Class 9: Thinking and Feeling (Cognitive & Emotions)

Deductive reasoning

"If I believe X, what other claims follow from this?" The processes in place here resemble the processes that philosophers call _____________ - when someone seeks to derive new assertions from assertions already in place. - - - - is a type of reasoning which goes from general to specific - - - - is based on premises and if the premises are true, then the reasoning will be valid.

propositions

"Solomon loves to blow glass,", "Squirrels eat burritos"

mental representations -- analogical representations

- An idea that captures some of the actual characteristics of what they represent. - Have certain things in common with the thing they represent. - usually take the form of "mental images".

Emotions as an energy source theory - what is the theme of emotion in this?

- Emotion is an instinctive, - irrational energy source that must be channeled in appropriate directions - think of goku

Relation between emotion and cognition with Appraisal theory

- Emotion serves adaptive purposes - Cognitive system couldn't function without the emotional system to mark what is important - Feelings of anxiety or well-being inform us - They help us evaluate a situation - Push or incline us towards certain actions Analogy to hunger, thirst, fatigue

Expression of anger and sadness in infants

- In response to routine inoculations, restrained arms, pacifier removal, the most common expression before about 6 months of age is distress -Expressions of anger and sadness are rare before 6 months

Charles Darwin expressed in 'The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, ' about the theory of emotions, he concluded

- In which he argued that all humans and specific animals, show emotion through similar behaviors - He focused on emotional behavior & expressions

confirmation bias.

-The tendency to take evidence that's consistent with your beliefs more seriously, than evidence inconsistent with your beliefs. -confirming evidence is taken at face value, but disconfirming evidence is reinterpreted,

Emotions also promote cognitive development

-Emotions help parents create an environment filled with interesting events at about the right level of intensity and complexity for the infant or child to process

reasoning

-Generally drawing implications from our beliefs -It also provides a means of testing your beliefs.

How are thinking and feeling related in infancy? Sroufe on the development of smiling and laughter

- Same principle underlies smiles and laughter from infancy onward - Smiles occur whenever arousal or tension exceeds, then drops below, a critical threshold - Laughter occurs when the increase and sudden decrease in tension is particularly sudden and steep - Source of tension changes with age

Appraisal theory

- We experience emotions when there is a change in the status our a goal - And a response is required - revising goals, beliefs, and plans etc - Different emotions are evoked by different interpretations of events - Followed by different motivations and problem solving strategies

How are thinking and feeling related?

- Within the first few months of life, cognition and emotion are already closely interwoven - They remain so throughout the lifespan - Changes in emotion occur, in a relatively fixed sequence, as infants and toddlers become capable of increasingly complex appraisals of events - instead of being a primitive system, at odds with rational thought, emotion depends fundamentally on cognition

Anchoring and Adjustment

- bias - Relying too much on initial guesses or impressions and failing to make sufficient adjustments when new information is added

Social smile

- happens to infants around 11 weeks (2 months~) - brow knitting and smiling cycles while looking at mother

inductive Reasoning and syllogisms

- is a kind of logical argument that applies inductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion - based on two or more propositions that are assumed to be true. - BUT doesn't matter if the conclusion is right or not, in light of other things you know about the world. - A logic problem containing two premises(true) and a conclusion(true or false)

Appraisal (interpretation) theory

- is the theory in psychology that emotions are extracted from our evaluations of events as relevant to our goals, - causing specific reactions in different people

Ekman's study on startle response shows

- shows that surprise is part of a basic emotion - confirms appraisal theory

directed thinking

- the way of thinking that involves drawing conclusions or making decisions to reach a certain GOAL

Anchoring and Adjustment

- you make a really good first impression, or they know you're a good person, - if they see evidence that you're a little off - they ll think maybe its because your nervous, cause they know you're a good person - its hard for them to make a big adjustment to whatever impression they were anchored at

mental representations

Allow contents in our mind to represent for : - objects - events - or state of affairs, Therefore, allowing us to think about them even in their absence.

Appraisal theory

An example of this is going on a first date. If the date is perceived as positive, one might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, and/or anticipation, because they have interpreted this event as one that could have positive long-term effects, i.e. starting a new relationship, engagement, or even marriage. On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, then our emotions, as a result, might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear.

