Cognition test

Ulric Neisser (1967)

"Cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used." Cognition starts with our contact with the outside world. "Tip of the Tongue" phenomenon

Acoustic codes in reading

(prime example of how we convert visual information into sound information - are your lips moving when you read?) Subvocalizing (especially when material is new/unfamiliar or difficult to understand - just like when you learned to ride a bike or drive a car... we talk to ourselves) Does facilitate retention of detailed or complex material

Neural Network Model Components:

1. A set of processing units called nodes,2.A pattern of connection among nodes,3. Activation rules for the nodes,4. A state of activation,5.Output functions of the nodes,6.A learning rule.

Serial position effect- U shaped recall curve.

1. Primacy effect - recall of words at the beginning of a list 2.Recency effect - recall of words at the end of a list Distinctiveness also aides in recall of words

Basis for selecting a set of features, Gibson 1969:

1. The features should be be critical ones, present in some members of the set but not in others, so as to provide a contrast. 2. The identity of the features should remain unchanged under changes in brightness, size, and perspective. 3.The features should yield a unique pattern for each letter 4. The number of proposed features should be reasonably small.

That strange bank thing...

1.Battling Bots-web robot automatic computer programs 2.Carnegie Mellon University developed software to prove you're human 3.Gimpy software chooses a word from an 850 word dictionary and distorts the image

Some major subdivisions of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex.

1.Frontal Lobe: Planning of movements, some aspects of memory, inhibition of inappropriate behaviors. 2.Parietal Lobe: Body sensations 3.Temporal Lobe: hearing, advanced visual processing 4.Occipital Lobe: Vision

Issues with Eyewitness IdentificationI

1.If witness only had a brief glimpse of suspect 2.Witnessed crime under poor conditions (low light, from a distance, weather, etc.) 3.Using suspects mug shot in initial identification, then witness views lineup 4.Investigator's body language and/or tone of voice can influence witness' identification

Leaders in the beginning... James' Kohler's Bartlett's Remembering Sperlings Broadbent's

1.James' Principles of Psychology (1890): attention, imagery, memory, and reasoning. 2.Kohler's The Mentality of Apes (1925): explored complex thought processes. 3.Bartlett's Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology 4.1958 Broadbent's filter model of selective attention: perceptual limitations ,Auditory attention 5.1963 Sperling's work on perceptual limitations: led up to the inclusion of the sensory store, pattern recognition, and STM. Visual recognition

Capacity on Memory Span

1.Memory span tasks (digit span) have shown that we can hold 7+/- 2 items in STM when trying to recall information. 2.Absolute judgment tasks also validate these findings (identifying stimuli that vary along a single sensory continuum) 3.Chunking information together into units (clustering) increases the amount of information we can recall helping to overcome the limited capacity of STM.

Problems with templates as a theory:

1.Patterns must be in same position and orientation, and be the same size,Patterns vary greatly,Does not take similarity into account,Does not tell us how different 2 patterns are,Does not allow for alternative descriptions of the patterns we observe Thus, not a very good theory

Interference Components

1.Retroactive interference:Occurs because of new information learned 2.Proactiveinterference:Occurs because of old information.

6 Stages of an Information-Processing Model

1.Sensory Store 2.Filter 3. Pattern Recognition 4.Selection Stage 5.Short-Term Memory (STM) 6. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Problems with police interviews:

1.Too many closed end questions 2.Interrupting witness during recall 3.Asking questions in a predetermined, inflexible order

Momentary intention

A conscious decision to allocate attention to certain tasks or aspects of the environment.

Distinctive Feature

A feature present in one pattern bu absent in another, aiding one's discrimination of the two patterns. The low horizontal line is a distinctive feature for distinguishing between an E and an F. That is it enables us to distinguish one pattern from the other.

Perceptual Confusion

A measure of the frequency with which two patterns are mistakenly identified as each other. A set of features is usually evaluated by determining how well it can predict perceptual confusion as confusable items should have many features in common.

Arousal

A physiological state that influences the distribution of mental capacity to various tasks.

Excitatory connection

A positive association between concepts that belong together, as when a vertical line provides support for the possibility that a letter is a K

Detection Paradigm

A procedure in which observers have specify which of two possible target patterns is present in display

Spantaneous retrieval

A retrieval that occurs without making a conscious effort to recall information.

Activation rule

A rule that determines how inhibitory and excitatory connections combine to determine the total activation of a concept.

exhaustive search

A search that continues until the test item is compared with all items in the memory set.

Self-terminating search

A search that stops as soon as the test item is successfully matched to an item in the memory set.

