Cold war

Consequence of the US 'defeat' in Vietnam

1. The policy of containment had failed militarily: despite the USA's superior military strength it could not stop the spread of communism. 2. The policy of containment had failed politically: not only had the USA failed to stop Vietnam falling to communism, but their actions in the neighbouring countries of Laos and Cambodia had helped to bring communist governments to power there too. 3. The policy of containment had failed in the propaganda war: having presented the war in Vietnam as a moral crusade against communism, the atrocities committed by the US military in Vietnam in terms of the number of civilian deaths and the use of chemical weapons, had tarnished America's image at home and abroad. 4. The war had cost 58,000 American and 1-4 million Vietnamese lives, affected 700,000 American veterans; cost America over one hundred billion dollars, and damaged reputation and morale at home. 5. After Vietnam, the policy of containment was replaced by a period of détente, a thawing in the tensions of the Cold War and gradually relations between the USA and the USSR/China improved.

Lack of support back home

As the war dragged on more and more Americans began to oppose the war in Vietnam. Many people began to oppose the draft, and public figures, like the boxer Muhammad Ali, risked prison rather than go to Vietnam. In 1970, officers from the National Guard shot at anti-war protestors at Kent State University, killing four students. More people questioned the lengths their government would go to in support of this unpopular war.

Collapse of the communist regimes

Communist regimes in Eastern Europe saw what was going on in the USSR. They were also warned that their communist governments would be no longer supported by the military force from the USSR. The mood changed and led to the collapse in a domino effect.

decolonisation

European´s newly independent colonies became a prime focus of Cold war rivalry. After WW II, British, Dutch and French colonies in SE Asia that had been occupied by the Japanese were determined not to submit to foreign rule again. Decolonization in Africa was a slower process, gaining pace in the late 1950s. Some African countries enjoyed a peaceful transition to independence, but others, especially those with a large community of European settlers, achieved it only after bloody wars. · At the end of WWII there were only 3 independent countries in Africa: Ethiopia, Liberia and Egypt. After the war many African soldiers returned home from fights in Europe where they fought beside Europeans as equal and after returning home all they get was a status of colonized and subject person. This inevitably lead to revolts and uprisings.

Role of the media

Events like the My Lai Massacre were reported in the US press leading many ordinary Americans to question the war. Film footage of US soldiers burning homes and of the effects of napalm all turned public opinion against the war.

Ø The Yalta Conference (February 1945)

Germany was divided into four zones controlled by the USA, France, Britain and the USSR. · Berlin (which was in the Soviet zone) was divided into four zones too. There would be free elections in the countries of Eastern Europe.

The Warsaw Pact

In 1955 the USSR founded its own alliance with the communist countries of Eastern Europe, except Yugoslavia.

Tet Offensive

In 1968, the Vietcong used the cover of the Buddhist New Year (Tet) celebrations to change tactics and launch a massive attack on US-held areas across South Vietnam, including the US Embassy in Saigon. The attack was a success for the Vietcong and although ultimately they were driven back by the US Army, it showed the Americans that despite all the soldiers, bombs, and money spent in Vietnam, they were not making progress against the Vietcong or communism. When President NIXON came to power in 1969, he realized he needed to take a different approach from Johnson to the Vietnam War. President Nixon wanted to finish the war quickly. · Finally, in 1973 peace was signed in Paris and American troops began to pull out of Vietnam. The USA lost the Vietnam War, with 55,000 dead. The last American left Vietnam in 1975. (On the other hand, Vietnamese civilian casualties are estimated to have exceeded two million.) · In 1975 Saigon (the South Vietnamese capital) fell, was renamed to Ho Chi Minh City and the whole Vietnam was united under communism.

The origins of the Cold War

In the Cold War the west stood against the east, capitalism stood against communism. Ø The first problems could be seen even before World War Two and during it: · the Civil War in Russia (1918-1921) · the Katyn Massacre (1940) · USSR did not help the Polish during their uprising in Warsaw (1944) · the USSR was not told that the USA had an atomic bomb until it was used on Hiroshima (1945) World War Two caused a rise of two superpowers - the USA and the USSR

DECOLONISATION

It is the process of disintegration of colonial empires built in 19 th century and the creation of nation states. The biggest colonial powers were GB, FR, Italy, Spain and Portugal. Before WW II 1/5 of the world was under colonial domination. After the world, it all began to change.