Error with availability heuristics

As it turns out, the difference in retrieval merely shows that our mental dictionary, roughly like a printed one, is organized according to the starting sound of each word. This arrangement makes it easy to search memory using a word's "starting letter" as thecae; a search based on a word's third letter is more difficult. In this fashion, the organization of memory creates a bias in what's easily available; this bias, in turn, leads to an error in frequency judgment (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973).

These questions hinge on frequency estimates—and use of the availability heuristic routinely leads to errors in these estimates

For example, many friendships break up because of concerns over fairness: "Why am I always the one who does the dishes?" Or "Why is it that you're usually the one who starts our fights, but I'm always the one who reaches out afterward?"

deductive reasoning

For example, you might know that engineers need to be comfortable with math, and you might know that Debby is an engineer. Thus you conclude that Debby's comfortable with math. Likewise, you might know that if it's raining, then today's picnic will be canceled. -if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true

emotions, energy

Hydraulic (water) metaphor pertains to _________________ as an _______________ source?

After these theories about emotion, reasoning should be used to _______________ with emotions

Reason should be used to: - eliminate, - control - channel emotion in appropriate directions

symbolic

Representing ideas as propositions will cause activation to spread to other, associated, nodes;(spreading activation) and this too can guide our thoughts in one direction rather than another.

analogic

Representing ideas with images in our thoughts and that may call to similar objects

symbols can be assembled into propositions

Statements that relate a subject (the item about which the statement is being made) and a predicate (what's being asserted about the subject).

Emotion and cognition as___________ processes

antagonistic

mental representations -- symbolic representations

don't in any way resemble the item they stand for.

representativeness heuristic.

if Marie resembled other psych majors you know (in her style of conversation, or the things she wanted to talk about), you're likely to conclude that she is in fact a psych major—so you can use your knowledge about the major to guide your expectations for her. purpose: assessing categories how to use it: use resemblance as an indicator of category membership Drawback: Some categories are diverse

associative links

in this system there might be a node representing Abe Lincoln and another node repre- senting President, and the link between them represents part of our knowledge about Lincoln—namely, that he was a president.

not propositions

is squeamish

nodes

meeting places for various links Analogy to a fisherman's net

___________________ can also represent for objects or events that exist only in our minds —including fantasy objects, like unicorns or Hogwarts School,

mental representation

propositions

statements that relate a subject (the item about which the statement is being made) and a predicate (what's being asserted about the subject)

Changes in emotional expression in infants 0 - 1 months 2 - 5 months 6-12 months 5-36

0 - 1 month Cognitive: (Primarily responses to infant's bodily state) Emotion: Pleasure, distress disgust , startle 2 - 5 month Cognitive: More responsive to external stimuli; recognizes stimuli Emotion: interest, pleasure - social smile, distress 6-12 months Cognitive: Goal-directed action in natural settings Emotion: Happiness, anger, sadness, fear 5-36 months: Cognitive: Self-awareness; standards Emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt

Paul Ekman's concluded common basic emotions across cultures were?

5 Basic Emotions: - Happiness - Surprise - Anger - Disgust - Fear

symbolic representation

A mental representation that stands for a particular content WITHOUT sharing any physical characteristics The letter c doesn't indicate the left side of the cat!

Representativeness Heuristic

A strategy people tend to use for judging whether an individual, object, or event belongs in a certain category based on how typical of the category it seems to be. - - - - - - Purpose: Judging frequency How to use it: Use availability as an indicator of frequency Drawback: Sometimes availability isn't correlated with frequency! - People tend to ignore other relevant information such as the prior probability (that is, the likelihood or base rate) that the thing is a member of that class

availability heuristics

A strategy used for judging about the frequency or likelihood of an event based on ease with which evidence or example come to mind

heuristics

A trade off between efficiency and accuracy Quick Judgements, at the price of occasional mistakes - part of system 1 - is any approach to problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical method NOT to be accurate - but efficient for the immediate goals

heuristics.