Visual information store (VIS):

A sensory store that maintains visual information for approximately one-quarter of a second.It preserves information for a brief period. decay rate depends intensity, contrast, and duration.

Memory set

A set of items in short-term memory that can be compared against a test item to determine whether the test is stored there

Retrieval Strategy

A strategy for recalling information from long-term memory

Control Process

A strategy that determines how information is processed

Naturalistic Study

A study of the tip of the tongue state in which people record these events as they occur outside the laboratory.

Partial-report procedure

A task in which observers are cued to report only certain items in a display of items. (report only some of the letters)

Whole-report procedure

A task that requires observers to report every thing they see in a display of items. (report all the letters)

Subsidiary task

A task that typically measures how quickly people can react to a target stimulus to evaluate the capacity demands of the primary task.

Direct Memory test

A test that asks people to recall or recognize past events

Indirect memory test

A test that does not explicitly ask about past events but is influenced by memory of past events

Neural Network model

A theory in which concepts (nodes) are linked to other concepts through excitatory and inhibitory connections to the behavior of neural networks in the brain.

Feature Theory:

A theory of pattern recognition that describes patterns in terms of their parts, or features.

Interactive activation model

A theory proposing that both feature knowledge combine to provide information about the identity of letters in a word.

Multimode theory

A theory proposing that people's intentions and the demands of the task determine the information-processing stage at which information is selected

Capacity theory

A theory proposing that we have a limited amount of mental effort to distribute across tasks. are limitations on number of tasks we can perform at the same time.

Bottleneck theory

A theory that attempts to explain how people select information when some information-processing stage becomes overloaded with too much information.

Structural Theory

A theory that specifies how the features of a pattern are joined to other features of the pattern. Structural theory emphasize the relations among the the features by building on features theories.

Two types of Memory Codes

Acoustic code, Semantic code

Baddeley's Revision 2000

Added a forth component (Episodic Buffer) The limited capacity storage system that integrates memory codes from different modalities.

Neural Network Models

All of the models presented thus far pave the way to more advanced theories of how we perceive our environment.focus on how our sensory processing is distributed throughout our system

Enduring disposition

An automatic influence to which people direct their attention.

Acoustic confusion

An error that sounds like the correct answer

Caricature

An exaggeration of distinctive features to make a pattern more distinctive.

Shadowing

An experimental method that requires people to repeat the attended message out loud.

Template:

An unanalyzed pattern that is matched against alternative patterns by using the degrees of overlap as a measure of similarity.

Hasher & Zacks 1979

Automatic encoding refers to memory activities that are either incident learning or intentional learning.Incidental learning includes frequency, spatial, and temporal information.These types of information are not influenced by practice, task interference, depression or high arousal, and developmental trends.

Task interference

Automatic processes should not interfere with each other because the require capacity

Developmental trends

Automatic processes show little change with age.

Components of Attention

Bottleneck theory, concentration, mental effort, and capacity theory.

Parallel Processing

Carrying out more than one operation at a time, such as looking at an art exhibit and making conversation.

Serial Processing

Carrying out one operation at a time, such as pronouncing one word at a time.

What is Cognition?

Cognition: The acquisition of knowledge

Recognition memory

Deciding whether an item had previously occurred in a specified context.

Feature Theories

Describes patterns in terms of their parts Gibson's theory highlights the part of learning by the distinguishing features of objects Feature sets are only good when they can predict when similar objects will be confused (perceptual confusion, i.e. R & P)

Geons

Different three dimensional shapes that combine to form three dimensional patterns.

Differences between direct and indirect test

Direct test: Indirect Test Recall Word fragment Recognition Initial Letters Conceptually driven Data Driven Retrieval strategies Familiarity Episodic Memory Procedural memory Medial temporal lobe Various locations

Depression or High arousal

Emotional states such as depression or high arousal can reduce the effectiveness of effortful processes

Atkinson & Shiffrin's Model (1968, 1971)

Environmental input, Sensory registers, Short-term memory, Long-term memory.

Types of LTM

Episodic memory - memory of specific events Semantic memory - memory of facts, general knowledge Procedural memory - memory for actions, skills, & operations.

The two kinds of connections between levels

Excitatory connection, Inhibitory connection

Cognitive Neuroscience Diagnostic Methods: (fMRI) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (PET) Position-Emission Tomography (ERP) Event-Related Potential

FMRI: uses magnetic fields and computerized images to locate mental operations in the brain. PET: uses low-level radioactive tracers to study brain activity by measuring the amount of blood flow in different parts of the brain ERP: uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure the duration of brain waves during mental tasks

Learning how to learn:How can we put things in LTM more effectively? And retrieve them when needed?