Mohandas Gandhi

Occupation: Civil Rights Leader Born: October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India Died: January 30, 1948 in New Delhi, India, Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948. He was shot by a terrorist while attending a prayer meeting. Best known for: Organizing non-violent civil rights protests Mohandas Gandhi is one of the most famous leaders and champions for justice in the world. His principles and firm belief in non-violence have been followed by many other important civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. His renown is such that he is mostly just referred to by the single name "Gandhi". 1930: Gandhi's Salt March · To demonstrate to the world the injustice of British rule, Gandhi and an increasing number of followers marched to the coast to collect salt. The aim was to make Indians and the wider world think about the nature of British rule in India and how it was based on exploitation.

THE COLD WAR

Period of ideological, political, economic and military confrontation between the Communist bloc, dominated by the USSR and China, and the Western free market economy nations bound to US by NATO. Effectively ended by the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991

The Iron Curtain

Political, military and ideological barrier, of the post WWII period, between the Soviet Union and its eastern European allies, and the West and other non- Communistic areas. · It was given its name by Winston Churchill in his speech in 1946.

The Vietnam War

Prior to World War II Vietnam had been a colony of the French. During World War II the Japanese took control of the area. When the war ended there was a power vacuum. Vietnamese revolutionary and communist Ho Chi Minh wanted freedom for the country of Vietnam. However, the Allies all agreed that Vietnam belonged to the French. Eventually Ho Chi Minh and his rebels began to fight the French. Ho's soldiers in the north were called the Viet Minh. Ho tried to get US help, but they didn't want. Ho to succeed as they were worried about communism spreading throughout Southeast Asia. When Ho began to have success against the French, the US became more concerned. In 1950 they began sending aid to the French in Vietnam. · In the 1950s communist rebels led by Ho Chi Minh overthrew the French control of Vietnam. They failed to achieve complete control so Vietnam was divided into the communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam. However, the communist guerrillas (the Vietcong) kept attacking South Vietnam to unite the country under their leadership.

reforms Southern Ossetia and Abkhazia became almost independent regions with the Russian help, Georgians made to leave the areas

Southern Ossetia and Abkhazia became almost independent regions with the Russian help, Georgians made to leave the areas · 2003 Pink Revolution - Shevarnadze forced to resign 2004 Mikhail Saakashvili elected president, building up the presidential power, freedom of press limited, voting committees influenced, Ajaria lost the autonomous status 2006, 2007 mass demonstrations against Saakashvili - 2007 resigned, 2008 elected president again, opposition declared the election results forged · Aug 2008 war with Russia over Southern Ossetia during the Peking Olympic Games · Russia recognized the sovereignty of Southern Ossetia and Abkhazia.

The Korean War 1950-1953

Stalin supported communists in Asia too (China, Indonesia, Burma, Vietnam, Korea). · Korea was divided into two states - North Korea was communist and South Korea was an anti-communist dictatorship supported by the USA. · In 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea. The UNO and the USA sent armies to help South Korea. The American army was led by General MacArthur. The frontline moved back and forth but none of the sides was able to achieve a final victory. · In 1953 an armistice was signed and Korea remained divided along the 38th parallel. The Korean War Veteran's Memorial in Washington, D.C. There are 19 statues of soldiers on patrol.

The Soviet Response:

The Cominform (1947-1956) · It was an organization which united all communist parties under the leadership of the USSR. Comecon (1949-1991) · Council for Mutual Economic Assistance · It was founded to serve as a counterpart to the Marshall Aid. · It united the economies of the communist countries - usually to their disadvantage. Communists took over in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.

