Cog Test2
How long does unrehearsed material typically remain in the short-term store?
30 seconds
The capacity of our immediate, short-term store for a wide range of items appears to be ____, plus or minus two items.
7
____ refers to a concept that cannot be directly measured or observed but that may be used as a mental representation for understanding the workings of a psychological phenomenon.
A hypothetical construct
_____ involves being prepared to focus on incoming information.
Alerting
____ refers to the severe loss of explicit memory, usually affecting semantic memory more than procedural memory
Amnesia
____ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur after whatever trauma caused a memory loss.
Anterograde
____ refers to a degree of physiological excitation, responsivity, and readiness for action relative to a baseline.
Arousal
____ is the means by which we actively select and process a limited amount of information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes.
Attention
____ processing refers to cognitive manipulation that requires no conscious decisions or intentional effort.
Automatic
____ refers to the process by which a person repeats a procedure so frequently that the procedure changes from being highly conscious and effortful to being relatively automatic and effortless.
Automatization
Which model of selective attention suggests that, while there are multiple channels for sensory input, only one channel is processed while the other channels of information are filtered out before sensory processing?
Broadbent's model
____ includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness.
Consciousness
____ processing refers to cognitive processing that requires conscious control and effort that is performed one step at a time.
Controlled
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which items are presented in pairs, and during recall, the participant is cued with one member of each pair and is asked to recall the mate of each cued item.
Cued
____ knowledge involves "knowing that" and taps factual information, such as the terms in a psychology textbook.
Declarative
Which model of selective attention suggests that the filter for blocking signals occurs after sensory processing and allows for both perceptual and conceptual analysis of information to take place?
Deutsch and Deutsch's late filter model
____ presentation refers to the simultaneous presentation of different auditory stimuli (such as verbal messages) to each ear.
Dichotic
____ refer to nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus.
Distracters
____ refers to a situation in which we must prudently allocate cognitive resources so we can complete two or more tasks simultaneously.
Divided attention
____ memory stores personally experienced events or episodes.
Episodic
____ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person consciously acts to recall or recognize particular information.
Explicit
In a ____ we look for just one characteristic (e.g., color, shape, or size) that makes our search object different from all others.
Feature search
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in any order he or she chooses.
Free
The initial discovery of the existence of the iconic store is credited to ____.
George Sperling
Which model, based on neuroscientific research, suggests that episodic and semantic memories are distinct from one another and that they activate different parts of the brain?
Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA Model)
What was the pattern of results that Marcel (1983) found using primes that have two different meanings (e.g., palm: hand or tree)?
His results depended on whether or not the prime was viewed long enough to become conscious.
____ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person uses recalled or recognized information without consciously being aware of doing so.
Implicit
____ amnesia refers to the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young.
Infantile
1. ____ refers to the means by which people draw on past knowledge in order to use such knowledge in the present; it refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with the retention and retrieval of information.
Memory
____ are persons who use memory-enhancing techniques for greatly improving their memory or who have a distinctive sensory or cognitive ability to remember information.
Mnemonists
Which model of selective attention suggests that messages that are of high importance to a person may break through the filter of selective attention?
Moray's selective filter model
What does research on attention state about multitasking?
Multitasking makes you slower and more prone to make mistakes.
____ model combines early-filter and later-filter models by suggesting that there are two processes, preattentive and attentive, that govern attention.
Neisser's
____ involves being able to select which stimuli to attend to.
Orienting
Which best describes the dual-task paradigm used to study divided attention in the laboratory?
Participants are asked to watch a film showing two activities superimposed on one another.
____ refers to accidentally repeating steps of an automatic procedure after the procedure has been completed.
Perseverations
____ refers to the process by which particular stimuli activate mental pathways that enhance the ability to process subsequent stimuli related to the initial stimuli in some way.
Priming
. ____ memory refers to a memory system for knowledge of how to perform particular tasks or skills.
Procedural
____ knowledge refers to the understanding and awareness of how to perform particular tasks or skills (i.e., "knowing how").
