COM 377 Exam 3

Situational leadership

"It depends" on the situation Contingency Theory pick the right leader for the situation

Lack of personal accomplishment

2nd dimension Refers to workers who see themselves as failures, used up, or unable to face another day on the job

Depersonalization

3rd dimension Relevant only to workers who must communicate interpersonally with others (clients, patients, students) as part of the jobs

Uncertainty about change

A reaction to organizational change that can cause heightened anxiety on the part of workers during times of change Best to deal with this uncertainty through communication and the provision of information

Framing

A way of managing meaning in which one or more aspects of the subject at hand are selected or highlighted over other aspects Easy to frame as disaster or act of God

Effects of conflict in organizations

Negative/destructive of: trust, future interactions, relationships, and organizations Positive/constructive of: trust, future interactions, relationships, and organizations Depending on how conflicts manifest and are responded to

Material change

Alter organization operations, practices, relationships, decision-making, etc. (new technology, different reporting structure, new instructions) Often take a physical form and/or are more explicit in purpose

Arguments for a multicultural on the basis that this model offers bottom-line benefits to the company

Business case for diversity (random)

A strategy for dealing with workplace stress that involves changing the ways one thinks about stressful situations

Appraisal-centered coping (emotion processes)

Emotional labor

Arlie Hochschild used the term to refer to jobs in which workers are expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational role expectations

Mediation

Attempts to help the parties facilitate the dispute but holds no decision power Want to work together to develop a viable solution vs an arbitrator which makes decisions based on the proposals and arguments of parties involved in the conflict

The approach that emphasizes efficiency and rationality

Classical approach (approaches)

Detached concern

Concern for clients can be maintained independent of strong emotional involvement

In conflict resolution, these third parties have legal authority to make binding decisions

Conflict arbitrators (conflict)

Manifest conflict

Conflict is enacted through communication. Interaction might involve cycles of escalation and de-escalation as various strategies are used

Management support of change

Critical Senior management has the most impact on change so when they are seen as not backing the change, it is unlikely that a change effort will be successful

The approach that focuses on how power and authority manifest and function in organizations

Critical approach (approaches)

Postcrisis phase (coping)

Determining responsibility, communicating with a wide range of stakeholders, perhaps apologizing, and establishing systems for coping with similar crises in the future

Crisis phase (trigger)

During this period there is a trigger that threatens an organization's survival or reputation where there is a great deal of uncertainty and people inside and outside the organization are trying to make sense of what is happening Communication during the crisis stage shifts to processes of crisis containment such as mitigating damage and dealing with immediate issues of information dissemination

A way of managing meaning in which one or more aspects of the subject at hand are selected or highlighted over other aspects

Framing (random)

Exemplification

Gardner argues that central to transformational leadership is the concept of exemplification where leaders who want to instill that ideals of hard work and ethical behavior would do so by exemplifying those ideals in their own behaviors "do as I say AND as I do"

Three I's of Conflict

General characteristics of conflict: Incompatible goals - organizational conflict lies in the perception of incompatibility regarding a variety of organizational issues Interdependence - incompatibility exists harmoniously until interdependencies develop between disagreeing parties Interaction - conflict involves the expression of incompatibility, not the mere existence of incompatibility Defined by Putnam and Poole as "the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals" (all three can occur simultaneously)

Integrative bargaining

Goal: maximize joint gains Issues: variable-sum issues shaped by overlapping positions Outcomes: creative solutions not attributable to specific concessions Communication: open sharing of information; accurate disclosure of needs and objectives

Distributive bargaining

Goals: maximize individual gains and minimize losses Issues: fixed-sum issues with limited resources Outcomes: compromises, trade-offs, and win-lose results Communication: information-seeking, withholding data, and deception in disclosures

A character trait or skill that equips individuals with an understanding and ability to make appropriate emotional displays

Emotional intelligence (random)

Jobs in which workers are expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational role expectations

Emotional labor (emotion processes)

Feeling genuine emotions on the job

Emotional work (emotion processes)

Compassionate communication

Emotionally communicating in a wide range of human service occupations in ways that involve processes of noticing [need for compassion], connecting (establishing empathetic bond), and responding [with verbal/nonverbal behaviors] to troubled clients

Transformative leadership

Emphasize communication and relationships, which can transform the leader and follower

Stressors

Environmental factors that are difficult for an individual to deal with: workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, life events, home/work conflicts

Phase of conflict in which parties begin to personalize perceived conflict by focusing on the conflict issue and planning conflict management strategies

Felt conflict (conflict)

This approach to diversity focuses on numbers and quotas and on legally mandated requirements for gender and ethnic diversity

First-generation affirmative action (diversity processes)

The three conflict frames

Identity frames: how stakeholders describe their own roles in the conflict Characterization frames: how disputants describe other stakeholders Management frames: how disputants discuss ways the conflict has been managed in the past or might be managed in the future