Reforms of 1989 The Coup of 1991 and the Disintegration of the USSR

The Coup of 1991 and the Disintegration of the USSR · Gorbachev attempted to keep the union of the USSR - 1990 introduced presidential system of power - ruled as the president, not the chairman of the central party committee · strong anti-Russian tendencies in the Baltic states · 1990 the Communist party gave up its monopoly of power, the first multi-party elections - the nationalists took over power in the Baltic states - declared independence · Russian Federation - Boris Yeltsin elected president (started his political career in the communist party, 1987 Gorbachev threw him out of Politburo) o 1990 demanded the independence of the Russian economy on the USSR = attack on Gorbachev's perestroika o Yeltsin popular, left the communist party, questioned its rule

Disintegration of Yugoslavia

The Troubled Era 1980-1991 · Tito attempted to prevent the rise of nationalism stimulated by growing economic crisis · 1974 new constitution o Yugoslav federation of 6 republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Macedonia) + 2 autonomous regions (Kosovo and Vojvodina) o representatives of all 8 regions in the presidium o The right to leave the federation if others agree · Serbs opposed the arrangements - they consider Kosovo and Vojvodina their integral territories, refused to accept Montenegro as an independent state · 1980 J.B. Tito died · 1986 Serbian Academy of Science demanded reducing the autonomy of Vojvodina and Kosovo as their autonomy hindered the Serbian executive · 1987 Serbs living in Kosovo demonstrated against the Albanian attempts to limit their rights · Slobodan Milošević backed the Serbs in Kosovo - he broke the principle of no support of nationalism, became the head of the Serbian communist party · 1989 Milošević elected president of Serbia - limited the autonomy of Vojvodina and Kosovo, installed his people in the central committee of Montenegro = Serbia in control of 4 seats in the Yugoslav presidium · 1989 - 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo, Milošević called for the centralisation of power, Serbian interest in the other Yugoslav republics · 1990 free elections - nationalist parties won · Dec 1990 plebiscite in Slovenia - 88% in favour of independence · plebiscite in Croatia - Croats in favour of independence but Serbs boycotted the plebiscite

The USA would commit to a policy of 'containment'.

The USSR would attempt to dominate Eastern Europe and spread communism where possible. For the Western Allies the setting up of communist governments in Eastern Europe was a major concern. World War Two had been fought in the name of freedom. Now it seemed that in many countries the hard-won freedom from Nazi dictatorship was being replaced by communist dictatorships.

Vietcong successes Guerrilla warfare

The Vietcong used the cover of the jungle, which they knew well, to their advantage. They fought a hit-and-run guerrilla war against inexperienced American soldiers, many of whom were young conscripts. The threat of an invisible enemy and hidden traps like punji sticks - sharpened sticks of bamboo which were laid in traps - had a demoralising psychological impact on US troops.

space

The space race - The USA and the USSR also competed in the space race - who would orbit the Earth first. The Soviets were more successful. In 1957 they released Sputnik (the first satellite) and sent the first dog Laika to space. In 1961 Soviet Gagarin was the first astronaut in space. (On the other hand, the Americans were the first to land on the Moon - Neil Armstrong in 1969.)

· Year 1960 is called the year of Africa because in this year 13 African countries gained independence and this process continued.

The whole process of decolonization in Africa was much harder and accompanied by wars and military conflicts between conflicts and the origin African inhabitants. Other problem the new countries had to face was the level of development of the whole country. They did not have experiences with leading a country because till those times the important positions in government were held by colonists. That´s why many civil wars and frequent changes of governments and dictatorships followed.

Ø The USSR would join the war against Japan in return for Manchuria and Sakhalin. The Potsdam Conference (July - August 1945)

Trials for war criminals - the Nuremberg Trials · They agreed on the future border between Germany and Poland · But otherwise they mostly disagreed. No trust and many tensions were on the agenda: the USSR wanted a naval base in the Mediterranean · Stalin wanted Germany to pay for the war · Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland while Britain did not want this. · Truman had not told Stalin about the atomic bomb before it was used.