Procedural
____ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person is asked to produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
Recall
____ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person may be asked to identify from among several choices a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
Recognition
____ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur before the trauma that causes a memory loss.
Retrograde
____ refers to situations in which we actively seek out particular stimuli.
Search
____ refers to our ability to attend to some stimuli while ignoring or minimally processing other stimuli.
Selective attention
____ memory refers to memory for facts that are not unique to us and that are not recalled in any particular temporal context.
Semantic
____ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in the exact order in which they were presented.
Serial
____ refers to an experimental task in which you listen to two different messages and then are required to repeat back only one of the messages as soon as possible after you hear it, while ignoring the other.
Shadowing
The ____ refers to the psychological difficulty in selective attention that occurs when a literate person attempts to name the colors of ink used to print the color words for other colors (e.g., "blue" may be printed in red ink).
Stroop effect
____ refers to the experiencing of a sensation in a sensory modality different from the sense that is physically stimulated.
Synesthesia
____ refers to an experience involving the preconscious level of consciousness, in which a person tries to remember something that is known to be stored in memory, but that the person cannot quite retrieve.
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Which statement about attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is true?
Those with it have difficulty focusing their attention.
Which model of selective attention suggests that instead of blocking out stimuli, the filter merely weakens the strength of all stimuli other than the target stimulus?
Treisman's attenuation model
____ refers to a person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest.
Vigilance
Which best describes the capacity model of attention?
We have a fixed amount of attention that we can use on multiple tasks.
____ memory refers to a portion of memory that may be viewed as a specialized part of long-term memory, which holds only the most recently activated portion of long-term memory, and which moves these activated elements into and out of short-term memory.
Working
Your child attends a school that requires all children to wear particular uniforms, although the shirts can be white or light blue and the pants and skirts can be khaki or dark blue. When you search for your child in a sea of children whose faces you cannot see, you must search for a child wearing the same color shirt and pants as your child wore, with the same color hair of your child and the same height and build of your child. In other words, you must use a ____ search.
a conjunction
Your child attends a school that requires all children to wear particular uniforms, although the shirts can be white or light blue and the pants and skirts can be khaki or dark blue. Although it can be difficult to spot your child, when it is raining, it is easy for you to spot the red umbrella that your child uses in the sea of dark umbrellas. The search has changed from ____ to _____.
a conjunction search; a feature search
As a child, every time you went to a place with large crowds, your mother had you wear a bright colored shirt. She knew that it would be easier to spot you in the crowd by the color of your shirt. She was making use of ____.
a feature search
As tested by a psychologist, the capacity of Jerry's short-term store appears to be 11 items. Jerry's short-term memory capacity is ____.
above average
Aricept® may slow the progression of Alzheimer's because it slows destruction of the neurotransmitter ____ in the brain.
acetylcholine
The ____ appears to be important in the regulation of vigilance.
amygdala
At present, the only definitive test for Alzheimer's disease involves ____.
an analysis of brain tissue after death
A person with isolated brain damage affecting only the hippocampus is most likely to have ____.
anterograde amnesia
Your usual walk home has been changed because of construction. Instead of turning right when you pass the park, you must now turn left right before the park. Unfortunately, you typically do not remember this until you are midway through the park. You are making a(n) ____ error.
associative activation
According to the ____ theories of attention, people have a fixed amount of attentional capacity that they allocate to the perceived task requirements.
attentional-resource
Suppose you are participating in a study, in which stimuli are flashed on a screen. Following the presentation of the first stimulus, a second stimulus is presented in the same location on the screen and it effectively "erases" the original stimulus. This is called ____
backward visual masking
A person with lesions in the visual cortex may report not being able to see information; however, if forced to answer about an item, the person can often correctly guess the location and orientation of various objects. This suggests that some processing of visual information occurs outside of conscious awareness, a process called ____.
blindsight
Thomas is supposed to stop for milk, bread and cheese on his way from home from work. This requires that he get off train two stops early to pick up the items. Unfortunately, he does not remember to get off early and must backtrack to get to the store. Thomas has made a(n) ____.
capture error
In ____ we intend to deviate from a routine activity we are implementing in familiar surroundings, but at a point at which we should depart from the routine, we fail to pay attention and to regain control of the process.
capture errors
Which component of the working memory model is responsible for coordinating attentional activities and regulating the flow of information?
central executive
Procedural memory seems to depend most on the ____.
cerebellum.
