Cognitive Psychology - Module 2

prominent feature effect

"A peacock has feathers" is verified as quickly as "A canary can sing" (easily identifiable defining characteristic)

semantic memory

(explicit memory) memory for knowledge about the world (general information)

episodic memory

(explicit memory) memory for one's personal past experiences

schemas and scripts

- both semantic memory - knowledge about what is typical in situation/object or an event/episode - help to fill in the gaps EX: - schemas: typical objects in kitchen - scripts: sequence of events at airport

recall

- direct - explicit - deeper processing the better

Jacoby's study of implicit vs. explicit memory

- direct test (explicit memory) was best in the "generate" category - indirect test (implicit memory) was best in the "no context" category - had both a recognition test and a tachistoscopic test

recognition

- explicit - direct - deeper processing the better

the generation effect

- explicit memory - a phenomenon where information is better remembered if it is generated from one's own mind rather than simply read

direct assessment of memory

- explicit memory - was best demonstrated on generate category - is used in recall and recognition

ZAPS sentence verification experiment

- had to do with the hierarchy network system - was trying determine how quickly the information could be retrieved based on how close it was - results were as predicted, information that was 3 nodes away took more time to answer

word fragment completion

- implicit - indirect - tachistoscopic - works if the word has been presented recently in the past

the propaganda effect

- implicit memory - conceptual priming

the repetition priming effect

- implicit memory - initial presentation to a stimulus affects the same response to stimulus later

indirect assessment of memory

- implicit memory - was best demonstrated on no context group - used in tachistoscopic test

tachistoscopic identification

- indirect - implicit - works best in the "no context" category - helps if the word has been presented in the recent past

ZAPS sensory memory experiment

- sensory memory test - tried to test the Sperling's partial report - tested 9 works for 1/20th of a second Major differences: - visual cue not a sound cue - had to click the response instead of verbally stating the response. - both made response time slower which made the results drastically worse than predicted.

S.F.'s digit span

- used chunking to remember the digits - his short term memory did not expand

korsakoff's syndrome

A clinical syndrome characterized primarily by dense anterograde amnesia. Korsakoff's syndrome is caused by damage to specific brain regions, and it is often precipitated by a form of malnutrition common among long-term alcoholics.

retrieval paths

A connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage.

operation span

A measure of working memory's capacity. This measure turns out to be predictive of performance in many other tasks, presumably because these tasks all rely on working memory. This measure is also the modern replacement for the (less useful) measure obtained from the digit-span task.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

hierarchical network model

A model proposing that items are categorized by using the hierarchical relations specified in a semantic network -linked to associated topics - cognitive economy

the pegword method

A strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers. 1) remember pegwords (bun, shoe, tree, etc) 2) create an image with names and pegwords. By remembering the pegwords and creating images with the need to remember words incorporated allows for better retention.

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less. (echoic or iconic memory)

distributed vs local (descrete) representation

Distributed = concept represented by multiple nodes Local (discrete) = represented by one node

H.M. vs. Clive Wearing

HM: - couldn't remember anything after his surgery, was unable to form new memories - had his hippocampus and the surrounding area removed. still had his semantic, procedural, and short-term memory Wearing: - Had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The only memory function that was impaired in wearing was his episodic memory. Still had semantic, STM/WM, and procedural. - live in the moment

Explain why memorizing involves a contribution from the memorizer, both in terms of what the memorizer does while memorizing, and also in terms of what the memorizer knows prior to the memorizing.

How you encode your information plays a large role in how well you later will be able to retrieve it. The more of a framework you have prior to learning new related material, the more potential retrieval paths you have to create.

In what sense is familiarity more like a conclusion that you draw, rather than a feeling triggered by a stimulus?

It is more like a conclusion that you draw due to the sense of familiarity. Due to the sense of familiarity, you will try to figure out why that stimulus is special to you thus drawing a conclusion about it. (Encountered before, due to this encounter--faster in processing of that stimulus (processing fluency), you detect that fluency registering stimulus as distinctive, you try to figure out why this stimuli seems special, draw a conclusion about where you encountered it)

What type(s) of memory are disrupted in patients suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome?

Korsakoff's syndrome is amnesia due to excessive alcohol drinking. They can remember events prior to brain damage from drinking, but events after are forgotten as soon as they're out of working memory. This is anterograde amnesia, therefore, episodic memory is impaired.

explicit memory

LTM knowledge that can be retrieved and reflected on consciously. requires concentrated effort. (EX: remembering a song name and artist)

implicit memory

LTM knowledge that can influence thought and behavior without conscious awareness. requires little effort, if any.

What does it mean to say, "It doesn't matter if you intend to memorize; all that matters for memory is how exactly you engage the material you remember"?

Memorization is not influenced by the intent to memorize. Deep processing is what solidifies memory, so if you are engaged in the material you encounter you will be just as successful in memorization as if you had the intent to memorize.

What does it mean to say, "The creation of memory connections often occurs at the time of learning, but the main benefit of those connections comes later, at the time of memory retrieval"?

Memory retrieval uses retrieval paths, and with elaborate processing, one makes many retrieval paths.

What evidence suggests that operation span is a better measure of working memory than the more standard digit-span measure?

Operation span requires you to store information while simultaneously working on another task. Those with a higher operation span have a better working memory.

mnemonic techniques

Procedures used to aid memory

What is processing fluency, and how does it influence us?