Ho Chi Minh trail

Vietcong guerrillas were kept well supplied by a constant stream of food and arms from the North. These were carried on foot, by bicycle and mule along the Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle trail which wound through the neighbouring countries of Laos and Cambodia and which was bombed by the US Army but never fully disrupted.

the policy of containment

a plan to keep something, such as communism, within its existing geographical boundaries and prevent further aggressive moves. The USA was the only Western ally in a financial position to stop this from happening. In March 1947, President Truman made a speech to the US Congress in which he promised that the USA would provide aid to any country taking a stand against communism. This was developed into the Truman Doctrine. The USA was now fully committed to a policy of containment, or stopping the spread of communism.

during the war

many countries were occupied by Germany and lost their governments. The question now was who would be in charge of these countries. Usually it was the leaders of the local resistance. However, sometimes there was more than one anti-Nazi movement in the country. Usually, one of them was communist, e.g. in France, Greece, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.

reforms · August Coup 1991, hard liners attempted to take over the power - Yanayev, Ligachev

o Gorbachev - home arrest in the Crimea (he was on his holiday there) o hard liners announced that they took over power due to Gorbachev's illness o demonstrations against the coup, hard liners - mainly in Moscow, Yeltsin took the initiative o Yeltsin persuaded the army not to suppress but to join the demonstrations - the famous pictures of Yeltsin on a tank, the demonstration seized the 'White House' (Russian parliament) to prevent the attack on the parliament by the hard liners o the Coup was defeated o Communist party was banned · 1991 independence of the Baltic states accepted · Dec 1991 - plebiscite in the Ukraine - 90% votes for the independence · Dec 1991 Belavezha Accords - the end of USSR and the formation of the CIS (Commonwealth of the Independent States) only Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania did not join the CIS, Georgia 1993-2008

In April 1949 NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

was founded as a military alliance of the western (non-communist) countries.

Mikhail Gorbachev

· After Brezhnev's death in 1982 the USSR was led by two leaders, Andropov and Chernenko in quick succession. Both were very old and lived a short time so they did not influence the international politics very much. · o In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the new party leader. He immediately started reforming the old Soviet system and improving relations with the USA. · The economy of the USSR was in crisis when he became leader (the arms race, Afghanistan, bad economic policy). The economic system guaranteed people a job but did not motivate them. Alcoholism was a big problem too and life expectancy declined. The quality of Soviet products was appalling. · Gorbachev's key ideas were glasnosť (openness) and perestrojka (restructuring). · He called for an open debate on government policy and problems. In 1987 a market economy was introduced. The army budget was reduced. · The new attitude and a new, relaxed policy on Eastern Europe improved Soviet international relations. In 1990 Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Ukraine

· An independent Ukrainian state was established in 1918, but was overrun in the same year by Soviet forces from the east and Polish forces from the west. · In 1991, Ukraine again became an independent state. The country has historically been divided between the nationally conscious and Ukrainian speaking west / including areas which were part of Poland until WW II/ and the east, which has a large ethnic Russian population. · Dec 1, 1991 plebiscite - 90% in favour of independence, Leonid Kravchuk president 1996 · 2004 president Leonid Kuchma, concentrated power in his hands, corruption, fraud, limited the freedom of press · 2004 presidential elections - Victor Yanukovych elected, but the manipulation with votes caused the peaceful Orange Revolution led by Victor Yuschenko, who became president, and Yulia Tymoshenko · the country is divided into the Orange, pro-western regions in the west and blue, pro-Russian areas in the east · 2006 Yanukovych became prime minister · 2006 and 2009 conflicts with Russia over the price of natural gas - Russia stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine leading to gas shortages in many European countries · 2010 presidential election Yanukovych elected president

Congo:

· Belgium colony · 1965- general Mobutu- a leader of army- dictator- changed the name of the country to ZAIRE

Egypt:

· British colony · Led by Colonel Nasser- set up a political party · Suez canal / GB and FR / · 1954 Egypt became independent

Kenya:

