Cognitive ch. 5, 6, 7, & 8 quizzes

What were the results of the Graf experiment involving Korsakoff syndrome patients?

Amnesia patients performed poorly on the free recall task while they performed well with the word-fragment task.

When the subjects focused their attention on one of the rows, they correctly reported an average of about _____ of the 4 letters (82%) in that row

3.3

The "magic number," according to Miller (1956), is ___________.

7 plus or minus 2.

Peterson and Peterson found that their subjects remembered about _____ percent of the three-letter groups if they began their recall after counting for just ____ seconds but remembered only about ____ percent of the three-letter groups after counting for ____ seconds.

80%; 3 sec; 12%; 18 sec

Figure 5.6 shows the percentage of letters available to the subjects from the entire display as a function of time following presentation of the display. This graph indicates that immediately after a stimulus is presented, ___________ of the stimulus is available for perception. This is ______ memory. Then, over the next second, this memory fades.

All or most; sensory

A ______-pitched tone indicated the top row; a _____-pitched indicated the middle row; and a _____-pitch indicated the bottom row

High; medium; low

George Sperling (1960) wondered ____________________________ from briefly presented stimuli (the capacity of the sensory memory).

How much information people can take in

________ memory occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious ________.

Implicit; remembering

Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?

It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.

According to Craik & Tulving (1975) who did the levels-of-processing experiment, people remembered target words best when the questions (that proceeded the target words) were about ______.

Meaning (e.g., fit into the blank?)

What is flashbulb memory?

Memory for circumstances surrounding shocking or highly charged important events.

Which of the following supports the phonological loop?

Phonological similarity effect Word-length effect Articulatory suppression

According to Rundus' experiment, words presented early in the list were _______________, and were also more likely to be remembered better. This result supports the idea that the primacy effect is related to the longer rehearsal time available for words at the beginning of the list.

Rehearsed more

Which of the following memory effect was introduced in Chapter 7?

Self-reference effect Generation effect Testing effect Spacing effect

_______________ of remote memories - loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events.

Semanticization

We will describe _______ memory and _______ memory in this chapter, we will compare ________ and _________ memory at the beginning of Chapter 6, and we will then spend the rest of Chapter 6 plus Chapters 7 and 8 on ________ memory.

Sensory; short-term; short-term; long-term; long-term

Wickens et al. (1976) observed that if the category of words suddenly changed, then the memory accuracy, which was decreasing as trial goes, suddenly increases. They called it _______.

Release from PI (proactive interference)

Memory is the process involved in __________, ____________, and ________ information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer _________.

Retaining, retrieving, using, present

Sperling then did an additional experiment to determine ______________________. For this experiment, Sperling devised a ___________________.

The time course of this fading; delayed partial report method

Thus, the idea that flashbulb memories are special appears to be based at least partly on the fact that people ____________ the flashbulb memories are stronger and more accurate; however, this study found that in reality there is _________ difference between flashbulb and everyday memories in terms of the amount of accuracy of what is remembered.

Think the flashbulb memories are stronger and more accurate; little or no

Finally, beware of highlighting. The problem with highlighting is that it seems like elaborative processing (you're taking an active role in your reading by highlighting important points), but it often becomes ______________ that involves moving the hand, but little deep thinking about the material.

automatic behavior

Paradoxically, the danger of suggestion influencing memory may be increased if it happens when or just after the witness is remembering what happened. This possibility was suited by Jason Chan and coworkers (2009), ... Thus, ________, which brought back memories for the original event, made subjects more likely to be influenced by the misinformation.

being tested

Recommendation 4: use a "_______" lineup administrator and get an ___________ confidence rating.

blind; immediate

Murdoch's "remembering a list" experiment described the serial position curve and found that memory is best for ______of a list.

both the first and last few words

Cognitive psychologists have developed an interview procedure called the _________ interview, which is based on what is known about memory retrieval. This interview procedure, which has been described as "perhaps one of the most successful developments in psychology and law research in the last 25 years."

cognitive

Schrauf and Rubin's (1998) "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the __________.

cognitive hypothesis.

Donald Morris and coworkers (1977) did an experiment that showed that retrieval is better if the same ___________ are involved during both encoding and retrieval.

cognitive tasks

________ transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

consolidation

Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was based on Canadian Indian culture demonstrated the constructive nature of memory. Specifically, it demonstrated that memory is altered based on one's ___________.

cultural background

When subjects also listed events that were connected with each "I am" statement, most of the events occurred during the time span associated with the reminiscence bump. ______________ therefore brings with it numerous memorable events, most of which happen during adolescence or young adulthood.

development of the self-image

Morris's experiment shows that deeper processing at encoding ______________ result in better retrieval, as proposed by levels of processing theory.

does not always

Murdoch's experiment from which the serial position curve was reported showed that memory is best for the ______ of a list.

first few and the last few words

Keppel and Underwood proposed that, in line with proactive interference, recalling the letters on the _________ trials created interference that made it more difficult to remember the letters presented on the ______ trials.

first few; later

According to the cultural life script hypothesis, events in a person's life story becomes easier to recall when they ____________ the cultural life script for the person's culture.

fit

We will now see that information presented by others can also _________ a person's memory for past events.

influence

Harry Grant and coworker experiment (1998) indicate that subjects did better when the testing condition (either quite or noise condition) ___________ the study condition (either quite or noise condition).

matched

In the home office example of the author, the author needed to return to his office to retrieve his thought about taking a DVD to class. ... This example illustrates the following basic principle: retrieval can be increased by ________ the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.

matching

A better way of presenting the task (pointing the perpetrator from a lineup) is to let the witness know that the crime suspect ___________ be in the lineup.

may or may not

Levels of processing theory would predict that subjects who were in the _________ group during encoding would experience "deeper" processing, so they should perform better. Instead, the rhyming group performed better

meaning

Neural _________ refers to a neural response, usually brain activation, measured by fMRI to determine what a person is perceiving or thinking.

mind reading

Ten years after Broadbent introduced his flow diagram for attention, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) introduced the ________ model of memory.

modal

The primacy effect is attributed to ______.

more rehearsing of the first few items and transferring of those words into the LTM.

The story of the balloons suspending a speaker in the air was used to illustrate the critical role of _______ in memory.

organization/context

The process of _____________ is extremely important because many of our failures of memory are failures of _______________ - the information is "in there" but we can't get it out.

retrieval

The ______________ hypothesis, proposed by Clare Rathbone and coworkers (2008), proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's ____________ or life identity is being formed.

self-image

__________________ effect refers to that memory is better if you are asked to relate a word yourself.

self-reference

Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on the ____________.

self-reference effect

The _______________ effect is the confusion of letters or words that sound similar.

phonological similarity

The above finding in Q5 indicates _______ coding in the short-term memory.

semantic

What kind of memory does the following statement represent? "The Beatles stopped making music together as a group in the early 1970s."

semantic

Despite this severe impairment of memory for semantic information, the Italian woman could remember what she had done during the day and things that had happened weeks or months before. Thus, although she had lost ___________ memories, she was still able to form new ________ memories.

semantic; episodic

A classic experiment by B. B. Murdoch, Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM using a method to measure a function called the __________________.

serial position curve

Depth of processing distinguishes between ___________ processing and ___________ processing. ___________ processing involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word's physical features such as whether it is printed in lowercase or capital letters.

shallow; deep; shallow

The three types of questions in the levels of processing theory experiment were designed to create different levels of processing as below: (1) physical features = _________ processing (2) rhyming = _________ processing (3) fill in the blanks = ___________ processing

shallow; deeper; deepest

The italicized portion "manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning" is what makes working memory different from the old modal model conception of _______-term memory.

short

________ memory (STM) holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds.

short-term

Saying "Take breaks" is another way of saying "Study in a number of ____________ study sessions rather than trying to learn everything at once," or "Don't cram."

shorter

Another angle on taking breaks is provided by research that shows that memory performance is enhanced if _______ follows learning. Sleeping soon after studying can improve __________, which can result in better memory

sleep; consolidation

Loftus and Steven Palmer (1974) showed subjects films of a car crash (Figure 8.14) and then asked either (1) "how fast were the cars going when they _____________ each other?" or (2) "How fast were the cars going when they ________ each other?"

smashed into; hit

Although both groups saw the same event, the average speed estimated by subjects who heard the word __________" was 41 miles per hour, whereas the estimates for subjects who heard "_______" averaged 34 miles per hour.

smashed; hit

What Harrison and tong's experiment means is that information about the orientation a person is remembering is being held in the _________ cortex during the delay and that the visual cortex is therefore involved in working memory.

visual

You probably used _______ coding in the short-term memory demonstration "Recalling Visual Patterns", in which you were asked to remember the __________ in Figure 5.16. This is ________ coding if you remembered the pattern by representing it visually in your mind.

visual

One way the cognitive hypothesis has been tested is by finding people who have experienced rapid changes in their lives that occurred __________ adolescence or young adulthood. The cognitive hypothesis would predict that the reminiscence bump should occur later for these people.

at a later time than

In the delayed partial report condition, after 1-second delay, participants remembered ____ letters from a tone-indicated row.

