Cognition and Learning Final Review

__________ memories are those that we are not aware of.

Implicit

Evidence for the role of top-down processing in perception is shown by which of the following examples?

When someone accurately identifies a word in a song on a radio broadcast despite static interfering with reception

The founder of the first laboratory of scientific psychology was

Wilhelm Wundt.

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pebble, girk"

Your book explains that brief episodes of retrograde amnesia (e.g., the traumatic disruption of newly formed memories when a football player takes a hit to the head and can't recall the last play before the hit) reflect

a failure of memory consolidation

A script is a type of schema that also includes knowledge of

a sequence of actions

The primary effect of chunking is to

increase the efficiency of short-term memory.

Negative reinforcement __________ responding; punishment __________responding.

increases; decreases

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they

invent a sign language themselves.

Scene scheme is

knowledge about what is contained in a typical scene.

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's

lexicon.

The emphasis of the concept of working memory is on how information is

manipulated

The Stroop effect demonstrates people's inability to ignore the of words.

meaning

The main difference between early and late selection models of attention is that in late selection models, selection of stimuli for final processing doesn't occur until the information is analyzed for

meaning.

According to the behaviorists, only the study of should be the emphasis of the science of psychology.

observable behavior

John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of

observable behavior.

It is easier to perform two tasks at the same time if

one is handled by the sketch pad and one is handled by the phonological loop.

The investigation of how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g., shock) is best known as

operant conditioning

Speech segmentation is defined as

organizing the sounds of speech into individual words

Experience resulting from stimulation of the senses and information from the senses that can help guide our actions is called

perception.

Behaviorists believe that the presentation of increases the frequency of behavior.

positive reinforcers

Lucille is teaching Kendra how to play racquetball. She teaches her how to hold the racquet, where to stand, and how to make effective shots. These learned skills that Lucille has acquired are an example of memory.

procedural

The maintenance rehearsal task of learning a word by repeating it over and over again is most likely to

produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce longer-term memories

This multiple choice question is an example of a test.

recognition

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement.

According to the multiple trace hypothesis, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of

remote, episodic memories

Elaborative rehearsal of a word will LEAST likely be accomplished by

repeating it over and over.

Coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

Kieran found that studying for his Spanish exam made it more difficult to remember some of the vocabulary words he had just studied for his French exam earlier in the day. This is an example of

retroactive interference

What is an operant schedule in which reinforcers are available for the first response after a variable amount of time, which averages out over many intervals to some predetermined interval value.

variable interval

What is an operant schedule in which the individual receives one reinforcement for several responses; the number of responses required varies but averages out to the ratio value?

variable ratio

Which statement best summarizes the focus of the Gestalt psychologists?

we must understand the basic components of perception

Working memory differs from short-term memory in that

working memory is concerned with both holding and processing information.

If a word is identified more easily when it is in a sentence than when it is presented alone, this would be an example of processing.

top-down

Sports Psychology || What they do

-Enhance performance -Various mental strategies -Cope with the pressures of competition -Recover from injuries -Keep up an exercise program -Enjoy sports -Sports psychology can even help people off the playing field. The same strategies that sport psychologists teach athletes are also useful in the workplace and other settings. -They *combine a passion for psychology and sports to conduct research and apply findings to the mental and emotional betterment of athletes*

Differentiate between MFT, LPC, LP || *Marriage & Family Therapy*

-LMFTs look at behavior in its social and relational context. -EX: Diego's anxiety has emerged as a result of tension in his work or in his relationships. They will work with Diego as well as other family members and other important people in Diego's life

Sports Psychology || Where they work

-Private consultants -Full-time positions with professional sports teams or national governing bodies of sport. -Most combine their consultancy work with teaching and research or also work in other areas such as clinical and occupational domains.

Differentiate between MFT, LPC, LP || *Licensed Professional Counselor*

-The professional clinical counseling field emerged from school and career counseling. While they focus today on mental health. -EX: Diego's struggle as an individual and developmental issue. They will examine his psychological and social development and his current functioning, and treatment will focus on helping Diego improve overall development

Differentiate between MFT, LPC, LP || *Licensed Psychologist*

-Traditional psychology would focus on pathology - rooting out what is wrong with Diego individually. -EX: Examine Diego's inner world to find the root of his dysfunction.

Sports Psychology || License requirements

-Usually require a master's or doctorate degree in clinical psychology, sports psychology or counseling

The "magic number," according to Miller, is

7 plus or minus 2

Differences between a degree and a license

A college degree is a title conferred by a college or university to indicate completion of a course of study or extent of academic achievement. A licence is official or legal permission to do or own a specified thing.

Examination for Professional Practice of Psychology (EPPP)

A licensing examination developed by the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB) that is used in most U.S. states and Canadian provinces.

Which example below best demonstrates state-dependent learning?

Although Emily doesn't very often think about her first love, Steve, she can't help getting caught up in happy memories when "their song" (the first song they danced to) plays on the radio.

Which of the following psychologists is known for research on operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner

Who proposed that children's language development was caused by imitation and behavioral reinforcement?

B.F. Skinner

Why is classical conditioning considered a form of implicit memory?

Because it is involves learning an association without being aware of the reasons behind it.

Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.

The "Little Albert" experiment involving the rat and the loud noise is an example of which of the following types of experiments?

Classical conditioning

Describe and differentiate classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning is when there is an unconditioned stimulus paired with a conditioned stimulus that results in an unconditioned response. With repetition, the unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response. (Ex: Jim and Dwight on the office--Every time Jim restarts his computer and it makes the startup sound (US), he offers Dwight a mint (CS) and Dwight accepts (US). As a result, when Jim restarts his computer to make the startup sound (now CS), Dwight reaches out his hand for a mint (now CR). Operant conditioning is when you pair a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response. Like in the Little Albert experiment, a white rat (NS) is paired with a loud noise (CS) that causes the baby to cry (UR). Eventually, when the baby sees a rat (now CS), he cries (now CR).