· British colony · The Africans led by Jomo Kenyatta /a graduate of London university/ · used violent methods · won election in 1963- became the first prime minister of independent Kenya

reforms Chechnya

· Chechnya and Ingushetia became part of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century 1936 autonomous republic of Chechnya and Ingushetia within the Russian Soviet Republic formed, during the Second World War the territory was for a short period of time occupied by Germany and afterwards the autonomy was removed and most of the inhabitants resettled to the Central Asian regions · 1957 autonomy renewed, the original inhabitants allowed to move back · 1990 Declaration of Independence (president Dzhokhar Dudayev) · 1991 Chechen Republic of Ichkeria declared x Russia refused to give up the area · 1993 Chechen parlament dissolved - the rule by decree of the president (Dudayev) with the help of the militia(Shamil Basayev) · 1994 Russia attempted to regain influence through opposition parties within Chechnya

reasons

· European powers were exhausted after the war and they had enough problems with their own countries. · The change of public opinion into more liberal and democratic · The colonial powers showed different attitude to colonization.

Leonid Illych Brezhnev

· He believed in a hard-line policy and tough approach to the West and any reformist communists in the East. · In 1964 Leonid Brezhnev became the head of the Russian Communist Party (until 1982). His policy was tougher than Khrushchev's. Brezhnev's idea is today called the Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) and it proclaimed the duty of the USSR to protect socialism in other countries. For example, in 1968 armies of the Warsaw Pact invaded Czechoslovakia to end the Prague Spring.

Hungarian revolt of 1956

· However, Khrushchev's policy encouraged radical reformist movements in Eastern Europe. · Hungary was led by hard-line communists. After Khrushchev's speech a group of reformist communists stood up against them. · After a brief rebellion in June 1956 a new government led by Imre Nagy was formed. At first, it seemed Khrushchev would tolerate the Hungarian management of affairs but when Hungary planned to leave the Warsaw Pact and demanded the Soviet troops to be withdrawn from Hungary, he started to act. · In October thousands of Soviet troops and tanks invaded Hungary and entered Budapest. After two weeks of fighting and 30,000 dead Hungarians, Imre Nagy and his government were imprisoned and executed. · As a new leader of Hungary, Khrushchev appointed János Kádár who remained loyal to the Warsaw Pact.

THE EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR Nikita Khrushchev

· In 1953 Joseph Stalin died and was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev who preferred a more tolerant and peaceful line of policy. · In 1956 Khrushchev criticized Stalin at the 20th Communist Party Congress and introduced his programme of de-Stalinization.

vietnam war

· In 1961 American assistance increased from money and technology to military advisors. In 1962 first American troops were sent to Vietnam. · North Vietnam, on the other hand, accepted help from the USSR. The war did not go well for the Americans. Many controversial weapons were used, e.g. napalm or Agent Orange. Moreover, it became very unpopular with American public and many Americans protested (e.g. demonstrations, the Hippie movement, musical Hair). · Ngo Dinh Diem was assassinated in November 1963. South Vietnamese forces overthrew his government the day before he and his brother were captured and killed. This opened the door for the USA to get involved in order to ensure 'stability' and beat back the communist threat. · The USA- 1963: President Johnson / after President Kennedy was assassinated/ Johnson was more in favor of large scale American military involvement in the conflict than Kennedy had been. · an American naval vessel, was attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin, just off the coast of North Vietnam, by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. This provoked President Johnson into retaliating with military attacks in North Vietnam.

wall

· In 1961 the USSR reacted and gave the western powers an ultimatum to withdraw from Germany. They refused, so on 13 August a barbed-wire barrier was put up to separate the West and East Berlin. In less than a week a wall was built. No civilians were allowed to cross it and those who tried were usually shot. (But many people tried anyway.) · In August 1961 a wall was built to divide West and East Berlin. In 1963 John Fitzgerald Kennedy showed his support to the people of West Berlin in his "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech. · The Berlin Wall became a symbol of the division between the West and the East.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1979-1991

· In 1979 the USSR invaded Afghanistan because it wanted to use the political instability to control the area, because it was afraid of the possible spread of Islam from the neighbouring Iran (the Islamic Revolution) and because Afghanistan was very close to the Middle East oil reserves. · The USSR claimed to be invited to restore peace in Afghanistan. The western countries protested, e.g. the USA by boycotting the Olympic Games in Moscow, stopping grain shipments to the USSR and supporting the Afghan guerrilla rebels in their fight against the invasion. · The USSR was not successful in the war and finally in 1991 the Soviet troops left Afghanistan. · The invasion is often nicknamed "the Soviet Vietnam" because the Soviet troops kept being killed by the guerrillas who used the same tactics like the Vietcong in Vietnam and there was also a lot of protest against the war in the USSR.