Because we can't always extensively reason and weigh all possibilities, we often rely on small set of mental shortcuts called - essentail for living in an uncertain world - but can lead to faulty beliefs and suboptimal decisions

Sigmund Freud on emotion

Believed that emotion is psychic energy (the "id") directed toward something external (e.g., work, children)

What are is the difference and relation between emotion and cognition in these theories? (Hydraulic method, Sigmund Freud, Behavorisms - on emotion and cognitions)

Emotion -direct - irrational to external stimuli Cognitive - deliberate - rational response Thus, emotion can provide: - energy - drive motivations - communicate intentions however, emotion is instinctive, primitive, irrational

Availability heuristics

Ex. People think that your more likely to get attacked from a shark than flying airplane parts. Because of all the media reports on shark attacks

Availability Heuristics

Ex. Professor says a bunch of names and after we have to write down all the name we remember - we wrote down all the names of people we can remember, he asked us were there more womens names or mens name? - we thought there were more mens names - but it turns out all there were equal male & women names, because all the male names he told us were more famous and more on the media than the woman names

Anchoring and Adjustment

Example, in one study they gave participants to 5 sec to solve a math problem, what is 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1.......factorial ax2x3x4x5 1. they found that participants who stopped stopped at a higher number failed to adjust to correctly - they adjusted high 2. people at a low number adjusted to their answer lowly

mental representation

Imagine, for example, that you were hunting for something to start a fire with; for that, it might be helpful to think of this page as a piece of paper rather than a carrier of information. this ability is understood as?

spreading activation - Participants' decision responses are faster by almost 100 milliseconds if the stimulus words are related, like NURSE lead to DOCTOR, - thus related words lead to quicker responses because of spreading activation since there's a strong association between "nurse" and "doctor." Therefore, once the node for NURSE is activated, some activation should also spread to the node for DOCTOR.

In a classic study, participants were presented with two strings of letters, like NARDE-DOCTOR, or GARDEN-DOCTOR, or NURSE-DOCTOR (Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971). The participants' job was to press a "yes" button if both sequences were real words (as in the second and third examples here), and a "no" button if either was not a word (the first example) study of? findings?

System 1 in dual-process theory

In dual process theory of judgment, which system is? - automatic & habitual - the fast, efficient, but sometimes faulty type of thinking.

System 2 in dual-process theory

In dual-process models of judgment, - cognitive - the slower, more effortful, and more accurate type of reasoning.

system 1

In this theory, they allow us to make fast, efficient judgments in a wide range of circumstances.

overuse of representativeness heuristic

Kahneman & Tversky: In one study, participants watched a video- taped interview with a prison guard. Some participants were told in advance that the guard was quite atypical, explicitly chosen for the interview because he held such extreme views. Others weren't given this warning. Then, at the end of the videotape, participants were asked their own views about the prison guards in prison system in general, and given the information that the guard was atypical, their negative responses towards prison guards showed a clear influence from the interview they had just seen

confirmation bias.-- They focus on their wins, using those instances to boost the belief that they have a surefire strategy. What about their past losses? They also consider these, but usually not as losses. Instead, they regard their failed bets as "near wins"

Many compulsive gamblers, for example, believe they have a "winning strategy" that will bring them great wealth. Their empty wallets provide powerful evidence against this belief, but they stick with it anyway. How is this possible?

Associative connections

Many investigators propose that our knowledge is represented through a network of related ideas, so that the idea of "Abe Lincoln" is linked to "Civil War" and "President."

mental images

Mental representations that resemble the objects by directly reflecting the perceptual qualities of the thing

Rouge test

Michael Lewis and colleagues developed a laboratory task that made it easy for infants to keep a goal in mind - babies tested around 15 - 18 mo - Babies who recognize themselves in mirror, passing the "rouge test", will show embarrassment if excessively complemented or asked to dance, show guilt if they break a toy

Hydraulic model metaphor that relates to emotion explains

Model is based on fluidity - fluid under pressure - emotions as sinking and elevated feelings of fluid - explains aspects of our emotional life similar to processes

Daniel Kahneman - Study: your in a hotel lobby and there's 100 people, there either all lawyers or engineers

Study - in one condition the subjects were told there were 70 engineers and 30 lawyers - In the other conditions subjects were told there were 30 engineers and 70 lawyers - You were told to select a person at random named george- hes good at math, attentive to detail and not people oriented What is the likelyhood he's an engineer? Base rates were told and although hes sounds like an enginner, base rates should be applied to the conclusion - Kahneman found regardless of the base rate, 90% of the time people thought george was an engineer at about the same rate In this case people were giving relavant(base rates) information but their not using it

spreading activation

The activity in which one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links. - - - - - - - - weaker as it spreads further - weaker if the nodes are weakly associated

The selection task: Which card(s) must be turned over to check this rule? "If a card has a vowel on one side, it must have an even number on the other side." - only 4% of participants get it right but when changed with Variant of the selection task Which card(s) must be turned over to check this rule? "If the person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 19 years of age" - most of the participants got it right why?