1.5

[Important] Sperling's experiment is important not only because it reveals the ______ of sensory memory (________) and its _______ (_______), but also because it provides yet another demonstration of how clever experimentation can reveal extremely rapid cognitive processes that we are usually unaware of.

Capacity; large; duration; brief

According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who _________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _________ be the suspect.

Does not; may not

We can also distinguish between STM and LTM by comparing the way information is coded by the two systems. Coding refers to the _____________________________.

Form in which stimuli are represented

The release from proactive interference in Wickens et al. suggests that ___.

Participants kept the semantic coding of the words.

Recommendation 3: When presenting a lineup, use ___________ rather than ___________ presentation.

Sequential; simultaneous

Encoding specificity suggests that _______________.

The context of learning is encoded along with the material being learnt, and can facilitate retrieval of the material if one has the same context as the encoding at retrieval.

The reason you see a trail of sparkler or smooth movement from a fast sequence of static images is because ___________.

The iconic memory keeps old visual information temporarily until new visual information comes

To compare the way information is represented in the mind in STM and LTM systems, we describe _______ coding (coding in the mind in the form of a visual image), _______ coding (coding in the mind in the form of a sound), and ________ coding (coding in the mind in terms of meaning) in both STM and LTM.

Visual; auditory; semantic

The __________ test contained the first three letters of the 10 words that the subjects had seen earlier, plus the first three letters of 10 words they had not seen earlier.

Word completion

The, one simple procedure - ___________________________ - could free up working memory capacity that could possibly be needed to do well on the test, especially if the test involves using your working memory

Writing about your worries about a test just before you take it

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for ________.

adolescence and young adulthood.

According to the YouTube video regarding eyewitness, the officer selectively used two critical words in his question. There were:

bump; smash

But there are, in fact, memories we aren't aware of, called ____________ memories.

implicit

Which procedure resulted in better memory - counting the number of vowels or rating an item's survival value? Nairne and coworkers found that _____________ created better memory.

linking words to survival

If a person's short-term memory has a digit span of two, this indicates that he has ______.

poor short-term memory

__________ is the primary brain area of short-term memory.

pre-frontal cortex

Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a large change in eyewitness reporting (especially the estimated speed of the cars). In this study, the critical words were _______________.

"hit vs. smashed"

In the experiment in which participants sat in a psychology-experiment office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of on memory.

(scene) schemas

But when Geoffrey Keppel and Benton Underwood (1962) looked closely at Peterson and Peterson's results, they found that subjects' memory for the letters on Trial ____ was high even when tested after an 18-second delay. Apparently, the finding of poor memory at 18 seconds reported by Peterson and Peterson was a result of poorer performance on __________ trials.

1 (the first trial); later

Which of the following represents the most effective chunking of the digit sequence 14929111776?

1492 911 1776

It is common for people to refer to events they remember from a few days or weeks ago as being remembered from short-term memory. However, short-term memory, as conceived by cognitive psychologists, lasts __________ or less

15-20 seconds

The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is _________.

15-20 seconds or less.

According to Peterson and Peterson, we lose the information in the short-term memory in about __________ second(s).

18-20

Of the 45 people who responded to this question "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed lost their lives?", _____ said they had seen the film. This was, however, impossible, because no such film exists.

20

When subjects indicated when each "I am" statement had become a significant part of their identity, the average age they assigned t the origin of these statements was _____, which is within the span of the ___________.

25; reminiscence bump

As of 2012, the use of DNA evidence had exonerated ______ people in the US who had been wrongly convicted of crimes and served an average of ___ years in prison. _________ percent of these convictions involved eyewitness testimony.

341; 13; 75

In the whole report condition, participants could recall _____ letters out of the 12 letters.

4.5

In the whole report condition, subjects were able to report an average of ______ out of the _____ letters.

4.5; 12

In one experiment, telling subjects that the perpetrator may not be present in a lineup caused a _____ percent decrease in false identifications of innocent people.

42

Right after the explosion, only 21 percent of the subjects indicated that they had first heard about it on TV, but 2.5 years later, ____ percent of the subjects reported that they had first heard about it on TV. Reasons for the increase in TV memories could be that the TV reports become more memorable through repetition and that TV is a major source of news.

45

George Sperling did a famous experiment in which he flashed an array (3 row and 4 columns) of letters on the screen for ______ milliseconds.

50

Because this (reporting 3.3 out of the 4 letters in a given row) occurred no matter which row they were reporting, Sperling concluded that immediately after the 12-letter display was presented, subjects saw an average of _______ percent of all the letters but were not able to report all of these letters because they (the memory) _______________ as the initial letters were being reported.

82; rapidly faded

In Peter Graf and coworkers (1985), immediately after rating the words regarding the likability, subjects were tested in the following way (Make sure to read all the alternatives)

A test of explicit memory, in which they were asked to recall the words they had read. A word completion test, which is a test of implicit memory.

Your instructor introduced an example that was very similar to the above question. The example was about two boys playing ________.

A video game (Starcraft)

Peter Graf and coworkers (1985) tested what kind of subjects (to demonstrate priming without conscious awareness of the priming stimuli):

Amnesiac patients with a condition called Korsakoff's syndrome, which is associated with alcohol abuse and eliminates the ability to form new long-term memories. Patients without amnesia who were under treatment for alcoholism. Patients without amnesia who had no history of alcoholism.

Bransford and Johnson'(1972) had participants hear a passage about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend who lived in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture about the story made it easier to understand and memories the contents. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _________ in forming reliable long-term memories.

An organizational context (i.e., big picture/framework)

One way of maintaining the telephone number in memory is by repeating it over and over - an example of ___________ coding. It is less likely that you would remember the number in terms of either its visual image (visual coding) or the meaning of the phone number (semantic coding). Because of the nature of many short-term memory tasks, _________ coding is the predominant type. On the other hand, generally, ___________ coding is the most likely form of coding for long-term memory tasks.

Auditory; auditory; semantic

In Chapter 6, we defined ________________ as memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components.

Autobiographical memory (AM)

Why is classical conditioning considered a form of implicit memory?

Because one may be under the influence of the conditioned memory without remebering how the conditioning has been formed.

What does release from proactive interference tell us about coding in short-term memory? The key to answering this question is to realize that the release from proactive interference that occurs in the Wickens experiment depends on the words' _______.

Categories (fruits and professions)

Evidence that this interference for the Fruits group can be attributed to the meanings of the words (all of the words were fruits) is provided by the results for the Professions groups shown in Figure 6.7b. As for the Fruits group, performance is high on trial 1 and then drops on trials 2 and 3 because all of the words are names of professions. But on trial 4, the names of fruits are presented. Because these are from a different ____________, the proactive interference that built up as the professions were being presented is absent, and performance increases on trial 4. This increase in performance is called _________________.

Category; release from proactive interference

Miller (1956) introduced the concept of _______ to describe the fact that small units (like words) can be combined into larger meaningful units, like phrases, or even larger units, like sentences, paragraphs, or stores. A _______ has been defined as a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks.

Chunking; chunk

It is important to emphasize that the term flashbulb memory refers to memory for the _________________

Circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event.

The problem with the procedure used by Brown and Kulik who surveyed people's memory about highly emotional events is that there was no way to determine whether the reported memories were accurate. The only way to check for accuracy is to compare the person's memory to what actually happened or to memory reports collected immediately after the event. The technique of _____________________ after the event is called repeated recall.

Comparing later memories to memories collected immediately

Regarding free recall of a list of items, which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear by preventing rehearsal from taking place?

