com 100

co-rumination

-"over-communication" -Co-rumination occurs when we talk—again—and again—and again—with others about a problem in our lives. -It has been linked to negative outcomes such as depression, anxiety, binge eating, binge drinking, and self-harm -Why is co-rumination unhealthy? During co-rumination, participants' communication focuses on the issue and its negative effects rather than on solutions. Repeatedly discussing how bad something is and how horrible one feels about it does nothing to change the problem or to change how the person feels about it.

content meaning denotative vs connotative

-Content meaning includes denotative and connotative meaning. Denotative meaning is the concrete meaning of the message, such as the definition you would find in a dictionary. Connotative meaning describes the meanings suggested by or associated with the message and the emotions triggered by it. For example, denotatively the word mother refers to one's female parent, whereas connotatively it may include meanings such as warmth, nurturance, and intimacy.

steps for critical thinking:

-Critical thinking requires that one become a critic of one's own thoughts and behavior. That is, rather than responding automatically or superficially, critical thinkers reflect on their own and others' communication, behavior, and ideas before responding 1. Identify the assertion or action. 2. Ask, "what is the evidence for and against the assertion or action?" 3. Ask, "what does the bulk of evidence point to?" 4. Ask, "what other explanations or conclusions are possible?" 5. Continue to keep an open mind for new evidence and new ways of evaluating the assertion.

perception is composed of three processes:

-selection: The process of choosing which sensory information to focus on. -organization: The process by which one recognizes what sensory input represents. -interpretation: The act of assigning meaning to sensory information.

1.1

-talking is not equivalent to communicating -communication is not common sense

advantages of studying human communication?

-Individuals use communication to meet people, to develop professional and personal relationships, and to terminate dissatisfying ones. - communication helps create both our self-identities and our identities as others perceive them.

label

-goes hand in hand with categorization -A name assigned to a category based on one's perception of the category. -jock, sorority girl, nerd, etc.

5 principles of interpersonal communication

1. connects us to others 2. irreversible 3. complicated 4. governed by rules 5. involves content and relationship dimensions

attributional bias

A cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. -we are more likely to attribute our own negative behavior to external causes and our positive actions to internal states

national identity

A person's citizenship.

regulatory

A second (and closely related) language function is regulatory, meaning that we can use it to control or regulate the behaviors of others. In your invitation, you may ask your friends to bring a bottle of wine or a dessert to the party, as a way of regulating their behavior.

identity is both fixed and dynamic

A second important aspect of identity is that it is both fixed and dynamic. -ex: For instance, a person may be born male, but as he grows from an infant to a boy to a teenager to a young man to a middle-aged man and then to an old man, the meanings of his male identity change. He is still a male and still identifies as a male, but what it means to be male alters as he ages, and social expectations change regarding what a boy or a man should be

over attribution

A third type of attribution error people engage in is called overattribution. Over-attribution occurs when you select one or two obvious characteristics (such as an individual's sex, ethnicity, or age) and use them to explain almost anything that person does. If your professor forgets a meeting with you and you attribute it to the fact that he is an "absent-minded professor," you likely are engaging in overattribution.

script

An interpersonal script is a relatively fixed sequence of events expected to occur; it functions as a guide or template for how to act in particular situations. We develop scripts for activities we engage in frequently. Most people have a script for how to meet a new person.

inform

Another basic function of language is to inform—to communicate information or report facts. When you invite your friends to the party, you usually include the date and time to inform them of when you want them to come.

categorization

Another type of cognitive process we use to organize information is categorization. Categorization is inherent to all languages. The linguistic symbols (or words) we use represent the groupings we see around us. Because it is impossible to remember everything, we use groupings that represent larger categories of information or objects ex) restaurants

religious identity

Aspect of identity defined by one's spiritual beliefs.

frame

Assumptions and attitudes that we use to filter perceptions to create meaning. -Similarly, if your friend frames the world as a place full of rude people, he may interpret your failure to say hello as a deliberate snub, whereas if his view is that people are nice, he may interpret your behavior as a failure to see him.

constructs

Categories people develop to help them organize information.