Forethought: Student set short-term challenging but attainable goals Performance: adopt powerful learning strategies Self-reflection: evaluate how effectively their strategy help to meet their goals. Be more self-regulated Retrieval fluency does not aide in acquisition of knowledge.

Structural Theories

Gestalt psychologist focus on how a pattern is more than the sum of its parts.structural theory relies on how features make a pattern. Depth perception also plays a key role in how we perceive patterns.

Information Processing Stage

Goal is to find out the reason behind performance limitations. Sperling originally utilized the partial-report method of identifying parts of our perception.found the visual information store 1/2 - 1 second long; intensity, contrast, duration.Once scanned, information must be rehearsed and put into the auditory information store

Absolute judgement task

Identifying stimuli that vary along a single, sensory continuum

Auditory information

In sperling's model this sotre maintains verbal information in short-term memory through rehearsal.

Effect of instructions and practice

Instructions on how to perform a task and practice on the task should not affect automatic processes.

Intentional vs. incidental learning

Intentional learning occurs when we are deliberately trying to learn. Incidental learning occurs when we are not.

Forgetting & Decay theory

Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because of other material interfering with the information in memory.Decay theory: information is lost over time.it fades regardless of interference.

Concentration

Investing mental effort in one or more tasks.

Frequency Information

Is data that specifies how often different stimuli occur

Short-term Memory (STM) Components

Is limited in capacity and duration (7+/-2 items, 20-30 seconds).Working memory maintains and manipulates the information in STM.Chunking items aids in LTM storage of information.

Verbal rehearsal

Is usually considered a form of rote learning

Automatic Processing and Reading

LaBerge & Samuels (1974) propose that the ability to acquire complex, multicomponent skills (e.g., reading) depends on the capability of automatic processing (letters to words) Words should require less capacity to recognize when seen as a unit rather than a string of individual letters (we pay less attention to individual letters in the word) Reading words does not become completely automatic for bilingual readers (Van Assche, Duyck, Hartsuiker, & Diependaele, 2009)

Deutsch-Norma Memory Selection Model

Late-selection model (bottleneck occurs after pattern recognition) Selection into memory important stages are pattern recognition & memory selection stages Both messages are attended to but only the one sent to memory will be later recalled

Incidental Learning

Learning that occurs when we do not make a conscious effort to learn.

Explicit Memory

Memory evaluated by direct memory test

Implicit memory

Memory evaluated by indirect memory tests.

Procedural Memory

Memory for actions, skills and operations

5. Short-Term Memory (STM)

Memory that has limited capacity and that lasts only approximately 20 to 30 seconds.It is limited in both capacity and duration.

6. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory that has no capacity limits and lasts from minutes to an entire lifetime

Retention/ Retrieval

More elaborate acquisition strategies help in delayed recall (visual imagery vs rehearsal) TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon occurs in everyone Cues aide in retrieval 50% resolved in 1 minute

Capacity Theories: Kahneman

More mental effort is needed for late selection stages of recognition assumed a general limit on a person's processing capacity. Assumes person has control over how capacity is utilized for various activities.Amount of control varies with: arousal, enduring dispositions, and momentary intentions.

Capacity Theories: Johnston &Heinz's

Multimode Theory specifies that one has control over where the bottleneck. occurs depending on the task at hand. More capacity is needed for later modes of selection. Attention is flexible.

Neural networks consist of:

Nodes (processing units) Connections between nodes Activation rules (excitatory vs. inhibitory) Combine to determine the total activation of a concept Degree of activation Output functions (when we have in fact perceived something is present) Learning rules (how much activation is needed in order to improve performance)

IAM assumes:

Parallel processing is used in visual perception Recognition occurs simultaneously at the feature level, letter level, and word level.to determine what we perceive.There are also 2 types of connections between levels, Excitatory,Inhibitory

Automatic Processing: Posner & Snyder 1975

Performing mental operations that require very little mental effort.Occur outside of consciousness, thus no mental effort needed,Occurs without intention,Does not give rise to conscious awareness,Does not interfere with other mental activitie

the 3 part of Working Memory

Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad, Central executive, Episodic Buffer

Working Memory Baddeley's Model 1974

Phonological loop:maintains and manipulates acoustic information Phonological Store:holds verbal information Rehearsal Mechanism:-keeps the information active in the phonological store Visuospatial sketch-pad: - maintains and manipulates visual/spatial information Central executive: - manages the use of working memory

Late-selection model

Proposal that the bottleneck occurs when information is selected for memory.