Counting backward for 30 seconds before recall

Why would memory become worse after a few trials? Keppel an Underwood suggested that the drop-off in memory was due not to ________ of the memory trace over time, as Peterson and Peterson had proposed, but to ________ - interference that occurs when information that was learned previously interferes with learning new information.

Decay; proactive interference

Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?

Deep processing involves paying closer attention to the meaning of a stimulus than shallow processing, and results in better memory.

In Georg Muller and Alfons Pilzecker (1900), the "immediate" group learned one list of nonsense syllables and then immediately learned a second list. The "delay" group learned the first list and then waited for 6 minutes before learning the second list. When recall for the first list was measured, subjects in the _______ group remembered 48 percent of the syllables, but subjects in the __________ group remembered on 28 percent of the syllables.

Delay; immediate (no delay)

If you conduct an experiment where participants see a number of target letters flashed briefly on a screen and are told to immediately write down the letters in the order they were presented. It is most likely that the target letter "P" will be misidentified as _____.

E

When Peterson compared comprehension for a group of students who highlighted and a group who didn't, she found no difference between the performance of the two groups when they were tested on the material. Highlighting may be a good first step for some people, but it is usually important to go back over what you highlighted using techniques such as ____________ or ____________ in order to get that information into your memory.

Elaborative rehearsal; generating questions

The results in Figure 8.9, indicate that subjects were more likely to say they remembered ___________ pictures than _____________ pictures.

Emotional (negative); neutral

When someone (not just Dr. J's wife) is currently upset, she can easily recall some old events that had made her upset. This is an everyday example of the _______________.

Encoding specificity (especially, the state-dependent learning)

An early idea linking the type of _________ to _________, proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972), is called _______________ theory.

Encoding; retrieval; levels of processing

In contrast to the mental time travel property of ___________ memory, the experience of _________ memory involves accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remembering a personal experience (i.e., not remembering exactly when and how the information was learnt).

Episodic; semantic

_____ memories are to personal experiences as ______ memories are to facts.

Episodic; semantic

Endel Tulving (1985), who first proposed that _________ memory (memory for experiences) and _________ memory (memory for facts) handled different types of information, also suggested that the two memories can be distinguished based on the type of _____________ associated with each.

Episodic; semantic; experience

Which of the following is a correct description regarding spacing effect?

Even when subjects believe that cramming works for them, for the most of the cases, spacing effect occurs (i.e., when they space out study times, they perform better)

In one study, subjects viewed a security videotape in which a gunman was in view for 8 seconds and then were asked to pick the gunman from photographs. ________ subject(s) picked someone they thought was the gunman, even though his picture was not included in the photo spread. In another study, using a similar experimental design, _____________ subject(s) picked someone from a photo spread, even though the perpetrator's picture wasn't included.

Every; 61 percent of the

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the flashbulb memories?

Flashbulb memories were originally considered as photographic memories that do not alter. People often make source monitoring errors and believe that they learned about the flashbulb-memory-events from TV even though that was not how they had learnt the news. People show higher confidence in recalling flashbulb memories than the memories of everyday events. Flashbulb memories are not necessarily more accurate than the memories of everyday events. *All of the above are correct.

Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

Graduating from college at age 23

Murray Glanzer and Anita Cunitz (1966) first created a serial position curve in the usual way. Then, in another experiment, they had subjects recall the words after they ________________________.

Had counted backwards for 30 seconds right after hearing the last word of the list.

In Peter Graf and coworkers (1985), the subjects' task was to read a 10-word list and rate ______________________.

How much they liked each word

[Important] Sensory memory can register _______ amounts of information (perhaps all of the information that reaches the receptors), but it retains this information for ________________.

Huge; only seconds or fractions of a second

Which of the following is NOT an example of semantic memory?

I remember not only when and where my last car accident happened but also remember that I was texting and my friends were in the same car talking about school and we were listening to our favorite music.

Which of the following is an example of a semantic memory?

I remember the big island of Hawaii has many active volcanoes.

This brief sensory memory for visual stimuli, called ____________, corresponds to the sensory memory stage of Atkinson and Shiffrin's modal model. Other research using auditory stimuli has shown that sounds also persist in the mind. This persistence of sound, called ___________, last for ___________ after presentation of the original stimulus.

Iconic memory ; Echoic memory; a few seconds

The primary effect of chunking is to ________________.

Increase the capacity of short-term memory by grouping small items into a meaningful and large units of information.

Which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear from the serial position curve?

Inserting the backward counting task for 30 seconds before recall

The word length effects occurs because ____________________________.

It takes longer to rehearse the long words and to produce them during recall.

Katie and Inez are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00 - 11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules and preferences, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Inez will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?

Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.

According to the transfer appropriate theory, processing the auditory aspect of stimuli during encoding can cause a better memory at later test than processing the meaning of stimuli during encoding, if _____________ (Make sure to read all alternatives).

Levels of processing theory is not always correct. The test is made using the rhyming-questions (Does any word learnt rhymes with another word XXX?).

The Graf et al. experiment with Korsakoff syndrome patients and two control groups had two phases where the patients first performed the _________ and then _________ later.

Likability rating of 10 words; either surprise free-recall of the 10 words or word-fragment task.

What are the three tasks involved in Graf's experiment?

Likability rating; Word-fragment test; Free Recall

The results from the delayed partial report condition suggest that the limited performance in the whole report condition was due to _____.

Limited duration (short duration) of the sensory memory

____________ is the system that is responsible for storing information for long periods of time. What is particularly amazing about this storage is that it stretches from just a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember.

Long-term memory (LTM)

H.M.'s short-term memory remained intact, so he could remember what had just happened, but he was unable to transfer any of this information into ______-term memory. H.M.'s case led to an understanding of the role of the __________ in forming new ______-term memory.

Long; hippocampus; long

According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words?

Making a connection between each word (specifically, its meaning) and something you've previously learned

According to the YouTube video regarding mnemonics, to improve one's memory, _________ is critical.

Making connections between the target information and something one already knows

Because placing words into categories involves the ______________ of the words, and because subjects were recalling the words 15 seconds after they heard them, this represents an effect of ________ in short-term memory.

Meanings; semantic

Neural mind reading involves _________________

Measuring brain activation patterns while showing various stimuli to participant and identifying specific brain activation pattern associated with each stimulus. Asking the participant imagine one of the stimuli she had seen while measuring her brain activation pattern. Comparing the brain activation pattern during the imagination to the pre-identified brain patterns associated with each stimulus in order to guess what the participant is imagining.

Neural mind reading involves _________________.

Measuring brain activation patterns while showing various stimuli to participant and identifying specific brain activation pattern associated with each stimulus. Asking the participant imagine one of the stimuli she had seen while measuring her brain activation pattern. Comparing the brain activation pattern during the imagination to the pre-identified brain patterns associated with each stimulus in order to guess what the participant is imagining.

When sentence A, The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. is followed by sentence B, The flimsy shelf ________ under the weight of the books. People often fill in the blank with "collapsed". This demonstrates that ____________.

Memory is reconstructed based on previous / typical language usage

Cognitive interview involves letting the witness talk with a _________ of interruption and also uses techniques that help witness recreate the situation present at the crime scene by ___________ and recreate things like emotions they were felling, where they were looking, and how the scene might have appeared when viewed from different perspectives.

Minimum; having them place themselves back in the scene

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the results from eyewitness-testimony experiments?

More than half of the time, viewers of a crime scene tend to pick someone from a line-up as a perpetrator even when the line-up does not include the real perpetrator. Eyewitness tends to pick a familiar face from the line-up as a perpetrator. Eyewitness' confidence on their own testimony is affected by the type of feedback they received from the investigator.

In order to measure the capacity of working memory, _______ task is typically used.

N-back

In Mantyla's experiment, participants saw many target words and generated three words related to each target word. Then, those three words were presented as a retrieval cue in later recall. Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the result?

Neither self-generated nor others-generated cues were helpful for participants remembering the target words.

The results from the partial report condition suggests that the limited performance in the whole report condition was due to ________.

Not because of the limited capacity of the sensory memory - it could hold almost all the information in the beginning.

In 2011, the New Jersey Supreme Court mandated that judges inform jurors about the scientific finding regarding eyewitness testimony by including instructions to the jury such as "Human memory is _________. Research has shown that human memory ___________________ that witness need only replay to remember what happened."