Processing fluency is the ease with which information is processed, and it influences us due to the degree of easiness. so the easier it is the more likely we are to believe we have a high understanding of the information

How does the rehearsal loop manage to hold on to information with only occasional involvement by the central executive?

The central executive is only needed for complex tasks, while the helpers are in charge of holding on to simple information. Storage is handled by the helpers, while demanding tasks are handled by the central executive.

typicality effect

The finding that the more typical members of a category are classified more quickly than the less typical category members

the modal model of memory

The model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that describes memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, including short-term memory and long-term memory. It is called the modal model because of the great influence it has had on memory research.

the central executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources. (important for thoughts and actions)

visual vs functional semantic systems

Visual: living things are represented more strongly in the visual system than the functional system functional: nonliving things are represented equally between the two semantic memory systems

false fame effect

When an individual remembers the names but cannot recall where they encountered the names, so they conclude that the individuals were famous

sperling's whole-report vs. partial-report techniques

Whole report - people were able to report about 4 items out of 12 letters - recall speed was too slow Partial report - developed to reduce the problem of rapid fading from sensory memory - the capacity of iconic memory is fairly large (possibly unlimited) - duration of sensory memory is severely limited

spreading activation model

a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences - getting away from structured hierarchy - longer ties = less related - shorter ties = more related

"remember/know" distinction

a distinction between two experiences a person can have in recalling a past event. if you "remember" having encountered a stimulus before, then you usually can offer information about that encounter, including when, where, and how it occurred. if you merely "know" that you encountered a stimulus before, then you're likely to have a sense of familiarity with the stimulus but may have no idea when or where it was last encountered.

source memory

a form of memory that enables a person to recollect the episode in which learning took place or the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered

source confusion

a memory error in which one misremembers where a bit of information was learned or where a particular stimulus was last encountered

phonological buffer

a passive storage system used for holding a representation (essentially an "internal echo") of recently heard or self-produced sounds

context reinstatement

a procedure in which a person is led to the same mental and emotional state he or she was in during a previous event; context reinstatement can often promote accurate recollection of that event (similar to state-dependent memory)

concurrent articulation

a requirement that a research participant speak or mime speech while doing some other task. in many cases, the person is required to say "one, two, three, one, two, three". these procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization

chunk

a set of items that become associated and form new unit in memory

the episodic buffer

a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes (involved in chunking)

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

Manipulations known to have selective effects on the primacy effect or the recency effect

affects on primacy: - portraying the words quickly affects on recency: - counting back by 3's after the word demonstration (filled delay) - Serial position recall (not free recall)

chunking

allows you to overcome STM capacity limitations

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories - can't remember new information - typically permanent - 50 first dates

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past - loss of episodic memory - loose more recent memories - the hangover

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

non-declarative memory

cognitive information retrieved from implicit memory, knowledge that canNOT be declared. (classical conditioning, procedural memory, and priming)

baddeley's multicomponent of working memory

consists of: - central executive - visuospatial sketchpad - episodic buffer - phonological loop

category-specific impairments

determining whether a living or nonliving object are done by distinct areas of brain (one for living and one for nonliving); evolutionary basis to distinguish if somethings alive

medial temporal lobe

encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory

multiple semantic memory systems model

has to do with remembering living and nonliving things in the functional system and the visual system

the hippocampus

helps process explicit memories for storage

the visuospatial sketchpad

holds visual and spatial information

pegword method

imagery-based mnemonic device. Good for sequential learning, but requires a little bit of prep work. Works due to rhyming.

warrington & weiskrantz's studying demonstrating impaired vs. spared memory abilities in patients with anterograde amnesia

impaired: - long term memory - episodic memory (cannot remember past memories) spared: - short term memory and working memory (cannot hold a conversation if STM/WM did not work) - procedural memory (can still remember how to do basic tasks and learn how to do new ones)

What is the role of implicit memory in explaining the false fame effect?

implicit memory influences our thoughts, actions, and beliefs without realizing it, therefore seeing the nonfamous person's name multiple times through perceptual priming, will result in us believing that the person is, in fact, a famous person.

subvocalization

is the internal speech typically made when reading; it provides the sound of the word as it is read

semantic priming effect

means that people respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning

acrostic

non-imagery based mnemonic device. (EX: remembering the planets)

What's the evidence that there's a clear linkage between how well you understand material when you first meet it, and how fully you'll recall that information later on?

paragraph read and understood leads to better recall of its contents later.

the principle of cognitive economy

properties stored only at highest possible level (shared characteristics are put at the highest possible level) (EX: animal can breathe)

temporally graded memory loss in retrograde amnesia

someone suffering from retrograde amnesia is more likely to loose their more recent memories than the past memories. They'll be able to remember who they are, where they grew up, and their family, etc, but will find it difficult to remember the events close to the trauma.

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory

intentional learning

the acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later. (often contrasted with incidental learning)

declarative memory

the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared. (episodic and semantic memory)

the phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information (verbal and speech-based information)

long-term memory

the relatively permanent storage of information

working memory capacity

the storage system in which information is held while that information is being worked on. all indications are that working memory is a system, not a single entity, and that information is held there via active processes, not via some sort of passive storage.

the method of loci

use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them 1) memorize a fixed sequence of familiar locations 2) create a series of interactive images

iconic memory

visual sensory memory

What evidence indicates that source memory and familiarity are distinct from each other?

when you smell a specific smell that you recognize, but do not know where from. The recognition of the smell is familiarity, but you do not have source memory because you can't remember where you know it from.