Psychologist are interested In:

Psychologists have also been interested inthe topics of cognitive psychology:attention, memory, reasoning

Processing Theories

Recognition memory - whether an event occurred in a specific context Modality shifts interfere with memory Conceptually driven processes - influenced by strategies Data-driven processes - influenced by stimulus

Release from proactive interference

Reducing proactive interference by having information be dissimilar from earlier material.

Strategies used to facilitate acquisition of knowledge: Control Process

Rehearsal:repetition aloud/silent, linked to Rote learning. Coding: semantic elaboration ROY G BIV Imaging: visual images Loci or Roman Room method

Rehearsal:

Repeating verbal information to keep it active in short-term memory or to transfer it into long-term memory.

Engle's Model

STM is a component of working memory Separates the central executive from STM and includes control strategies (e.g., grouping and coding strategies). Central executive is in control of our attention Controlled attention takes care of tasks in working memory, scheduling actions, minimizing distractions, and suppressing irrelevant information (remember those pesky math word problems?) STM consists of maintaining memory traces and goal-directed processing (e.g., updating content of STM, retrieving info., selecting responses). Both require attention!

Our attention is

Selective Requires concentration and mental effort at times Has limits

Distinctions of performing one cognitive operation

Serial processing, Parallel processing

Sperling's scan component & Rumelhart's model.

Sperling's scan component highlighted our ability to processing more than one thing, parallel processing ti.serial processing: one component being processed at a time.Rumelhart's Model improved on focusing on how we recognize patterns by identifying key features.We can only report 4.5 letters using whole-report methods.

Split Attention Effect:

Split Attention Effect: occurs when people have to divide their attention between two sources

S-R Approach

Stimulus-Response (S-R) approach emphasizes the association between a stimulus and a response, without identifying the mental operations that produced the response, thus ignoring the role that memory, attention, reasoning.

Knowledge acquistion

Storage of information in long-term memory

Eyewitness accounts

Suggestibility of interviewer Hypnosis Cognitive interview: 1.Reinstate the context of the incident 2.Report everything 3.Recall the events in different orders 4.Recall the incidents from different perspectives

Template Theory:

Template theories suggest that the patterns that we perceive are not described, but rather compared to patterns that we already have stored into LTM. Remember the puzzle boxes where you were to put the shape into the hole that matched it? Measures the degree of overlap between patterns

Serial position effect

The ability to recall words at the beginning and end of a list better that words in the middle of the list.

Haber 1969

The acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information comprise a number of separate stages, and the information-processing approach attempts to identify what happens during these stages. This approach was influenced by the computer metaphor in which people enter, store, and retrieve data from a computer.

Mental effort

The amount of mental capacity required to perform a task.

Scan component

The attention component of sperling's model.determines what is recognized in the visual information store. allows for pattern recognition to occur simultaneously.

Retrieval Fluency

The case with which an item can be recalled.

Word superiority effect

The finding that accuracy in recognizing a letter is higher when the letter is in a word than when it appears alone or is in a nonword.

Top-Down Processing

The flow of information from LTM toward the sensory store.

Bottom-Up Processing

The flow of information from the sensory store toward LTM. The sensory stimulus is used to create and piece together a bigger picture

Nodes

The format for representing concepts in a semantic network

Contextual effect

The influence of the surrounding context on the recognition of patterns.

Episodic Buffer

The limited capacity storage system that integrates memory codes from different modalities

Memory span

The number of correct items that people can immediately recall from a sequence of items

2.Filter:

The part of attention in which some perceptual information is blocked (filtered) out and not recognized.

1.Sensory Store:

The part of memory that holds unanalyzed sensory information for a fraction of a second, providing an opportunity for additional analysis following the physical termination of a stimulus Provides brief storage and the information is lost unless it can be identified during the pattern recognition stage

Limited-capacity perceptual channel

The pattern recognition stage of Broadbent's model, which is protected by the filter(attention) from becoming overloaded with too much perceptual information.

Filter Model

The proposition that a bottleneck occurs at the pattern recognition stage and that attention determines what information reaches the pattern recognition stage.

Information-Processing Approach Human Information Processing:

The psychological approach that attempts to identify what occurs during the various stages (attention, perception, short-term memory) of processing information Cognitive Psychology is also called Human information Processing. As do computers enter, store, and retrieve data...so do we as human beings

Metacognition

The selection of strategies for processing information

Pattern Recognition

The stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified.

3. Pattern Recognition:

The stage of perception during which stimulus is identified.Recognition consists of identifying a pattern as a dog, the letter B, the word ball, etc.