Not foolproof; is not at all like a video recording

The result of the delayed partial report experiments was that when the cue tone were delayed for 1 second after the flash, subjects were able to report _____________ in a row.

Only slightly more than 1 letter

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the experiment with which the testing effect was proposed?

Participants read target passages (about which they will be tested) followed by math problems. Then, as a prep, they either reread the passages (rereading group) or recalled what they have learned (testing group). Finally, they were tested through a recall test after a varying delay of 5 minutes, 2 days, or 1 week. Testing oneself is better than rereading especially when the delay between learning and testing is relatively long. Testing effect was replicated with young subjects (e.g., 8th grades) and with other materials (e.g., history).

Memory is active any time some _______ experience has an effect on the way you think or behave ___________.

Past; now or in the future

It is clear that memory has to do with the __________ affecting the __________, and possibly the future.

Past; present

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the effect of emotion on memory?

People are less confident with remembering emotional events.

Cognitive hypothesis proposes that _____________________________.

Periods of rapid change that are followed by stability causes stronger encoding of memories.

To understand this "traffic cop" function, imagine you are driving in a strange city, a friend in the passenger seat is reading you directions to a restaurant, and the car audio is broadcasting the news. Your ___________ is taking in the verbal directions; your ___________ is helping you visualize a map of the streets leading to the restaurant; and your ___________ is coordinating and combining these two kinds of information. In addition, __________ might be helping you ignore the messages from the radio so you can focus your attention on the directions.

Phonological loop; visuospatial sketch pad; central executive; central executive

The results of the recall experiment by Graf et al. (1985) show that the amnesiac patients recalled fewer words than the two control groups. This poor recall confirms the _______ explicit memory associated with their amnesia. But the results of the word completion test, showing the percentage of primed words that were created, indicate that the amnesiac patients performed _____________ the controls.

Poor; just as well as.

As a supporting evidence of the cognitive hypothesis of the reminiscence bump, researchers found that people who immigrated at the age of 34-35 show a reminiscence bump that is ______.

Postponed comparing to those of people who immigrated at the age of 20-24

Unlike the conclusion of Peterson and Peterson, Keppel and Underwood proposed _________ as an alternative explanation of forgetting. This account was proposed based on the observation that ____________.

Proactive interference; subjects could recall the trigram even after 18 seconds in the first trial

__________ interference refers to that old information learnt previously interferes with learning/remembering new information, while __________ interference refers to that newly learned information interferes with remembering old information.

Proactive; Retroactive

The basic idea behind this experiment (by Delos Wickens et al., 1976) was to create ____________ interference - the decrease in memory that occurs when previously learned information interferes with learning new information - by presenting words from the same _________ on a series of trials.

Proactive; category

_________ interference occurs when old learning interferes with new learning. _________ occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning.

Proactive; retroactive

Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?

Procedural memory Priming (e.g., the propaganda effect) Classical Conditioning

Which of the following is NOT a good study strategy for a better recall of course materials in test?

Putting all study hours in one day immediately before the exam instead of spreading them across days

The fragment task is easy if subjects __________ the 10 words in the likability task.

Question options: (at least implicitly) Remember

Which of the following involves procedural memory?

Reading the words on this test

Most of the experiments we will be describing in this chapter involve __________, in which subjects are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to __________ as many of the stimuli as possible. Memory performance can be measured as a percentage of the stimuli that are remembered (3 out of 10 words = 30%).

Recall; report back

The problem with the simultaneous presentation is that it increases the chances that the witness will make a _________ judgment - comparing people in the lineup to each other, so the question is "Who is most like the person I saw?" However, when each person in the lineup is presented sequentially - one at a time - then the witness compares each person not to the other person, but to the _______________.

Relative; memory of what the witness saw

The enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40 is called the _______________

Reminiscence bump

Dewey Rundus (1971) tested this idea that the primacy effect occurs because subjects have more time to rehearse words at the beginning of the list. Rundus first presented a list of 20 words at a rate of 1 word every 5 seconds; after the last word was presented, he asked his subjects to write down all the words they could remember. Rundus added a twist to his experiment by presenting another list and asking his subjects to ______________________

Repeat the words out loud during the 5-second intervals between words.

The claim in Q2 (primacy effect is associated with a certain specific kind of memory) was supported by the finding that __________.

Repeating-words-out-loud during intervals between words showed that the number of repetition of each word corresponded well to the memory performance for the first few words

In Conrad's experiment, "F" was most often misidentified as "___" or "___", two letters that sound similar to "F," but was not as likely to be confused with letters like "___", that looked like the target.

S; X; E

H.M. underwent brain surgery (lobotomy) to relieve severe epileptic seizures. H.M.'s case has been extremely informative to psychologists by demonstrating that __________________, which is similar to Clive Wearing's (an old pianist) symptoms.

STM can operate (relatively) normally while LTM is impaired due to the damage of hippocampus.

K.F had suffered damage to his parietal lobe in a motorbike accident. K.F.'s poor _______ was indicated by a reduced digit span - the number of digits he could remember. Even though K.F.'s ________ was greatly impaired, he had a functioning _______, as indicated by his ability to form and hold new memories of events in his life.

STM;STM;LTM

Regarding the limited performance in the whole report condition, what kind of explanation(s) did Sperling consider?

Sensory memory could hold only a few (4~5) items (limited capacity). Sensory memory could hold all the 12 letters (UNLIMITED CAPACITY) but the memory decayed quickly (SHORT DURATION)

Transition points in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable. This is illustrated by what Wellesley College juniors and seniors said when they were asked to recall the most influential event from their freshmen year. Most of the responses to this question were descriptions of events that had occurred in ___________. When alumni were asked the same question, they remembered more events from ___________ of their freshman year and from the end of their senior year - another transition point.

September

According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have ________ lineup and ________ in the lineup.

Serial; fillers (someone similar to the suspect/perpetrator)

Sperling concluded from these results that a ____________ sensory memory registers __________ of the information that hits our visual receptors, but that this information ________ within less than a second.

Short-lived; all or most; decays

Lindsay and Wells (1985) found that for lineups in which the perpetrator was not present, an innocent person was falsely identified 43 percent of the time in the ___________ lineup, but only 17 percent of the time in the ____________ lineup.

Simultaneous; sequential

Many states, including New Jersey, Ohio, California, North Carolina, and Wisconsin, have switched from ____________ to ___________ lineups.

Simultaneous; sequential

According to the cognitive interview technique, we should let eyewitness _____________.

Talk with minimal interruption / feedback Recreate the situation/emotion that they had at the crime scene

The best way to prepare for Exam 2 of this course is to __________.

Test yourself by verbally answering the "test yourself" questions

The explanation for the recency effect is that _______________________________.

The most recently presented words are still in STM and therefore are easy for subjects to remember.

What kind of models can take into account both (1) the dynamic processes involved in cognitions such as understanding language and doing math problems and (2) the fact that people can carry out two tasks simultaneously? Baddeley concluded that working memory must be dynamic and must also consist of a number of components that can function separately. He proposed three components; _____________________________________.

The phonological loop The visuospatial sketch pad Central executive

In Peterson-Peterson task, subjects receive trigrams (e.g., JKH) followed by a number from which they need to do the backward counting. What is the purpose of the backward counting?

To prevent subjects from rehearsing the trigram

Which of the following cases regarding two brain-injured patients (Tom and Tim) form a double dissociation?

Tom has good semantic memory but poor episodic memory, while Tim has poor semantic memory but good episodic memory.

According to the model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road?

Trying to remember a map of the area

What are the two major characteristics of sensory memory in terms of its capacity and duration?

Unlimited (large) capacity, short duration

Which of the following is a correct description of the coding in short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM)?

Visual coding is for image, auditory coding is for sound, and the semantic coding is for category or meaning. Both STM and LTM use visual, auditory, and semantic coding. Auditory coding is more dominant in short term memory and semantic coding is more dominant in long term memory.

In Brooks' "visualizing-F" task, most people find that the pointing task is more difficult. The reason is that holding the image of the letter and pointing are both visuospatial tasks, so the _______________ becomes overloaded. In contrast, saying "Out" or "In" is an articulatory task that is handled by the _____________, so speaking doesn't interfere with visualizing the F.

Visuospatial sketch pad; phonological loop

In fact, one of the main findings of research on flashbulb memories is that although people report that memories surrounding flashbulb events are especially ______, they are often __________.