prototypes

Communication behavior is strongly influenced by idealized maps called prototypes. A prototype is the most representative example of a person or concept. For example, many people's prototypical idea of a professor is a person who is male, has white hair (and perhaps a beard), and wears a tweed jacket with leather patches.

communication competence -appropriateness and effectiveness

Communication competence is composed of two elements: appropriateness, which is defined as following the relevant rules, norms, and expectations for specific relationships and situations; and effectiveness, which involves achieving one's goals successfully. Speakers are competent when they understand the expectations regarding their behavior and are able to behave in a way that fulfills those expectations. For example, a best man offering a wedding toast is expected to be amusing, complimentary, and brief (as well as sober!).

communication ethics

Communication ethics describes the standards of right and wrong that one applies to messages that are sent and received. When you hear the term communication ethics, you might think we are simply referring to whether messages are truthful. Although truthfulness is one of the most fundamental ethical standards, communicating ethically requires much more than simply being truthful. It also involves deciding what information can and should be disclosed or withheld, and assessing the benefit or harm associated with specific messages. Individuals have a responsibility to evaluate the ethics of their own and others' communication efforts.

selective attention

Consciously or unconsciously attending to just a narrow range of the full array of sensory information available. (selection)

culture

Culture refers to the learned patterns of perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people. Culture is dynamic and heterogeneous (Martin & Nakayama, 2005), meaning that it changes over time and that despite commonalities, members of cultural groups do not all think and behave alike.

participants

During communication, participants—two or more people—interact. The number of participants, as well as their characteristics, will influence how the interaction unfolds. Typically, the more characteristics participants share (cultural, values, history), the easier they will find it to communicate, because they can rely on their common assumptions about the world.

specific context

Each communication interaction occurs in a specific context. Context includes the setting, or aspects of the physical environment, in which an interaction occurs. It also includes which and how many participants are present, as well as the specific occasion during which the interaction unfolds (for example, a Sunday dinner or a birthday party). Context can exert a strong influence on how people communicate with one another. For example, you could argue with your close friend in private when just the two of you are present, during a social event when you are part of a group, during a staff meeting at work, on a television talk show about feuding friends, or on the sidewalk at campus.

prejudice

Experiencing aversive or negative feelings toward a group as a whole or toward an individual because she or he belongs to a group.

attribution theory

Explanation of the processes we use to judge our own and others' behavior. -When individuals observe others, they immediately draw conclusions that go beyond mere sensory information. When someone cuts you off in traffic, what conclusion do you usually draw? What attribution would you make if you called your romantic partner at 3 a.m. and he or she wasn't home? Although we're constantly being told we shouldn't judge others, attribution theory says we can't help it

gender identity

Gender identity refers to how and to what extent one identifies with the social construction of masculinity and femininity. Gender roles and expectations have changed enormously over the centuries, and cultural groups around the world differ in their gender expectations.

3 goals of speakers:

Generally, speakers have three types of goals that are important during an interaction: content, relationship, and identity. Content goals describe the concrete outcomes you would like to achieve during an interaction—to receive a job offer, earn a high grade on a speech, or to successfully initiate a new relationship. Relationship goals refer to your desire to change or maintain your relationship with another, for example, when you say "I love you" to your romantic partner in hopes of increasing your commitment to one another, or when you apologize so your romantic partner won't leave you. Finally, identity goals describe how we would like others to see us or help us see ourselves. When complaining about a grade, for instance, you likely want your grade changed (a content goal) but you probably also want your instructor to see you as deserving the higher grade (an identity goal).

disability identity

Identification with physical or mental impairment that substantially impact everyday life.

imaginative

Imaginative language is used to express oneself artistically or creatively, as in drama, poetry, or stories. Thus, if your e-vite says "Screw cake, let's drink!" or "Let Them Eat Cake," you would be using the imaginative function of language.

linear model of communication

In this model, communication occurred when a sender encoded a message (put ideas into words and symbols) that was sent to a receiver who decoded (interpreted) it. Then, the process was believed to reverse: The receiver became the sender, and the sender became the receiver (Laswell, 1948). This model (see Figure 1.1) also included the components of "noise" and "channel."

self-presentation

Influencing others' impressions by creating an image that is consistent with one's personal identity.