Competition

Interorganizational conflict involves disputes between two or more organizations, often times involving competition in the marketplace

Levels of organizational conflict

Interpersonal level - individual members of the organization perceive goal incompatibility Intergroup conflict - aggregates of people within an organization (work teams, departments) as parties in conflict Interorganizational conflict - disputes between two or more organizations (can involve competition in the workplace)

Schemata

Kuhn and Corman argue that organizational members have schemata, or knowledge structures, that define individual and collective beliefs about how organizations work and how change happens In organizational change processes, the schemata may be either confirmed or disrupted, leading to tensions in the change process that must be effectively managed by change agents, often through developing a sense of connection between organizational members and the change process

In this phase of conflict, parties are interacting in interdependent relationships in which incompatible goals are possible

Latent conflict (conflict)

Discursive leadership

Leadership perspective that considers the ways in which leadership is socially constructed through interactions among organizational actors Fairhurst sees leadership as "exercised when ideas expressed in talk and action are recognized by others as capable of progressing tasks or problems which are important to them" - leadership is accomplished through interaction with others, is a process of meaning management, and is grounded in accomplishment of tasks

Bounded emotionality

Looking at emotional life as a central focus of organizational research and considering the ways in which paying attention to emotion might lead to new ways of understanding the workplace

Emotion at work

Looking less at emotions required by the job and more at emotions that emerge from relationships in the workplace Showing compassion in workplace relationships and can be nurtured through effective leadership

Conflict in work groups/teams

Members have different info/expertise and are expected to express differing views Members must cooperate toward team goals and solve problems jointly Disagreement is common on best way to complete tasks, or criteria for optimal solution *Conflict management strategies are essential

Framing tools

Metaphors - show a subject's likeness with something else Catchphrases - frame a subject in familiar terms Contrast - describes a subject in terms of its opposite Spin - frames a subject in a positive or negative light Stories - frame a subject by example

Conflict as gendered practice

Models that emphasize competition and exchange constitute a gendered practice Putnam and Kolb argue negotiation "is gendered in that qualities of effective bargainers (individuality and independence, competition, objectivity, analytic rationality, instrumentality, reasoning from universal principles, and strategic thinking) are masculine. Those attributes typically labeled as feminine (community, subjectivity, intuition, emotionality, expressiveness, reasoning from particulars, and ad hoc thinking) are less valued"

An organization marked by the full structural integration of women and people of color

Multicultural organization (diversity processes)

Contingency theory

a leadership theory that states that in order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the situation that best fits their leadership style

Burnout

Strain that results from ongoing stressors: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, decreased personal accomplishment Maslach and her colleagues see burning out as consisting of three interrelated dimensions: 1. Emotional exhaustion 2. Lack of personal accomplishment 3. Depersonalization Has been associated with outcomes including coronary heart disease and high blood pressure

Leadership models that suggest that particular kinds of behavior are more or less effective for leadership

Style theories of leadership (change and leadership)

The approach that sees organizations as a complex assemblage of interdependent units

System approach (approaches)

Latent conflict

The first phase of organizational conflict Involves a situation in which the conditions are ripe for conflict because interdependence and possible incompatibility exists between the parties

Critiques of conflict management styles approach

The individual is the only consideration Two-dimensional model is insufficient Limits communication to verbal exchanges Organization viewed as context not center stage nor influencing

Conflict aftermath

The last phase of organizational conflict Emphasizes that conflicts can have both short-term and long-term consequences

Felt conflict

The third phase of organizational conflict The parties begin to formulate strategies about how to deal with the conflict and consider outcomes that would and would not be acceptable

Conflict frames

The way an individual frames a conflict will influence the manner in which the conflict is managed Involves perception of self, others, or the conflict itself Individuals can frame the situation in terms of what they have to lose or in terms of what they have to gain

Emotional intelligence

There are people who are naturally better at understanding and managing the emotional content of workplace relationships and that emotional intelligence is also a skill that can be developed through training Involves both a clear understanding of emotional needs of the situation and the self-awareness and self-control necessary for using the right emotional display to cope with the situation

Theories of leadership that suggest that leaders are 'born not made'

Trait theories of leadership (change and leadership)

A model of leadership in which an ideal leadership process involves a relationship between leaders and followers that helps followers reach their full potential and has the potential to transform both the leader and the follower

Transformational leadership model (change and leadership)

Deep acting

Trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display rules (imagining airplane as living room) Consciously imagining customers' feelings as well as expressing sympathy

Avoidance

Not talking about a problem because you know the issue will not be easy to resolve

Resistance to change

Often related to political behavior in organizations because there are often many who have a great deal to win or lose in a change initiative (teachers may have a great deal invested in their tried and true system, because of this investment and belief in existing methods, teachers might be highly resistant to change efforts)