Vivid; inaccurate or lacking in detail

The rapid forgetting that Peterson and Peterson had observed was due, therefore, not to __________ but to _______.

Waiting 18 seconds; Interference caused by all of the information the subjects had learned earlier

The defining characteristic of implicit memory is that ______________.

We are not consciously aware of the fact we have them and under the influence of them.

In the N-back task, participants need to remember ______.

What's going on in the current trial What happened in N-trials ago

A critical manipulation involved in Wickens et al. experiment in the fourth trial was ____.

Whether or not the category of the words was changed from the previous trials

According to the encoding specificity, background noise during test (i.e., retrieval) can improve your memory if ______________.

You had had the same noise during encoding.

The word-length effect shows that it is more difficult to remember ______.

a list of long words than a list of short words.

The idea behind repeated recall is to determine whether memory changes over time by testing subjects ___________ after an event.

a number of times

Many innocent people may be currently serving time for crimes they didn't commit. Many of these miscarriages of justice and others, some of which will undoubtedly never be discovered, are based on the assumption, made by jurors and judges, that people see and report things ____________.

accurately

Because the tones were presented immediately _______ the letters were turned off (in the partial report condition), the subject's attention was directed not to the actual letters, which were no longer present, but to whatever trace remained in the subject's mind _______ the letters were turned off. What is the common word for both blanks?

after

In the delayed partial report method, the letters were flashed on and off and then the cue tone was presented ______________.

after a short delay

Some of the subjects in Sperling's experiment reported that they had seen ______ of the letters, but that their perception had faded rapidly as they were reporting the letters, so by the time they had reported 4 or 5 letters, they could no longer see or remember the other letters.

all

In the partial report condition, participants remembered _____________.

almost all (3.3 letters) out of the 4 letters from any given row (82%)

Graf and colleagues used Korsakoff syndrome patients so that ___________.

although the patients cannot explicitly remember the 10 words from the likability rating task, they can perform well in the word-fragment test with the help of the implicit memory of the 10 words that are related to the word-fragment task.

Brain scans using fMRI as people were remembering revealed that __________ activity was higher for the emotional words.

amygdala

The brain area that is responsible for detecting negative emotional stimuli is ______.

amygdala

Neuropsychological double-dissociation evidence indicates that STM and LTM probably _______.

are caused by different brain mechanisms that act independently

When students are asked to describe their study techniques, the most popular are highlighting material in text or notes and rereading text or notes. Research has generally found that these popular techniques _________ very effective (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

are not

A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying ______.

articulatory suppression

The repetition of an irrelevant sound results in a phenomenon called _______________.

articulatory suppression

The serial position curve in Figure 6.3 indicates that memory is better for words at (in) the __________ of the list and at (in) the __________ of the list than for words at (in) the ______.

beginning; end; middle

Typically, this type of rehearsal (elaborative rehearsal) results in ________ memory than maintenance rehearsal

better

Mantyla's "banana / yellow, bunches, edible" experiment demonstrated that, for best memory performance, retrieval cues should be created ______________.

by the person whose memory will be tested.

Sperling devised the partial report condition for measuring the ________, while devised the delayed partial report condition for measuring the _________ of the ________ memory.

capacity, duration, sensory

Sperling's partial report condition was devised for measuring the ________ , while the delayed partial report condition was for measuring the _________ of the ________ memory.

capacity, duration, sensory

The __________ is where the major work of working memory occurs. The __________ pulls information from long-term memory and coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad by focusing on specific parts of a task and deciding how to divide attention between different tasks. The __________ is therefore the "traffic cop" of the working memory system.

central executive

Travis got a locker in gym class with the combination of 19-5-4. In order to remember it, he thinks of it as the year 1954. His method of remembering best illustrates:

chunking

____________ conditioning occurs when the following two stimuli are paired: (1) a neutral stimulus that initially does not result in a response and (2) a conditioning stimulus that does result in a response.

classical

Apparently, immediately presenting the second list to the "no delay" group interrupted the forming of a stable memory for the first list. Based on this result, Muller and Pilzecker proposed the term _________, which is defined as the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

consildation

Funahashi found neurons that responded only when the square was flashed in a particular location and that these neurons _____________ during the delay.

continued responding

Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) showed subjects neutral and emotionally arousing pictures; then they had some subjects (the stress group) immerse their arms in ice water, which causes the release of __________, and other subjects (the no-stress group) immerse their arms in warm water, which is a nonstressful situation that doesn't cause __________ release (a stress-related hormone).

cortisol

When subjects were later given the first word and asked to recall the second one for each pair, the subjects who had ___________ remembered more than twice as many words as the subjects in the other condition.

created images

The cultural life script hypothesis distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life, and a _____________, which is the culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span.

cultural life script

Peterson and Peterson interpreted this result as demonstrating that subjects forgot the letters because their memory had _______ during the 18-second passage of time after they heard the letters.

decay

Peterson and Peterson studied how well participants can remember trigrams (like BRT, QSD) after various delays. They found that participants remembered an average of 80% of the trigrams after 3 seconds but only 12% after 18 seconds. They hypothesized that this decrease in performance was due to _________, but later research showed that it was actually due to _________.

decay; proactive interference

But when the perpetrator was not in the lineup, increasing similarity caused a large __________ in incorrect identification of an innocent person.

decrease

When the perpetrator was in the lineup, increasing similarity did __________ identification of the perpetrator.

decrease

When investigating the serial position curve, delaying the memory test for 30 seconds with a counting-backward task __________.

decreases the recency effect.

__________ processing involves close attention, focusing on an item's meaning and relating it to something else. According to levels of processing theory, ________ processing results in better memory than _________ processing

deep; deep; shallow

After subjects responded to the three types of questions in the levels of processing theory experiment, they were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words. The results, shown in Figure 7.1b (make sure to see the figure) indicate that ___________ processing is associated with better memory.

deepest (fill in the blank task)

Early research on the frontal lobe and memory was carried out in monkeys using a task called the ________________ task, which required a monkey to hold information in working memory during a delay period.

delayed-response task

According to levels of processing theory, memory depends on the ________ of processing that an item receives.

depth

The idea of levels of processing motivated a great deal of research but became less popular when it became apparent that it was difficult to define exactly what _____________ of processing is.

depth

The design of Rogers's experiment is shown in Figure 7.3a. Subjects read a question for 3 seconds and then saw a word. They answered "yes" if the word was the answer to the question such as "Describes you?" Rogers obtained the results shown in Figure 7.3b for words that resulted in a "yes" response. According to these results, subjects were more likely to remember words that they had rated as ______________.

describing themselves

The longest string you are able to reproduce without error is your __________

digit span

Apparently, students use highlighting and rereading because they are ________ and because they are not aware of more effective methods.

easy to use

A process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long-term memory is ________ - thinking about what you are reading and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know.

elaborate

Elementary school students in the U.S. are often taught to use the very familiar word "HOMES" as a cue for remembering the names of the Great Lakes (each letter in "HOMES" provides a first-letter cue for one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). This memory procedure usually works better than repeating the names over and over. The use of this familiar word provides an example of ________.

elaborate rehearsal

If you are trying to remember numbers by considering meaning or making connections to other information, you are engaging in _________ rehearsal.

elaborative

In one experiment on the association between emotion and enhanced memory, Kevin LaBar and Elizabeth Phelps (1998) tested subjects' ability to recall arousing words and neutral words, and observed better memory for the ___________ words. In another study, Florin Dolcos and coworkers (2005) tested subjects' ability to recognize emotional and neutral pictures after a 1-year delay and observed better memory for the _________ pictures.

emotional (arousing)

( Subjects gave stronger remember response and higher confidence to the emotional pictures.) ... Subjects were less likely to correctly name the color of the frame surrounding the __________ pictures they remembered. Results such as these have led researchers to conclude that _________ enhance our ability to remember that an event occurred and some of its general characteristics, but do not enhance our memory for details of what happened.

emotional; emotions

What is particularly interesting about the result of Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) is that the cortisol enhances memory for the ____________ but not for the __________ pictures.

emotional; neutral

According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is __________.

encoded

One of the main messages in this chapter is that some methods of _________ are more effective than others.

encoding

The process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM is called ____________.

encoding

People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they went to retrieve when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of _________.

encoding specificity

The principle of ______________ states that we encode information along with its context.

encoding specificity

The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as ______.

encoding specificity

We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur.

encoding specificity

Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is ___________ while transferring information from LTM to working memory is _________.

encoding; retrieval

This contrast between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal is one example of how ________ can influence the ability to __________ memories.

encoding; retrieval

As a result of this injury, K.C. lost his ___________ memory - he can no longer relive any of the events of this past.

episodic

In Ross et al. (1994), subjects in the experimental group saw a film of a male teacher reading to students; subjects in the control group saw a film of a female teacher reading to students. Subjects in both groups then saw a film of the female teacher being robbed and were asked to pick the robber from a photo spread. The photographs did not include the actual robber, but did include the male teacher, who resembled the robber. The results indicate that subjects in the ___________ group were three times more likely to pick the male teacher than were subjects in the ___________ group

experimental; control

__________ memories are memories we are aware of.

explicit

Ramirez and Beilock suggest that subjects in the writing group worried less while taking the test because they had ________________ before taking the test. Supporting this idea is that writing about something unrelated to the test had ________ effect.

expressed their worries in writing; no

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that _________.

extreme vividness of a memory does not necessarily mean high accuracy.