The Soviet Union - 1991

· In 1989 a new parliament was formed in every republic of the Union. · Gorbachev started losing support in the USSR, opposed by both the democrats and hard-line communists. · To save the Union, in 1990 he established the Presidency and became President of the USSR. · In 1991 the Russian Federation was founded, with Boris Jelcin as President. · In 1991 the conservative communists organized a coup which was crushed. Jelcin won and the Communist Party was banned. · In 1991 the independence of the Baltic republics was recognized. Ukraine declared independence. · In December 1991 the Soviet Union was dissolved.

Romania - 1989

· In December there was a short but bloody revolution which overthrew the dictator Nicolae Ceaucescu. He was executed.

Bulgaria - 1989

· In December there were huge demonstrations against the communist government. o Free elections were promised for 1990

Poland - 1989

· In June there were first free elections since WWII and Solidarity won most of the seats. Lech Walęsa became the first non-communist leader in Eastern Europe.

Hungary - 1989

· In May the Hungarians dismantled the fence between Hungary and Austria. · In December the Communist Party renamed itself to the Socialist Party. · In 1990 free elections were held.

Poland in the 1980s

· In the 1970s Poland suffered a severe economic crisis as a result of the Comecon policy. · In 1980 a free trade union called Solidarity was founded. It was led by Lech Walęsa and it grew very quickly. Solidarity soon threatened to take power from the communist government led by Wojciech Jaruzelski. · Brezhnev ordered Jaruzelski to regain control of the situation and sent the Soviet army to the Polish border. · In December 1981 Walęsa and ten thousand other reformists were arrested and Solidarity was suspended. Walęsa then became a symbol of the Eastern European struggle against communist oppression. In 1983 he even won the Nobel Peace Prize.

McCarthyism

· In the late 1940s and early 1950s the public in the USA felt threatened by the spread of communism. This fear was encouraged by Senator McCarthy. In 1953 Stalin died. The next first man of the USSR became Nikita Khrushchev who was less aggressive and wanted peaceful co-existence with the West. · In 1956 at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party Khrushchev attacked Stalin for being a dictator. · Khrushchev seemed to encourage freedom in the USSR and he was seen positively by the West. This era of the second half of the 1950s is called the Thaw. The world was more optimistic. However, Khrushchev's approach was sometimes misinterpreted, e.g. in Hungary in 1956.

Reforms Nagorno Karabach

· It is a mountainous region between Armenia and Azerbaijan in the Caucuses between Europe and Asia · In the 19 century was ruled by Russian empire · In 1918 the Russian empire fell- new countries Armenia and Azerbaijan fought for a region · Azerbaijan- muslim · Armenia- Christian · 1922 Russian Soviets conquered the entire Caucuses · Azerbaijan and Armenia - " republics" with the Soviet Union · 1923 Nagorno Karabach (originally part of Armenia) became an autonomous region of Azerbaijan · 1988 during the Glasnost / a new policy- gave its people more political freedoms/ Armenians protested against the Azerbaijan control of Nagorno Karabach · 1988 ethnic riots in Azerbaijan, hundreds of dead - the Red Army had to take action to stop it · Jan 1989 Moscow took over the control of Nagorno Karabach · Azerbaijan protested - ethnic fighting between militiamen continues · 1991 dissolution of USSR, independence of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the conflict over Nagorno Karabach went on · May 1991 Azerbaijan army attacked Nagorno Karabach - the war began · Dec 1991 plebiscite in Nagorno Karabach - 99% in favour of independence - the Republic of Nagorno · Karabach declared but no country officially approved of this · 1993 Armenian offensive occupied the territory between Armenia and Karabach · 1994 ceasefire