The long-term storage declarative information is governed by the ____.
cerebral cortex
A person who fails to detect changes that occur for attended or unattended objects in a viewed scene is demonstrating ____.
change blindness
In the making of a movie, any particular scene is often filmed several times. No matter how hard they try during the editing process, there is often some discontinuity in the scenes (e.g., an object suddenly changes location from one location to another). Failure to notice these changes would be an example of ____.
change blindness
The ____ phenomenon refers to the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other conversations.
cocktail party
In a ____ search, we must search for a combination of stimulus characteristics.
conjunction
Which model of memory consists of nodes and links between the nodes, and suggests that knowledge is represented in the connections between the nodes?
connectionist model of memory
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of attention?
consciousness
Suppose you were researching memory function in an isolated group of individuals that eschews contemporary culture and technology. You need to create a memory task that is appropriate for 12- to 16-year-olds and wonder what words you should include. You would be well-advised to ____.
consider items and concepts with which they are already familiar in creating the list
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we correctly report that a signal is absent
correct rejection
Your younger sibling has a nasty habit of trying to annoy you when you are calling a phone number that is not already in your phone by shouting out random numbers as you enter the correct digits. Your sibling is hoping you will make a(n) ____ error.
data driven
Jennifer has an excellent understanding of geography. This is an example of ____ knowledge.
declarative
Verlys just picked up mail at her post office box and is standing at a table sorting it. Catalogs and junk mail get thrown away while important mail is placed in her bag. Unfortunately, she drops several important pieces of mail into the trash. This is best described as a(n) ____.
description error
Splitting your attentional resources between two or more different task is called ____.
divided attention
You are watching your favorite TV show when a friend enters the room and wants to engage you in conversation. You really want to watch your show, but know that you should attend to the conversation. You try to do both. This is an example of ____.
divided attention
In evaluating the causes of neuropathologies, scientists look for ____ or situations in which people with different kinds of neuropathological conditions show opposite patterns of deficits.
double dissociations
According to Endel Tulving, if you need to remember that you saw a friend yesterday at the library, you will draw upon a(n) ____ memory.
episodic
Which part of the working memory model allows for an interface that can integrate different types of information from various systems?
episodic buffer
Raphael has amnesia. When specifically asked to remember particular information, Raphael does poorly. When indirectly measured on the same information he shows signs of learning. This shows that his ____ is impaired by amnesia while ____ is not impaired.
explicit memory; implicit memory
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we incorrectly report that a signal is present when it is, in fact, absent.
false alarm
Researchers should consider culture when developing tests of memory because _____
familiarity with an object an affect recall for it
Fred needs to spot a particular friend in a crowded auditorium. Fred's friend has very bright red hair, so Fred scans the hall for very bright red hair. Fred is using a ____ search.
feature
According to ____ theory, the key factor affecting the relative ease or difficulty of visual searches is whether or not we must combine various characteristics of objects to successfully complete our search.
feature-integration
According to ____, all searches, whether conjunctive or feature, involve two stages. The first stage involves the analysis of features and the second involves combining features into objects.
feature-integration theory
According to the ____ theories of attention, information is selectively blocked out or attenuated as it passes from one level of processing to the next.
filter and bottleneck
Max is a volunteer for a psychological experiment. He has been asked to listen carefully to a list of words. He has been instructed to try to remember as many of these words as possible in any order and to write them down after a signal. Max is participating in a ____ recall task.
free-
In retrograde amnesia, the memories that return typically do so starting ____.
from the more distant past and progressing up to the time of the trauma.