4.Selection Stage

The stage that follows pattern recognition and determines which information a person will try to remember.Selection, like the filter stage, is another part of attention that can limit the amount of material that can be entered into memory

Artificial Intelligence

The study of how to produce computer programs that can perform intellectually demanding tasks

Cognitive Psychology:

The study of the mental operations that support people's acquisition and use of knowledge

Working Memory

The use of short-term memory as a temporary store for information needed to accomplish a particular task.

Treisman's Attenuation Model

Treisman's Attenuation Model - filter consists of 2 parts Selective filter (does not block out unattended message, only turns it down) Dictionary (intensity or subjective loudness of a word exceeds it's recognition threshold) Most important stages are filter & pattern recognition

Brennan 1985

Used computer-generated caricatures that make distinctive features even more distinctive.

Paraphrase

Using different words to express the same ideas in a sentence

Sperlings Model

Visual information store, scanning, rehearsal, and auditory information store.

Sensory Registers

Visual, auditory, Haptic

Recognition

Was it present?multiple choice tests are prime examples of a recognition task. Sternberg 1966 each addition to the memory set added 38msec to response time, which he proposed was due to an exhaustive search method.

Memory Codes

Ways that we put things into STM/LTM Semantic codes (meaning) are used mainly in LTM Acoustic codes (speech/sound) are used mainly in STM Pronunciation and retrieval rates of acoustic codes are related to how much we can hold in our STM. Phonemes (basic language sounds) that are similar are harder to recall than ones that are different (resulting in acoustic confusion) Laughery's model (1969) Auditory components are separately forgotten, and at different rates (a person may recall one phoneme, but not the other)

Biederman's Component Model

We only need a few components (geons - 3D shape) in order to describe/identify an objects.we need information on the relationships between components in order to accurate perceive an object. structural theories help us understand the relationships between features of objects we see. approximately 35 simply volumes to describe the object in the world.

Allocation of capacity

When a limited amount of capacity is distributed to various tasks.

Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

When information is simultaneously collected from different sources and combined to reach a decision

Word Recognition

Word superiority effect refers to our ability to detect a letter when it is in a word.Emphasizes the use of top-down processing. interactive activation model assumes that both letter and word knowledge interact to help us identify a letter in a word.

Attenuation:

a decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message.

Inhibitory connection

a negative association between concepts that do not belong together,as when the presence of a vertical line provides negative evidence that a letter is a D.

Broadbent's Filter Model States:

a stoppage occurs at the pattern recognition stage, attention determines what is perceived.Limited-capacity perceptual channel protects the pattern recognition stage from overloading Time is needed in order to switch one task to another .important stages are filter & sensory store

Miller, Galanter, & Pribram's

addition of the planned nature of human behavior:TOTE model, Test-Operate-Test-Exit

Newell, Simon, & Shaw 1958

artificial intelligence identified strategies that people use to perform complex tasks like playing chess

Cross-race Recognition deficit:

can be countered by cognitive training in noticing difference within a category, rather than between categories By receiving instruction to pay close attention to facial differences,it helped eliminate differences in facial recognition

Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory 2003: Combining information

can result in cognitive overload, or too much information for our STM to manage.Split Attention Effect,Redundancy Effect,Expertise Reversal Effect

Cognitive neuroscience

examines the relationships between cognitive processes and brain activities by using different techniques to discover where cognitive operations occur in the brain. Primary functions of the lobes of the cerebral cortex

Watson's Behaviorism (1924)

had very negative impact on the field by suggesting that psychologists only study what they could directly observe in a person's behavior.

Redundancy Effect

if equivalent information is provided twice, then the added information simply more information rather than new information

Expertise Reversal Effect

instruction that reduces cognitive load for a novice may increase cognitive load for an expert

Cognitive Science

interdisciplinary study of cognition attempting to unify thought. Focus on: psychology, philosophy, anthropology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, linguistics

Temporal information

is data about when or for how long events occur.

Spatial information

is data about where objects occur in the environment.

Stroop effect 1935

it takes longer to name the color of the ink a word is printed in when the word is the name of the competing color.It is difficult to stop, even when it is a disadvantage. can not completely avoid reading the words

Noam Chomsky 1957

linguist that discovered that S-R theory of language couldn't account for how people learn to comprehend and generate sentences

Threshold:

minimal activation required to become consciously aware of a stimulus

Cognitive Psychologists study:

pattern recognition, attention, memory, visual imagery, language, problem solving, and decision making

subvocalizing

silently speaking to oneself. limits reading speed

Theories on Description

template, features, structural

Cognitive interview

use to improve recall

RAND corporation's

work on artificial intelligence and 1958 seminars influenced social scientists on duplicating human behavior through computer simulation techniques