The contrast between this task and the standard version of the selection task makes it clear that the content of the problem matters—and so how well we reason depends on what we are reasoning about. But why is this? One proposal comes from an evolutionary perspective on psychology and begins with the suggestion that our ancient ancestors didn't have to reason about abstract matters like As and 7s, or vowels and even num- bers. Instead, our ancestors had to worry about issues involving social interactions, including issues of betrayal and cheating: "I asked you to gather firewood; have you done it, or have you betrayed me?"

Associative links

The individual nodes are connected to each other by ____________.

judgment

The process of extrapolating from evidence to draw conclusions.

dual-process theory

The proposal that judgment involves two types of thinking: a fast, efficient, but sometimes faulty set of strategies, and a slower, more laborious, but less risky set of strategies.

mental Images are not pictures ex:

Theduck/ rabbit figure, first used in 1900 by Joseph Jastrow. The picture of this form is easily reinterpreted; the corresponding mental image, however, is not.

Behaviorism on emotion

Theory that believes emotion provides energy that fuels or disrupts behavior

Paul Ekman, researched in the "Fore of Papua New Guinea", which he asked locals to show him their facial expressions during a certain events. Found that

There are common facial expressions of basic emotions that are shared across many cultures

availability heuristics

They try to think of specific cases relevant to their judgment —exams that went well after cramming, or frustrating mornings when the car just wouldn't start. If these examples come easily to mind, people conclude that the circumstance is a common one; if the examples come to mind slowly or only with great effort, people conclude that the circumstance is rare.

symbolic representation is more flexible b/c

This mental representation is more flexible because symbols can represent any content we choose, thanks to the fact that it's entirely up to us what each symbol stands for. What kind of mental representation is more flexible?

overuse of representativeness heuristic

This pattern is evident, for example, whenever someone offers a "man who" or "woman who" argument: "What do you mean, cigarettes cause cancer? I have an aunt who smokes cigarettes, and she's perfectly healthy at age 82!"

Based on evidence all 3 all are likely because they are independent of one another Both players will most likely make the next shot. People will guess the A and A for both due to representative heuristics, however statistically both can have an equal chance of scoring because they are independent from one another

suppose i flip a coin 10 times, which out come will be more likely a. HTHTHTHHTTTTHTHT b. TTTTTTTTTTTTTTT c. HHHHHHHHHHH Suppose theres two players, which player will most likely make the next shot? A. Score, no score, score, score, no score, score B. no score, no score, no score, score, score, score

Heuristics and Biases Daniel Kahneman found

that even when you state base rates/prior probabilities, people still ignore it

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

this theory believes - bodily changes and emotions do not share a cause-and-effect relationship. - Rather, bodily changes and emotions occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event(bear)

James-Lange theory of emotion

this theory suggests - that emotions occur because of physiological reactions to events.

symbolic representation

we can use the word cat to refer to your pet, Snowflake; but, if we wished, we could instead use the Romanian word pisic ̆a to stand for your pet

symbolic representation

we can use the word mole to stand for an animal that digs in the ground, or we could use the word (as Spanish speakers do) to refer to a type of sauce used in cooking.

judgement

we know that Jane has enjoyed many trips to the beach, we might draw the conclusion that she will always enjoy such trips. But there's no guarantee here, and it's surely possible that her view of the beach might change. Likewise, if you have, in the past, preferred spending time with quiet people, you might draw a conclusion about how much you'd the level of enjoyment with an evening with Sid, who's quite loud. But here, too, there's no guarantee—and perhaps you'll have a great time with Sid.

overuse the representativeness heuristics

whenever someone offers a "man who" or "woman who" argument: "What do you mean, cigarettes cause cancer? I have an aunt who smokes cigarettes, and she's perfectly healthy at age 82!" Such arguments are often presented in conversations as well as in more formal settings (political debates, or newspaper editorial pages), pre- sumably relying on the listener's willingness to generalize from a single case This is an overuse of?

a picture is different from a mental/visual image because

why is the picture of the duck/rabbit easily reinterpreted; but the corresponding mental image alone is not. - - - - - - - This is because the image is already organized and interpreted in the brain(e.g., facing "to the left" or "to the right"), - this interpretation shapes what the imaged form seems to be -and what the imaged form will call to mind. This shows the difference between