Noise

Noise refers to any stimulus that can interfere with, or degrade, the quality of a message. Noise includes external signals of all kinds: not only loud music and voices, but also distracting clothing or hairstyles, uncomfortably warm or chilly temperatures, and so on. Noise can also come from internal stimuli, such as hunger or sleepiness. Semantic interference, which occurs when speakers use words you do not know or use a familiar word in an unfamiliar way, is another form of noise.

social comparisons

Not only do we see ourselves as possessing specific characteristics, we also evaluate how desirable those characteristics are. As we discussed, the generalized other becomes the basis for our understanding of which characteristics are valued. For example, Amish children learn through their interactions with family, friends, the church, and their community that aggression is a negative trait that one should minimize or eliminate. In contrast, in gangs, aggression is valued and encouraged, and community members learn this as well

multiracial identity

One who self-identifies as having more than one racial identity.

self-esteem

Part of one's self-concept; arises out of how one perceives and interprets reflected appraisals and social comparisons. - if a student with high self-esteem fails an exam, he may attribute the failure to external factors (e.g., the test was unfair) rather than to himself. On the other hand, a person with low self-esteem may see negative reflected appraisals where none exist and may consistently compare herself to unrealistic reference groups. In addition, this person is more likely to attribute a failure to the self (I'm not smart enough) than to external factors.

enacting identities

Performing scripts deemed proper for particular identities.

personal language

Personal language expresses individuality and personality and is more common in private than in public settings. When you invite your friends to the party, you might jokingly add a private message to one, "Don't bring a cheap bottle of wine, like you did last time." In this way, you use language to express your sense of humor.

components of language

Phonology - what do the words sound like Syntax - how are the words arranged Pragmatics - What is really going on here for the people involved? What are the implications of these words for their everyday lives? Semantics - What do the words mean?

phonology

Phonology is the study of the sounds that compose individual languages and how those sounds communicate meaning. Basic sound units are called phonemes. They include vowels, consonants, and diphthongs

value-expressive function

Prejudice serves its value-expressive function by allowing people to view their own values, norms, and cultural practices as appropriate and correct. By devaluing other groups' behavior and beliefs, people maintain a solid sense that they are right. Unfortunately, this same function causes group members to denigrate the cultural practices of others. You may have seen many examples of the value-expressive function of prejudice, as when individuals engage in uncivil arguments and personal attacks over issues such as men's and women's roles, abortion, and politics.

primary vs secondary identities

Primary identities are those that have the most consistent and enduring impact on our lives, such as race, gender, and nationality. Secondary identities, such as college major, occupation, and marital status, are more fluid and more dependent on situation.

stereotype threat

Process in which reminding individuals of stereotypical expectations regarding important identities can impact their performance. -For example, stereotypes exist that Asian students excel at math, that African American students are less verbally competent than white students, and that females are worse at math and spatial reasoning than males. Studies have shown that even subtly or implicitly reminding individuals of these stereotypical expectations can impact their performance

Racial Identity

Racial identity, the identification with a particular racial group, develops as a result of societal forces—because society defines what a race is and what it is called. This means that racial categories are not necessarily the same from country to country.

decoding

Receiving a message and interpreting its meaning

Relationship meaning

Relationship meaning describes what the message conveys about the relationship between the parties (Robinson-Smith, 2004; Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967). For example, if a colleague at work told you to "run some copies of this report," you might become irritated, but you probably wouldn't mind if your boss told you to do the same thing. In both cases the relationship message may be understood as "I have the right to tell you what to do," which is appropriate if it comes from your supervisor—but not if it comes from a peer.

schemas

Schemas are cognitive structures that help us organize information. These structures are composed of preconceived ideas and frameworks representing an aspect of the world. People have more complex schema for topics they know a lot about. Schemas are important because they influence both what we pay attention to and how well we retain and integrate new knowledge. That is, we are more likely to notice things that fit into our schema. In addition, we tend to reinterpret contradictions to the schema by viewing them as exceptions or by distorting the contradictions so they fit the schema. For instance, if you are afraid of dogs, you probably have developed a schema that positions them as dangerous, unpredictable, and perhaps repellent.

components of language:

Scholars describe language use as being made up of four components: phonology (sounds), syntax (structure or rules), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (use).

Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning, which is an important component of communication. To illustrate the effect of syntax compared with the effect of meaning, Noam Chomsky (1957), an important scholar in the field of linguistics, devised this famous sentence: "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" (p. 15). This sentence is acceptable in terms of English grammar, but on the semantic level it is nonsensical

setting

Setting includes the location where the communication occurs, environmental conditions, time of day or day of the week, and the proximity of the communicators. Together these factors create the physical setting, which affects communication interaction.

sexual identity

Sexual identity refers to which of the various categories of sexuality one identifies with. Because our culture is dynamic, it has no set number of sexual identity categories, but perhaps the most prominent are heterosexual, gay or lesbian, and bisexual.

social class identity

Social class identity refers to an informal ranking of people in a culture based on their income, occupation, education, dwelling, child-rearing habits, and other factors. Examples of social classes in this country include working class, middle class, upper-middle class, and upper class.

social roles

Social role refers to the specific position or positions that an individual holds in a society. Social roles include job positions, familial roles (such as mother or father), and positions in society. For example, Teri holds a variety of roles, including mother, religious leader, soccer coach, and community activist. The fact that she holds these social roles affects how people perceive and communicate with her in several ways.

transgender

Someone whose gender identity does not match their biological sex.

gender fluid

Someone whose gender identity is not fixed, but is dynamic and changes in different contexts, at different times.

cisgender

Someone whose gender identity matches their biological sex.

stereotyping

Stereotyping occurs when schemas overgeneralize attributes of a group to which others belong. A stereotype is an assumption that every member of the group possesses certain characteristics. For example, you may assume that most females enjoy talking about fashion trends, so, you initiate a conversation with an unfamiliar woman by discussing Vogue.

synergetic model

The Synergetic Model is a transactional model that, like most previous models, depicts communication as occurring when two or more people create meaning as they respond to each other and their environment. In addition, it is based on a belief in the important roles of individual and societal forces, contexts, and culture in the communication process. We call the model synergetic because synergy describes when two or more elements work together to achieve something either one couldn't have achieved on its own.

relativism

The belief that moral behavior varies among individuals, groups, and cultures and across situations.

absolutism

The belief that there is a single correct moral standard that holds for everyone, everywhere, every time.

generalized other

The collection of roles, rules, norms, beliefs, and attitudes endorsed by the community in which a person lives.

cognitive complexity

The degree to which a person's constructs are detailed, involved, or numerous. - If you enjoy music, you likely have a wide range of constructs regarding types of music, such as rap, hip-hop, alternative, progressive, and neocountry, and these are constructs that others may not possess at all. This high number of constructs affects your perceptions of music. As you listen, you can distinguish between multiple forms of music, and you recognize when an artist is employing a specific form or fusing two or more.

ego-defensive function

The ego-defensive function of prejudice describes the role it plays in protecting individuals' sense of self-worth. For example, an individual who is not financially successful and whose group members tend not to be financially successful may attribute blame to other groups for hoarding resources and preventing him or her from becoming successful. The less financially successful individual may also look down on groups that are even less financially successful as a way to protect his or her own ego. These attitudes may make people feel better, but they also prevent them from analyzing reasons for their own failure.

role expectations

The expectation that one will perform in a particular way because of the social role occupied.

reflected appraisals

The idea that people's self-images arise primarily from the ways that others view them and from the many messages they have received from others about who they are.

looking-glass self

The idea that self-image results from the images others reflect back to an individual.

particular others

The important people in an individual's life whose opinions and behavior influence the various aspects of identity.

instrumental

The most basic function of language is instrumental. This means we can use it to obtain what we need or desire. For instance, when you send an e-vite to your friends to a party to celebrate a birthday, the invitation is instrumental in that you want your friends to come to the party and the invitation helps make that happen.

performance of identity

The process or means by which we show the world who we think we are.