Sperling reasoned that if subjects couldn't report the 12-letter display because of the rapid _______, perhaps they would do better if they were told to just report the letters in a single 4-letter row.

fading

For the Fruits group, banana, peach, and apple were presented in trial 1 and plum, apricot, and lime were presented in trial 2. Proactive interference is illustrated by the _________ in performance on each trial, shown by the blue data points in Figure 6.7a.

falloff

Subjects, who as college students were far removed from these childhood experiences, were given some of the information from the parents' descriptions and were told to elaborate on them. They were also given some of the information from the false events and were told to elaborate on them as well. The results was that the subjects "recalled" and described in some detail 20 percent of the ________ events.

false

In one case of mistaken identification, a ticket agent at a railway station was robbed and subsequently identified a sailor as being the robber. Luckily for the sailor, he was able to show that he was somewhere else at the time of the crime. When asked why he identified the sailor, the ticket agent said that he looked ___________.

familiar

Another mechanism that create the illusion of learning is the __________ effect. Rereading cause material to become familiar, so when you encounter it a second or third time, there is a tendency to interpret this _________ as indicating that you know the material. Unfortunately, recognizing material that is right in front of you doesn't necessarily mean that you will be able to remember it later.

familiarity

Wells and Bradfield call this increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification the post-identification ___________ effect.

feedback

Recommendation 2: When constructing a lineup, use "_______" who are similar to the suspect.

fillers

In referring to the day of President Kennedy's assassination, Brown and Kulik stated that "for an instant, the entire nation and perhaps much of the world stopped still to have its picture taken." This description, which likened the process of forming a memory to the taking of a photograph, led them to coin the term ________________ to refer to a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events.

flashbulb memory

However, another result, shown in Figure 8.8b, did indicate a difference between flashbulb and everyday memories: People's belief that their memories were accurate stayed high over the entire 32-week period for the _________ memories but dropped for the _________ memories.

flashbulb; everyday

Although the enhanced ease of reading creates the illusion that the material is being learned, increased _______ doesn't necessarily translate into better memory for material.

fluency

There is agreement that whether considering items or information, the upper limit for short-term memory capacity is about ______ items.

four

Estimates for how many items can be held in STM range from ______ to ______.

four; nine

James Nairne (2010) proposes that we can understand how memory works by considering its _______, because, through the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive.

function

After either reading the pairs of words (read group) or generating the list of word pairs based on the word and first two letters of the second word (generate group), subjects were presented with the first word in each pair and were told to indicate the word that went with it. Subjects who had ________ the second word in each pair were able to reproduce 28% more word pairs then subjects who had just ________ the word pairs.

generated; read

_____________ material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.

generating

In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs (read group), while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word so that the second word is related to the first word (generate group). The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the _______.

generation effect

T. J. Perfect and C. Askew (1994) had subjects scan articles in a magazine with advertisement. When the subjects were later asked to rate a number of advertisements on various dimensions, such as how appealing, they gave ________ ratings to the ones they had been exposed to than to other advertisements that they had never seen.

higher

In 1953, Henry Molaison (known as patient H.M. until his death at the age of 82 in 2008) underwent an experimental procedure designed to eliminate his severe epileptic seizures. The procedure, which involved removal of H.M.'s ________________ on both sides of his brain, succeeded in decreasing his seizures but had the unintended effect of eliminating his ability to form new _______-term memories (Corkin, 2002; Scoville & Milner, 1957).

hippocampus; long

The two examples (Rachel's conversation with pizza shop and multiplying 43 times 6) demonstrate the task where we both ________ information in memory and ________ information.

holding (retaining); processing

One reason for the popularity of rereading as a study technique is that it can create the __________ that learning is occurring. This happens because reading and rereading material results in greater __________ - that is, repetition causes the reading to become easier and easier.

illusion; fluency

Classical conditioning is __________ memory because it can occur even if the person has forgotten about the original pairing.

implicit

H.M.'s ability to trace the star in the mirror, even though he couldn't remember having done it before, illustrates the __________ nature of procedural memory.

implicit

Repetition priming is called _________ memory because the priming effect can occur even though subjects may not remember the original presentation of the priming stimuli.

implicit

Having witness immediate rate their confidence in their choice eliminates the possibility that the postevent feedback effect could ________ their confidence.

increases

Memory capacity for the colored squares was 4.4, but capacity for the cubes was only 1.6. Based on this result, Alvarez and Cavanagh concluded that the greater the amount of ___________ in an image, the fewer items that can be held in visual short-term memory.

information

Your text describes an "Italian woman" who, after an attack of encephalitis, had difficulty remembering people or facts she knew before. She could, however, remember her life events and daily tasks. Her memory behavior reflects ____________________.

intact episodic memory but impaired semantic memory.

K.C., who was injured in a motorcycle accident, remembers facts like the difference between a strike and a spare in bowling, but he is unaware of experiences such as hearing about the circumstances of his brother's death, which occurred two years before the accident. His memory behavior suggests _______.

intact semantic memory but poor episodic memory.

Transfer-appropriate processing is like encoding specificity and state-dependent learning because it demonstrates that conditions during encoding and retrieval improves performance. But, in addition, the result of Morris experiment (1977) has important implications for the _______________ discussed earlier.

levels of processing theory

One result of this experiment about flashbulb and everyday memories was that subjects remembered fewer details and made more errors at longer intervals after the events, with ______ difference between the results for the flashbulb and everyday memories. This result supports the idea that there is nothing special about flashbulb memories.

little

The results (of Dr. G. Godden and Alan Baddeley's (1975) "diving experiment) show that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same __________.

location

As we will see below, most of this (short-term memory) information is eventually lost, and only some of it reaches the most permanent store of ___________ memory.

long-term

The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with memory.

long-term

________ memory (LTM) can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades.

long-term

One of the outcomes of structural changes at the synapse is a strengthening of synaptic transmission. This strengthening results in a phenomenon called _________________ - enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation (Bliss & Lomo, 1973; Bliss et al., 2003; Kandel, 2001).

long-term potentiation

According to the word length effect, a word list will be more difficult to remember if the words are _______.

longer

Whereas Kamitani and Tong used the mind reading procedure to predict the orientation a person was__________, Harrison and Tong used the mind reading procedure to determine the orientation that subjects were ______________ during the 11-sec delay.

looking at; holding in their mind

Consider, for example, holding a phone number in your memory by repeating it over and over. If you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, you are engaging in __________ rehearsal.

maintenance

Working memory, which was introduced in a paper by Baddeley and hitch (1974), is defined as "a limited-capacity system for temporary storage and ______________ of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning."

manipulation of information

Lineups are notaries for producing mistaken identifications. Here are some of the recommendations that have been made: Recommendation 1: When asking a witness to pick the perpetrator from a lineup, inform the witness that the perpetrator ___________ be in the particular lineup he or she is viewing.

may or may not

We will now consider a number of other examples, many of which show that better memory is associated with encoding that is based on __________ and making connections.

meaning

According to Miller, short-term memory's capacity is best estimated as seven (plus or minus two) __________.

meaningful units of information

Peterson and Peterson observed that subjects' recall rate of the trigrams decreases as the delay increases (i.e., the longer the subjects count backwards). Based on this observation, Peterson and Peterson concluded that __________.

memory decays as time goes

The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that _________.