Sophie's working memory is having difficulty integrating information so that the information makes sense to Sophie. What component is most likely to be causing this problem?
her episodic buffer
Patients who have sustained damage to the ____ have difficulty in storing new information or retrieving old memories from their long-term store
hippocampus
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we correctly identify the presence of a signal.
hit
Which process involves using a number of different retrieval cues in order to retrieve memories that appear to have been forgotten?
hypermnesia
. Louise put a light bulb on a lamp, turned it on, and looked at it directly. Immediately after that, she looked away and she could still "see" the bulb shining brightly. This visual persistence is an example of the type of information held in the ____ store.
iconic
The ____ store refers to a sensory register for the fleeting storage of discrete visual images, usually resembling whatever is being represented.
iconic
Anytime we read, we unconsciously and effortlessly remember the meanings of particular words and even how to read. These are examples of everyday tasks that primarily involve ____ memory.
implicit
The ____ suggests that memory does not comprise three, or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather it varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding.
levels-of-processing framework
Most people can listen to music and write a paper simultaneously, but it is harder to listen to the news station and concentrate on writing at the same time. This is because ____.
listening to the news and writing a paper both require verbal processing
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the greatest capacity for storing information and the longest duration for memory storage.
long-term
People's names, where we keep things, and humorous incidents from our childhood are all examples of information held in our ____ store.
long-term
Your roommate has made it abundantly clear to you that you are to pick up a particular bottle of wine on your way back from class and you dutifully stop at the wine store, only to discover you cannot remember the name of the wine. You are experiencing a(n) ____ error.
loss of activation
According to signal-detection theory, a ____ occurs when we incorrectly report that a signal is absent, when it is, in fact, present.
miss
Debbie participates in a memory experiment and performs exceptionally well. When asked how she could recall long strings of material such as rows and columns of numbers, she says that she memorized numbers by transforming them into dates, and then thinking about what she had done that day. Debbie seems to be a ____.
mnemonist
John participates in an experiment in which he is presented with letters on a screen. Every time he sees an "X", he is supposed to report the letter that appeared three letters earlier. This is an example of a(n) ____ task.
n-back
The effects of practice on automatization show a ____ curve, in which early practice effects are great and later practice makes less and less difference in the degree of automatization.
negatively accelerated
As applied to a model of memory, a ____ is a set of labeled relations between nodes.
network
A ____ refers to a juncture within a memory network.
node
Which memory system is often called implicit memory and includes memory for how to do various tasks or operations?
nondeclarative memory
Research indicates that the neurotransmitter ____ is involved in alerting.
norepinephrine
Marla is carefully transplanting tomato seedlings as she has often done when a neighbor stops by to chat. After Marla has resumed her task, she stops suddenly, realizing she has failed to put fertilizer in the bottom of the hole before she puts in the seedling. Marla has made a(n) ____.
omission
When our routines are interrupted, we may accidentally skip steps despite the fact that our routines are well learned. This describes a(n) _____.
omission
The ____ refers to a conceptual model of memory in which the cognitive manipulation of multiple operations occurs simultaneously
parallel-distributed processing model
During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling would flash an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. If participants are then asked to recall symbols presented on the third row, they would be performing a(n) ____ procedure.
partial-report
Patients whose ____ has been damaged can perform well on long-term memory tasks but have trouble keeping information in their short-term memory.
perisylvian cortex
Very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language, is called ____.
permastore
Which part of the working memory model is well suited for handling verbal information and for rehearsing information?
phonological loop
Ulric Neisser synthesized the early filter and the late filter models in part by proposing that there are two processes governing attention: ____.
preattentive and attentive processes
Information about your bedroom, such as the number of windows in it, is often easily pulled from ____ awareness to conscious awareness.
preconscious
Information that is available for cognitive processing but that currently lies outside of conscious awareness exists at the ____ level of awareness.
preconscious
A(n) ____ refers to a node that activates a connected node in a network.
prime
Participants in an experiment read over a list of words. A second unrelated task (a filler task) is then completed. For the final task, participants rate letter strings as words or non-words. The results indicate that participants in general were faster at identifying words from the first list. The faster response is best described as being a result of ____.
priming
Some cognitive psychologists have asserted that the ____ effect refers to the activation of a node by another node in the same network, due to the process of spreading activation.
priming
Jimmy knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of a task that involves ____ knowledge.
procedural
A person with damage to the cerebellum might have problems with ____.
procedural memories
The ____ suggests that both implicit and explicit memory play a role in every response.
process-dissociation model.