Ostpolitik

· It was a policy friendly to the East Germany. It was introduced by the West German chancellor Willy Brandt and it relaxed the relations with the communist Germany.

vietnam war

· It was supposed to be reunited under a single election in 1956. However, the United States did not want the country to become communist. They helped Ngo Dinh Diem get elected in the South. · America was operating a policy of containment and feared if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in South East Asia would fall too. This was known as domino theory. Consequently, the USA supported the anti-communist South Vietnamese dictator, Ngo Dinh Diem, who refused to hold elections to unify the country. Many South Vietnamese who supported reunification joined an armed uprising against Diem.

The Baltic republics - 1990

· Latvia was the first to declare independence from the USSR, Estonia and Lithuania followed

East Germany - 1989

· Masses of people refused to return from holiday in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Then through Austria they escaped to West Germany. · In October there were mass demonstrations and the East German leader, Erich Honecker, was advised to reform. He refused and ordered the army to shoot at the demonstrators but they refused. Gorbachev refused to send Berlin Wall, November 1989 Soviet tanks to restore the regime. · In November people marched to the Berlin Wall and dismantled it. The guards did not defend it. · In 1990 Germany was united by the West German chancellor Helmut Kohl.

Harry Truman

· President of the US · He authorized the dropping of the atomic bombs · The Marshall Plan · The Berlin Airlift-1948-1949 · The establishment of NATO- 1949 · The Truman Doctrine - 1947

reforms Georgia

· Situated on the eastern coast of the Black Sea · Is largely mountainous · Is primary agricultural and is famous for its wine · 1864 Georgia annexed by Russia · 1921 occupied by the Red Army, became a part of USSR with autonomous regions of Southern Ossetia, Abkhazia and Ajaria · Was one of the first republics to demand independence from Moscow, but has been plagued over recent years by civil war and ethic disputed in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. · The birthplace of Stalin · 1991 independence - president Zviad Gamsakhurdia(nationalist, demagogue with totalitarian methods) · Dec 1991 Coup - Civil War 1992-1995, 1992 Eduard Shevarnadze joined the coup · 1995 Eduard Shevarnadze president

The major events of the Cold War The Berlin blockade and airlift 1948-1949

· Stalin did not want the new Germany to be strong. But the USA, Britain and France introduced a new currency, the Deutschmark, in their zones. · In June 1948 the Soviet army surrounded West Berlin and cut it off from the rest of Germany. The blockade of Berlin started. The plan was to starve the city and make the western powers back out. · the solution was to airlift supplies to Berlin. The airlift started in June 1948 and lasted until May 1949 (318 days). During that time 1.5 million tons of supplies were transported to Berlin. · In May 1949 the Russians had to lift the blockade because it turned out to be pointless. · As a consequence, in 1949 the western Federal Republic of Germany (BRD) and eastern German Democratic Republic were founded by the opposing sides.

The 1970s - the Détente

· The 1970s were the era of improving and relaxing relations between the superpowers. · In 1972 the USA and the USSR signed the SALT treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) which limited the number of nuclear warheads. It was followed by SALT II in 1979. · Also, in the 1960s both superpowers were rivals in the space race, while in 1975 the American and Russian spacecrafts Apollo and Soyuz docked together which was a visible sign of détente. · In 1975 thirty-five countries (including the USA and the USSR) met at the Helsinki Conference.

vietnam war

· The USA's tactics under President Johnson · American tactics in Vietnam can be summed up by the acronym BEAST. Why US tactics failed in the Vietnam War Failures for the USA Failure of Operation Rolling Thunder The bombing campaign failed because the bombs often fell into empty jungle, missing their targets. The North Vietnamese guerrillas knew the jungle and made use of elaborate underground bases and tunnels to shelter from US bombs, and often re-used unexploded American bombs against US soldiers. Failure of Search and Destroy (My Lai Massacre) Search and Destroy missions were often based on poor military intelligence. The brutal tactics used by US troops often drove more Vietnamese civilians to support the Vietcong. In 1968 US soldiers, searching for Vietcong guerrillas, raided the village of My Lai, killing around 300 civilians, including children. The My Lai Massacre severely damaged America's reputation and undermined support for the war at home.

