifs

very little evidence, start to see some around 200 AD. Simplistic symbols: fish, dove, lyre, anchor, ship, fisherman referenced favored Bible stories of faithfulness or ritual: Jonah, Good Shepherd, Eucharist/Last Supper primarily found on tombs/burial sites to show the person was a Christian; eventually scenes of Bible stories would begin appearing at baptistery sites

Odes of Solomon

views of spirit as feminine, holy milk, lots of images of paradise, emphasis on evangelism, also low views of women at times/ 42 odes attributed to Solomon written during the second or third centuries in Greek or Syriac, used in the Syrian churches especially. It is important for the insight it gives into early Christian worship.