Seven basic components of communication

The seven basic components of communication to consider in planning an interaction are message creation, meaning creation, setting, participants, channels, noise, and feedback.

grammar

The structural rules that govern the generation of meaning in a language.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to attribute others' negative behavior to internal causes and their positive behaviors to external causes.

primacy effect

The tendency to form a judgment or opinion based on the first information received

recency effect

The tendency to form a judgment or opinion on the most recent information received.

self-serving bias

The tendency to give one's self more credit than is due when good things happen and to accept too little responsibility for those things that go wrong.

ethnocentrism

The tendency to view one's own group as the standard against which all other groups are judged.

cognitive representation

The term cognitive representation describes the human ability to form mental models, or cognitive maps, of the world we live in. We create these maps and then refer to them later when circumstances call for them. For example, people know that a fire alarm communicates danger; furthermore, they know how to respond to a fire alarm because they have a cognitive map for alarms. (organization) -Three specific types of cognitive representations, or maps, that individuals use to organize their perceptions about people and communication are schemas, prototypes, and interpersonal scripts.

self concept

The understanding of one's unique characteristics as well as the similarities to, and differences from, others.

communication is transactional

To say that communication is a transaction captures the fact that (1) each participant is a sender and receiver at the same time, (2) meaning is created as people communicate together, (3) communication is an ongoing process, and (4) previous communication events and relationships influence its meaning

self-respect

Treating others, and expecting to be treated, with respect and dignity.

heuristic

We also use language to acquire knowledge and understanding, which is referred to as a heuristic use. When you want to invite friends, you may ask them to respond to indicate if they are available at that date and time to learn if your party is going to occur as scheduled or if you need to make some changes.

self-fulfilling prophecy

When an individual expects something to occur, the expectation increases the likelihood that it will, as the expectation influences behavior.

interactional

When language is used in an interactional fashion, it establishes and defines social relationships in both interpersonal and group settings. Thus, when you invite your friends to a celebration, you engage in a behavior that helps maintain your relationship with them as friends.

identity

Who a person is; composed of individual and social categories a person identifies with, as well as the categories that others identify with that person.

what is human communication?

a transactional process in which people generate meaning through the exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages in specific contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture.

Who captures your focus depends on:

aspects of your identity (e.g., if you are Native American, you may find your attention drawn more to participants who also are Native American) features of the person (e.g., someone dressed differently from everyone else will likely attract your attention) your goals (e.g., if you would like to meet a potential romantic partner, you may pay special attention to attractive men or women in your age range)

Channel

for a message to be transmitted from one participant to another, it must travel through a channel. A channel is the means through which a message is conveyed. Historically, the channels people used to communicate with one another were first face to face, then written. Today, thanks to technology, we have many more communication channels—email, texting, social networks such as Facebook and Twitter, and Facetime

ethnic identity

identification with a particular group with which one shares some or all of these characteristics: national or tribal affiliation, religious beliefs, language, and/or cultural and traditional origins and background.

field of experience

individual forces include your field of experience, such as your education and experiences.

physical cognitive interpretation

physical: Differences in: Visual acuity Sense of taste Sense of smell Hearing acuity Touch sensitivity cognitive: Complexity of constructs based on: Interests Intellectual ability Experiences interpretation: Elements: Emotional state Outlook Knowledge

symbol

something that represents something else and conveys meaning

mutable

subject to change

perception

the act of organizing and interpreting information that we obtain through our senses -select -- organize -- interpret perception and identity are strongly intertwined -perception: A sense-making procedure in which we attempt to understand our environment so we can respond to it appropriately.

discrimination sex vs gender

the act of treating someone unfairly based on their group membership sex: biological term to define male/ female gender: socially constructed term reinforced characteristics for masculinity, feminity, androgyny

messages

the building blocks of communication

cohort effect

the process by which historical events influence the perceptions of people who grew up in a given generation and time period.

encoding

the process of taking ideas and converting them into messages

age identity

your age identity is a combination of how you feel about your age as well as what others understand that age to mean. How old is "old"? How young is "young"? Have you noticed how your own notions of age have changed over the years? When you were in first grade, did high school students seem old to you? Although age is a relative term, so are the categories we use for age groups. Today, for example, we use the terms teenager, senior citizen, adult, and minor, but these terms have meaning only within our social and legal system.