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities.

Based on the finding that reaction times were longer for greater differences in orientation, Shepard and Metzler inferred that subjects were solving the problem by rotating an image of one of the objects in their mind, a phenomenon called __________.

mental rotation

According to Tulving, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory is that it involves ____________ - the experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past.

mental time travel

Perfect and Askew's repetition priming experiment that involved advertisements would make the people in the advertisement industry happy, because it suggests that "Even when customers do not recognize your advertisements, the _____ you advertisement, the more likely customers like your advertisement because of the unconscious bias called repetition priming..

more frequently

According to the experiment that involves emotional and neutral picture surrounded by color frames, people are ______ confident to recognize emotional pictures than to recognize neutral pictures, but their memory for the frame color is ________ accurate for the emotional pictures.

more; less

_____________ refers to using a neural response, usually brain activation measured by fMRI, to determine what a person is perceiving or thinking.

neural mind reading

Claudia Stanny and Thomas Johnson (2000) determined how well subjects remembered details of a filmed simulated crime. They found that subjects were more likely to recall details of the perpetrator, the victim, and the weapon in the "_________" condition than in the "_________" condition. Apparently, the presence of a weapon that was fired distracted attention from other things that were happening.

no-shoot; shoot

It is easier to perform two tasks at the same time if ______.

one is handled by the visuospatial sketch pad and the one is handled by the phonological loop.

The goal of _______________ is to create a framework that helps relate some information to other information to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding.

organizing

In this classic study, Bartlett first had his subjects read the story from Canadian Indian Folklore. After his subjects had read this story, Bartlett asked them to recall it as accurately as possible. ...At longer times after reading the story, most subjects' reproductions of the story were shorter than the original and contained many omissions and inaccuracies. But what was most significant about the remembered stories is that they tended to reflect the subject's ________.

own culture

Sperling devised the ________ report method; subjects saw the 12-letter display for 50 ms, but immediately after it was flashed, they heard a tone that hold them which row of the matrix to report.

partial

The lighted tail of a sparkler is a creation of your mind, which retains a perception of the sparkler's light for a fraction of a second. The retention of the perception of light in your mind is called the _______________.

persistence of vision

______________ is the continued perception of visual stimulus even after it is no longer present. This persistence lasts for only a fraction of a second, so it isn't obvious in everyday experience when objects are present for long periods.

persistence of vision

In an experiment testing memory following different levels of processing, Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) presented words to subjects and asked them three different types of questions: 1. A question about the _________ features of the word. For example subjects see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letters. 2. A question about the _________. For example, subjects see the word train and asked if it rhymes with the word pain. 3. A fill-in-the-blanks question. For example, subjects see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence "He saw a ________ on the street."

physical features; rhyming

Eric Eich and Janet Metcalfe (1989) demonstrated that memory is better when a person's mood during retrieval matches his or her mood during encoding. They did this by asking subjects to think __________ while listening to "merry" or happy music, or ___________ thoughts while listening to "melancholic" or sad music.

positive; depressing

If monkey's __________ cortex is removed, their performance in the delayed-response task drops to chance level, so they pick the correct food well only about half of the time. This result supports the idea that the __________ cortex is important for holding information for brief periods of time.

prefrontal

Research on monkeys has shown that the part of the brain most closely associated with working memory is the _______.

prefrontal cortex

The finding that subjects are more likely to remember words presented at the beginning of a sequence is called ___________.

primacy

One type of _______, repetition ________, occurs when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the _______ stimulus.

priming

__________ occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (the _______ stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus).

priming

Jill's friends tell her she has a really good memory. Therefore, she decides to test her memory. Jill receives a list of to-do tasks each day at work. Usually, she checks off each item as the day progresses, but this week, she is determined to memorize the to-do lists. On Monday, Jill is proud to find that she remembers 95 percent of the tasks without referring to the list. On Tuesday, her memory drops to 80 percent, and by Thursday, she is dismayed to see her performance has declined to 20 percent. Jill does not realize that she is demonstrating a natural mechanism of forgetting known as ____________________.

proactive interference

Suppose you are asked by a teacher to learn a poem which you will recite in front of your class. Soon after, both you and a classmate Mary are asked by another teacher to learn the lyrics to an unfamiliar song. When you and Mary are later asked to remember the song's lyrics, you have a much more difficult time recalling the song's lyrics than Mary does. This impairment of your performance is most likely attributable to ________.

proactive interference.

Lucille is teaching Kendra how to play racquetball. She teaches her how to hold the racquet, where to stand, and how to make effective shots. Because it was hard for her to verbally describe what to do, she had to actually show how to do them. This is an example of ____ memory.

procedural

__________ memory is also called skill memory because it is memory for doing things that usually involve learned skills.

procedural

The maintenance rehearsal for learning new words (i.e., repeating it over and over again) is most likely to _______

produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce long-term memories.

In ____________ effect, subjects are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before.

propaganda

The fact that memories become more susceptible to suggestion during ___________ means that every precaution needs to be taken to avoid making suggestions to the witness.

questioning

When Baddeley did experiments involving tasks similar to the demonstration on p. 134 (in the middle), he found that subjects were able to _______ while simultaneously ___________ numbers.

read; remembering

The better memory for the stimuli presented at the end of a sequence is called the _________ effect.

recency

If presenting material in an organized way improves memory, we might expect that preventing organization from happening would _________ the ability to remember.

reduce

An example of a control process that operates on short-term memory is _________ - repeating a stimulus over and over.

rehearsal

In Murray Glanzer and Anita Cunitz (1966), the counting prevented _________ and allowed time for information to be lost from STM.

rehearsal

A possible explanation of the primacy effect is that subjects had time to _______ the words at the beginning of the sequence and transfer them to LTM.

rehearse

You have been studying for weeks for a nursing school entrance exam. You love the idea of becoming a nurse, and you have been enjoying learning about the material for your exam. Each night, you put on relaxing clothes and study in the quiet of your lovely home. Memory research suggests you should take your test with a ________ mind set.

relaxed

Suppose you have been studying your French vocabulary words for several hours and made many mistakes. You switch to reviewing the new terms for your upcoming biology test, and your performance is noticeably better. You are experiencing ________

release from proactive interference

The acceptance of eyewitness testimony is based on two assumptions: (1) the eyewitness was able to clearly see what happened; and (2) the eyewitness was able to __________ his or her observations and translate them into an accurate description of what happened and an accurate identification of the perpetrator(s).

remember

When Dorthe Bernsten and David Rubin (2004) asked people to list when important events in a typical person's life usually occur...... Interestingly, a large number of the most commonly mentioned events occur during the period associated with the ________________.

reminiscence bump

To measure the accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use ________ procedure.

repeated recall

This process of transferring information from LTM to working memory is called _________.

retrieval

Subjects spontaneously organize items as they recall. One reason for this result is that remembering words in a particular category may serve as a _____________ - a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.

retrieval cue

Returning to the place where the textbook author had originally thought about taking a disk helped him to retrieve his original thought. His office served as a __________ for remembering what he wanted to take to class.

retrieval cues

We defined ___________ as words or other stimuli that help us remember information stores in our memory.

retrieval cues

Even though the term levels of processing is rarely used by present-day memory researchers, the basic idea behind levels of processing theory - that memory ___________ is affected by how items are _________- is still widely accepted.

retrieval; encoded

Jay has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Jay meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Jay is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Jay realizes that while he remembers the names of the people in the fourth group, he can no longer recall the names of anyone he met earlier in the party. Jay's experience demonstrates ___.

retroactive interference.