Fill-in-the-blank tests can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of ____.
recall
Multiple-choice exams can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of ____.
recognition
. Research suggests that children of mothers with lower levels of education show ____ of selective attention on neural processing
reduced effects
After a test, Jill identified and then learned the information that she had forgotten for the test. She noted that there was a "saving" in that the information was learned faster the second time. Jill has discovered the concept of ____.
relearning
H.M. underwent experimental brain surgery in hopes of treating severe epilepsy. Following damage to his hippocampus, he was unable to ____.
remember events occurring after the surgery
Retrograde amnesia may be viewed as a problem in ____ information in/from memory.
retrieving old
Trying to locate a particular friend in a crowded auditorium or a particular key term in a large list of terms are examples of ____.
search
Participants were shown a list of words and asked to judge whether each word described them or not. Recall was highest for the items that reportedly described the individual. This demonstrates ___.
self-reference effect
According to Endel Tulving, if you need to remember the name of the friend that you saw yesterday at the library, you will draw on a(n) ____ memory.
semantic
The difference between semantic and episodic knowledge is that
semantic knowledge is what we know in the way of facts, whereas episodic knowledge is what we know about experiences linked to particular time referents.
According to the original levels-of-processing framework, if you were shown lists of semantically related words (e.g., dog and animal), rhyming words (e.g., dog and log), and unrelated words (e.g., dog and sun), the words most easily recalled would be ____.
semantically related words
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the shortest duration for memory storage.
sensory
Melissa volunteered to participate in a psychological experiment. She has been instructed to listen carefully to a list of words, because later she will have to remember as many of these words as possible in the exact order in which they were presented. Melissa is participating in a ____ recall task
serial-
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the ____ store has a modest capacity a duration of only a few seconds.
short-term
Suppose you are a radiologist reading mammograms. Your job is to determine whether there are any suspicious, possibly malignant images. In this type of task, the stimulus that you are attempting to detect may be called a ____.
signal
Which function of attention involves the ability to correctly state whether or not a particular stimulus has been presented?
signal detection
. Which theory characterizes our ability to correctly state whether or not a particular stimulus has been presented?
signal-detection theory
According to the ____ theory, the difficulty of eliminating distractors depends on the characteristics they do or do not share.
similarity
Mistakes are to controlled processes as ______ are to automatic processes.
slips
What attentional dysfunction, typically due to lesions in the parietal lobes, occurs when a person ignores information from half of their visual field?
spatial neglect
Both _____ anxiety influence attentional processes.
state-based and trait-based
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), ____ is/are structures and ____ is/are the information stored in the structures.
stores; memory
Allison is a peculiar thinker. She can remember a great amount of information, in large part because she converts sounds and words into visual impressions and because she experiences a word's taste and weight. Allison seems to make use of ____.
synesthesia
According to the levels-of-processing framework, the deeper the level of processing of information, ____.
the higher the probability that the information will be retrieved
Alice is a lifeguard at a busy beach. When on duty, she must remain alert to detect someone having difficulties in the water or other potentially dangerous situations, despite prolonged periods during which no danger is present. Alice's job requires great ____.
vigilance
Which component of the working memory model is important for processing both spatial information and images?
visuospatial sketchpad
During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling flashed an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. If participants are then asked to recall all symbols presented, they would be performing a(n) ____ procedure.
whole-report
Verifying whether a sentence is true or not and having to remember the last word for each sentence is most likely testing ____.
working memory
Which model of memory consists of four main elements: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer?
working memory
Madden's (2007) research examining the impact of aging on visual search ability has found that ____.
younger participants are more accurate and faster than older participants
Recall memory is to ____ as recognition memory is to ____.
. expressive knowledge; receptive knowledge