· Prime minister of India from 1947- 1967- J NEHRU

· The independence of India and Pakistan was an example for other nations. Next decolonized countries were Sri Lanka / Ceylon/ and Burma /Myanmar/. · In 1971 East Pakistan, with Indian support, broke away to become the independence country of Bangladesh. In 1949 the conference in Haag decided that the Dutch had to leave Indonesia. In 1954 former French Indochina gained independence creating: Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The conference in Bandung, 1955 It was the conference of 29 African and Asian countries. They condemned colonialism and emphasized the need of economic development and cooperation. In addition to that they proclaimed no participation in any world block.

Algerian War of Independence:

· The war waged by the well organized FLN / National Liberation Front/ lasted from 1954 to 1962 · France sent some 500 000 troops to keep Algeria French, the army even erected a barbed- wire fence along the border with Tunisia keep out FLN fighters based there · In 1958 the French government fell and De Gaulle was elected in the expectation that he would find a way of defeating the FLN. · However, realizing that the war was unwinnable, he order a referendum in which Algeria voted for full independence from France.

1962 - the Cuban Missile Crisis

· This crisis was caused by bad relations with Cuba - communist Cuba was governed by the dictator Fidel Castro who had friendly relations with the USSR. The USA wanted to crush his regime. In 1961 Cuban emigration forces trained and equipped by Americans landed in the Bay of Pigs and wanted to overthrow Castro by force but they were defeated. Cuba became worried and more dependent on the USSR. · Khrushchev used this situation to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba. In October 1962 these missiles were identified by a US spy plane. The closeness of Cuba to US soil made the USA suddenly vulnerable to a possible nuclear attack (two thirds of US soils were now within the range). US President John Fitzgerald Kennedy informed the public about the threat. The USA started a blockade of Cuba and threatened to invade Cuba if the missiles were not removed. The next ten days were very tense. The world was on the verge of a nuclear war. Finally, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba. The crisis was over. · The USA clearly won this war of nerves. However, it was the most serious conflict between the USA and the USSR in the Cold War. · One of the results of the crisis was "the hot line" - a direct telephone link which was set up between the Kremlin and the White House so now the heads of state could communicate directly and avoid future misunderstandings.

Marshall Aid - 1947

· Truman believed that poverty provided a chance for communism so he wanted to make Europe prosperous again. · US Secretary of State George Marshall designed a plan to help the economies to recover. Within four years 13 billion dollars were sent to Europe. However, only sixteen countries accepted. · Eastern European countries (e.g. Czechoslovakia) declined the offer because it was forbidden by Stalin.

1961 - the Berlin Wall

· West Germany became richer than East Germany very quickly because it was supported by the USA and because it had accepted Marshall Aid. West Berlin, in the middle of East Germany, worked like a showcase to the people of East Berlin who tried to escape to the West in high numbers. Many of these people were highly educated (scientists, teachers, engineers, etc.). The Soviets were also afraid that West Berlin served as a "listening post" for spying on East Germany.

Finally India and Pakistan gained their independence in 1947. The former British colony divided into 2 parts:

· hindu part- India · muslim part- Pakistan · However, it was followed by the greatest forced migration in history together with many military conflicts, because muslims living in India were offended by hindus and had to move to Pakistan, and vice versa.

decolonisation

Ø GB- resigned to the loss of its colonies and decided to support political, economic and cultural cooperation within British Commonwealth Ø France- and the Netherlands wanted to keep the colonies. Their attitudes caused serious military conflicts in the colonies.

conference

Ø The western powers recognized the frontiers of Eastern Europe and the Soviet influence there. Ø The USSR agreed to buy grain from the USA and export oil to the West. Ø The USSR agreed to allow more freedom and human rights inspections in their country. Ø West Germany finally recognized East Germany. Ø All countries agreed to improve human rights in the world.