_____ is your knowledge about what's the typical image of a place, which _____ your memory.

scene schema

A ________ is a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment.

schema

In an experiment that studied how memory is influenced by people's _________, subjects who had come to participate in a psychology experiment were asked to wait in an office ... their task was to write down what they had seen while they were sitting in the office.

schema

Research has shown that many students believe that reviewing the material is more effective than testing themselves on it; when they do test themselves, it is to determine how they are doing, not as a tool to increase learning (Kornell & Son, 2009). As it turns out, ____________ accomplishes two things. It indicates what you know and increases your ability to remember what you know later.

self-testing

The results of Timo Mantyla experiment indicated that when the __________-generated retrieval cues were presented, subjects remembered 91 percent of the words, but when the ___________-generated retrieval cues were presented, subjects remembered only 55 percent of the words.

self; other-person

K.C., although he lost his episodic memory, does know that certain things happened, which corresponded to _________ memory. For example, he is aware of the fact that his brother died 2 years ago but remembers nothing about personal experiences such as how he heard about his brother's death or what he experienced at the funeral.

semantic

The finding that specific wording is forgotten but the general meaning can be remembered for a long time (as shown in Jacqueline Sachs (1967)) has been confirmed in many experiments. This description in terms of meaning is an example of _______ coding in LTM

semantic

________ memory is an initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second.

sensory

________ memory is the retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation.

sensory

We saw above that although sensory memory fades rapidly, Sperling's subjects could report some of the letters. These letters are the part of the stimuli that has moved on to _________ memory in the flow diagram in Figure 5.2.

short-term

__________ memory is the system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time (Baddeley et al., 2009).

short-term

Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information on a mental work table rather than simply storing it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of ________________.

short-term memory

Clive Wearing, in his 40s, contracted viral encephalitis, which destroyed parts of his medial temporal lobe, which includes the hippocampus, the amygdala. Because of his brain damage, Wearing lives totally within the most recent 1 or 2 minutes of his life. He remembers what just happened and forgets everything else. Because of his inability to form new memories, he constantly feels he has just woken up. As with H.M., Wearing's case demonstrates the separation of ________-term and ______-term memory.

short; long

The propaganda effect demonstrates that we evaluate familiar statements as being true _____.

simply because we have been exposed to them before.

The fact that people with amnesia can retain _______ from the past and learn new ones has led to an approach to rehabilitating patients with amnesia by teaching the tasks, such as sorting mail or performing repetitive computer-based tasks, that they can become expert at, even though they can't remember their training.

skills

The implicit nature of procedural memory has been demonstrated in amnesiac patients. Amnesiac patients can also master new _______ even though they don't remember any of the practice that led to this mastery.

skills

Even more interesting for the study of memory are the subjects' responses to the question "Did you see any broken glass?" which Loftus asked 1 week after they had seen the film. Although there was no broken glass in the film, 32 percent of the subjects who heard "________" before estimating the speed reported seeing broken glass, whereas only 14 percent of the subjects who heard "________" reported seeing the glass.

smashed; hit

An example of auditory coding in short-term memory can be found in Conrad's demonstration of the phonological similarity effect (see page 135), which showed that people often misidentify target letters as another letter than _________ like the target (confusing "F" and "S", for example).

sound

As shown in Figure 7.11, subjects who had focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words than subjects who had focused on meaning (upon being tested through the rhyming task). Thus, subjects who had focused on the word's ___________ during the first part of the experiment did better when the test involved focusing on ___________.

sound; sound

Conrad (1964) flashed a series of target letter on a screen and instructed his subjects to write down the letters in the order they were presented. He found that when subjects made errors, they were most likely to misidentify the target letter as another letter that ________ like the target.

sounded

Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions, with breaks in between, than when it is concentrated in one long session, even if the total study time is the same. This advantage for short study session is called the ____________.

spacing effect

In the YouTube video demonstrating the lack of conscious awareness of one's own cognitive/motor skills, Jason Bourne seemed to be surprised by his ability of _________.

speaking another language doing martial arts

Why are adolescence and young adulthood special times for encoding memories? We will describe three hypotheses, all based on the idea that _____________events are happening during adolescence and young adulthood.

special life

According to the principle of _________________, memory will be better when a person's internal state (mood or awareness) during retrieval matches his or her internal state during encoding.

state-dependent learning

Another example of how matching the conditions at encoding and retrieval can influence memory is ___________________ - learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness.

state-dependent learning

We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval.

state-dependent learning

Current researchers often use both terms, short-term memory and working memory, when referring to the short-duration memory process, but the understanding is that the function of this process, whatever it is called, extends beyond just _________ of information.

storage

Short-term memory is concerned mainly with _________ information for a brief period of time (for example, remembering a phone number), whereas working memory is concerned with the __________ of information.

storing; manipulation

At the trial, Elizabeth Loftus and other cognitive psychologists described research on the misinformation effect and implanting false memories to demonstrate how __________ can create false memory for long ago events that never actually happened.

suggestion

An important feature of the cognitive interview technique is that it decreases the likelihood of any __________ input by the person conducting the interview.

suggestive

Although researchers are still discussing the mechanism of mechanisms that cause the misinformation effect, there is no doubt that the effect is real and that experimenter's _____________can influence subjects' reports in memory experiments.

suggests

____________ consolidation, which takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses. ___________ consolidation, which takes place over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain.

synaptic; systems

Enhanced memory due to retrieval practice is called ___________ effect.

testing effect

Funahashi and colleagues (1989) claimed that some neurons in visual cortex are responsible for short-term memory based on the observation of the neurons are firing the most strongly during _____.

the absence of the visual stimulus

The dramatic cases of patient H.M. and Clive Wearing illustrate that ______ is crucial for the formation of long-term memories.

the hippocampus

The __________ consists of two components; the phonological store, which has a limited capacity and holds information for only a few seconds; and the articulatory rehearsal process, which is responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in the phonological store from decaying.

the phonological loop

Imagine yourself walking from Social Science building to Kennesaw Hall. Your ability to form such a picture in your mind depends on which of the following components of working memory?

the visuospatial sketch pad

The __________ holds visual and spatial information.

the visuospatial sketch pad

Why are subjects more likely to remember words they connect to themselves? One possible explanation is that the words become linked to something the subjects know well _________.

themselves

We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval.

transfer-appropriate processing

Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called _________.

transfer-appropriate processing.

Bower and Winzenz presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, such as boat-tree, to subjects for 5 seconds each. One group was told to silently repeat the pairs as they were presented, and another group was told to form a mental picture in which the two items were interacting.

true

Graf and colleagues picked the 10 words for the likability rating so that they help the word-fragment task.

true

One of the main factors that determines whether you can retrieve information from LTM is the way that information was encoded when you learn it.

true

These results and others indicate that while there can be overlap between activation caused by episodic and semantic memories, there are also major differences.

true

One of the purposes of this chapter and the next is to introduce the different ________ of memory, describing the properties of each _______ and the mechanisms responses for them. What is the common word for both blanks?

types

The visuospatial sketch pad handles visual and spatial information and is therefore involved in the process of __________ - the creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus.

visual imagery

Even though our contact with numbers is often _______, we usually remember them by repeating their _____ over and over rather than by _______ what the numbers looked like on the computer screen.

visual; sound; visualizing

The mental rotation is an example of the operation of the ____________ because it involves visual rotation through space.

visuospatial sketch pad

The link between emotions and the amygdala was also demonstrated by testing a patient, B.P., who suffered damage to his amygdala. ... B.P.'s memory was the same as that of the non-brain damaged subjects for the first part of the story, but it ________ for the emotional part. It appears, therefore, that emotions may trigger mechanisms in the amygdala that help us remember events that are associated with the emotions.

was not

Although there is evidence linking emotion to better memory, there is also evidence that under certain conditions, emotions can impair memory. For example, emotions can sometimes cause a focusing of attention on objects that are particularly important, drawing attention away from other objects and so decreasing memory for those objects (Mather & Sutherland, 2011). An example of this is a phenomenon called __________, the tendency to focus attention on a weapon during the commission of a crime.

weapon focus

In the _______ report method (condition); subjects were asked to report as many letters as possible from the entire 12-letter display.

whole

The ________ effect occurs when memory for lists of words is better for short words than long words.

word length

Baddeley and coworkers (1984) found that repeating "the, the, the ..." not only reduces the ability to remember a list of words, it also eliminates the ________ effect.

word length effect

The fact that STM and the modal model do not consider dynamic processes that unfold over time is what led Baddeley and Hitch to propose that the name ________ memory, rather than _________ memory, be used for short-term memory process.

working; short-term

The expressive writing group took the same pretest and received the same high-pressure instructions, but before taking the posttest were asked to ________ for 10 minutes about their thoughts and feelings regarding the math problems they were about to perform.

write

Subjects in Neisser and Harsch's experiment filled out a questionnaire within a day after the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, and then filled out the same questionnaire 2.5 to 3 ______ later.

years

The idea that the limit of STM is somewhere between five and nine was suggested by George Miller (1956), who summarized the evidence for this limit in his paper ________________.

"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two"

Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns?

"apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, pants, lamp, chair"