Using behavior to infer mental processes is the basic principle of

Cognitive psychology

___________ transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Consolidation

Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?

Deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing.

According to your textbook, perception goes beyond the simple receipt of sensory information. It is involved in many different cognitive skills. Which of the following is not one of those skills as noted by the chapter?

Experiencing neuromodulation

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the property of language.

Hierarchical

Which of the following is an example of a semantic memory?

I remember the big island of Hawaii has many active volcanoes.

Make it Stick Learning Strategy || Avoid Illusions of Knowing

It is important that we measure our own performance. Metacognition allows us to reflect on what we should and shouldn't do the next time around. Testing and retrieval practice are a good way to tell the difference between what we know and what we don't know. **Don't make the mistake of dropping material from your testing once you've gotten it right a couple of times. Space practice.

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

Languge has a structure that is governed by rules

The first formal laboratory of psychology, where the approach of structuralism was created, was founded in which city?

Leipzig, Germany

Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC)

Master's-degreed mental health service providers, trained to work with individuals, families, and groups in treating mental, behavioral, and emotional problems and disorders.

Stevie Allison enjoys playing football for his high school team. Stevie was not allowed to play football for three games when he got in a fight with a soccer player after school. Taking away the privilege of football to decrease fighting is an example of

Negative punishment

__________ procedures cause behaviors to decrease in probability or become less likely.

Punishment

Which of the following involves procedural memory?

Reading a sentence in a book

In the movie Groundhog Day, Bill Murray's character grows frustrated as he experiences the same day in his life over and over again. With each "passing" day, he is able to respond to people's actions more and more quickly because of

Repetition priming.

The following statement represents what kind of memory? "The Beatles stopped making music together as a group in the early 1970s."

Semantic

In the text's use of the Olympic Rings example, which Gestalt law contributes to the correct perception of five interlocking circles?

Simplicity

Make it Stick Learning Strategy || Spaced Practice

Spaced practice is better than massed practice because it embeds the information in long-term memory. Rapid-fire practice uses short-term memory. Memory rehearsal over time brings on consolidation.

Make it Stick Learning Strategy || The Testing Effect

Testing is usually used to measure learning and assign grades, but it is good for retrieval. "Exercise in repeatedly recalling a thing strengthens the memory." Retrieval makes learning stick more than reexposure to the original material. A study found that students who tested after reading a passage retained 50% more of the information a week later than those who had not.

Describe the Stroop effect and explain the significance of the Stroop effect for understanding attention.

The Stroop effect is when task-irrelevant stimuli are presented, causing conflicting responses. This is an example of inhibition, and can be seen through the experiment that asks participants to say the color of the word rather than the word itself.

The episodic buffer directly connects to which two components in Baddeley's model of memory?

The central executive and long-term memory

Make it Stick Learning Strategy || Embrace Difficulties

The easier knowledge or a skill is to retrieve, the less your retrieval practice will benefit your retention of it. But conversely, the more effort you have to put into learning a concept, the more the practice of retrieval will entrench it. Effort helps because it creates mental models, broadens mastery, fosters conceptual learning, and improves versatility.

According to Treisman's "attenuation model," which of the following would you expect to have the highest threshold for most people?

The word "platypus"

Which of the following stimuli were used in Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiment?

Three-letter nonsense

One of the defining characteristics of implicit memory is that

We are not conscious we are using it.

Make it Stick Learning Strategy || Get Beyond Learning Styles

We need a variety of learning style models. Narrowing our study habits to those that are widely accepted limits our ability to learn and find consistent patterns. **When instructional style matches the nature of the content, all learners learn better.

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for

adolescence and young adulthood.

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented

after the event

Regarding children's language development, Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development is driven largely by

an inborn biological program.

Which of the following methods, often associated with structuralism, was used in the psychology laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt?

analytic introspection

A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying

articulatory suppression.

The sequence of steps that includes the image on the retina, changing the image into electrical signals, and neural processing is an example of processing.

bottom-up

The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind is called

cognitive psychology.

Russell has learned that every time he sees a green flag flying atop the life guard's stand at the beach the conditions are perfect for swimming and that he can go into the water. This describes a _____ schedule of reinforcement.

continuous

What in operant conditioning, is the delivery of a reinforcer for very single response.

continuous reinforcement

The distribution of attention among two or more tasks is known as

divided attention.

The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as

encoding specificity

What is a operant conditioning procedure that involves reinforcing the first response after a specific time interval?

fixed interval

You look at a rope coiled on a beach and are able to perceive it as a single strand because of the law of

good continuation.

Students, beware! Research shows that _____ does not improve reading comprehension because it does not encourage elaborative processing of the material.

highlighting

The Stroop effect demonstrates

how automatic processing can interfere with intended processing.

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

Information remains in sensory memory for

seconds or a fraction of a second.

When Sam listens to his girlfriend Susan in the restaurant and ignores other people's conversations, he is engaged in the process of attention.

selective

The three structural components of the modal model of memory are

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.

A person with a reduced digit span would most likely have a problem with memory.

short-term

You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the law of

similarity

Strayer and Johnston's (2001) experiment involving simulated driving and the use of "hands-free" vs. "handheld" cell phones found that

talking on either kind of phone impairs driving performance significantly and to the same extent.

According to your text, the ability to divide attention depends on all of the following EXCEPT

task cueing

Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the

tendency of objects in the same category to become organized

With the Stroop effect, you would expect to find longest response times when

the color and the name differed.

Memory enhancement due to repetition priming is a result of

the test stimulus being the same or resembling the priming stimulus.