Emotional contagion

One of the two kinds of empathy An affective response in which an observer experiences emotions parallel to those of another person (funeral director who feels sad)

Empathetic concern

One of the two kinds of empathy An affective response in which an observer has a nonparallel emotional response (counselor dealing with hysterical client might feel concerned but not share the client's hysteria)

Theories that consider 'natural' ways in which organizations and groups of organizations change with the ebb and flow of institutional life and industrial history

Organizational life cycles (random)

Emotional work

When workers feel genuine emotions on the job and express those emotions in interactions Involves healthcare, education, and Human Resources professionals - not just those in front line service jobs

Style theories

leaders have particular behavioral styles that make them more or less effective leaders Their concern for production vs their concern for people Suggests one leader will be effective across all situations and all followers, this is not effective Blake and Mouton's Leadership Grid

Factors influencing conflict

Personal (especially framing) Relational or positional power Cultural: organization nation

Accommodation

Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

In intractable conflicts, these are often polarized or stereotyped perceptions of the other party

Characterization frames (conflict)

Precrisis phase (threat)

Combs divides the precrises stage into three subprocesses: signal detection, prevention, and crisis preparation

The approach that focuses on how meaning and values are negotiated through interaction and communication

Constitutive approach (approaches)

Theories of leadership that suggest that an appropriate leadership style should match the situation

Contingency theory of leadership (change and leadership)

Observable behavior based on biased views of members of a cultural group

Discrimination (diversity processes)

Trait theories

Early thinking that leaders are born, not made Propose there are particular qualities that will tend to be associated with leaders and that will result in success in leadership activities Leadership resides in the individual

Perceived rules that govern emotional life in an organization (express emotions in a professional way)

Emotion display rules (emotion processes)

Emotion rules

Guidelines that determine how emotion can be expressed in the workplace Express in a professional way Express to improve situations Express to the right people Express to help individuals Do not manage emotions for personal benefit or to the detriment of others The expression of certain emotions is ALWAYS inappropriate

Surface acting

Hiding one's inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules (as simple as smiling)

The approach that tries to utilize all employee's cognitive abilities

Human relations approach (approaches)

A change management in which management listens to and identifies key concerns of employees and then responds to those issues as they are brought up

Identify and reply (change and leadership)

Collaboration

Individuals work together when dealing with superiors, thus conflict management style depends largely on the hierarchical relationship between the conflict parties

The provision of facts and advice that helps an individual cope with stress or burnout

Informational support (emotion processes)

A kind of bargaining in which conflicting parties are trying to maximize gains for both parties

Integrative bargaining (conflict)

Appraisal-centered coping

Involves changing the way one thinks about the stressful situation (convincing himself he needs to work harder to advance and short-term sacrifices are necessary) One of the ways people can cope with burnout

Problem-centered coping

Involves dealing directly with the causes of burnout (talk to supervisor about work reduction) One of the ways people can cope with burnout

Emotion-centered coping

Involves dealing with the negative affective outcomes of burnout (could use relaxation techniques) One of the ways people can cope with burnout

Emotional support

Involves letting another person know that they are loved and cared for. Might involve a message that boosts another's self-esteem or a message that indicates unconditional regard, or emotional support might involve the provision of a shoulder to cry on or a friend to gripe on One of the ways people can cope with communicative coping

Discursive change

Involves relabeling organization practices and characteristics (workers are "team members") Carry symbolic value Often attempts to alter organizational culture Affects individual's understanding

Informational support

Involves the provision of facts and advice to help an individual cope. Several types of informational support could be helpful in the workplace. First, information might serve to decrease job-related stressors such as role conflict and workload (clarifying a job description or providing strategies for time management). Second, informational support might provide suggestions for dealing with the strain of burnout (suggesting a good health club for exercise)

Transformational leadership model

Makes a distinction between transactional leadership in which there is an exchange of some sort between leaders and followers and transformational leaders who, through communication, create a relationship that helps followers reach their full potential, transforming the leader and the follower

Compromise

Making both sides happy through completing certain things on their end to come to a mutual agreement or understanding

Planned organizational change

Many choices must be made about communication during the change process, intentions can be different from perception, there can be unanticipated outcomes, and you never know what will change Must choose communication media and whom to communicate with (most frequently with individuals inside or close to organization) Spray and pray - managers shower employees with information (least effective) Tell and sell - management selects a limited set of messages and they "tell" the employees about these issues and "sells" them on the wisdom of the chosen approach (moderately effective) Underscore and explore - allows employees creative freedom to explore various possibilities (most effective) Identify and reply - management listens to/identifies key concerns of employees and responds to those issues as they are brought up (moderately effective) Withhold and uphold - management withholds information as much as possible (least effective)

Organizational crisis

Potentially dangerous or threatening circumstances that also provide opportunity to both address the crisis at hand and reshape perceptions through communication Unpredictable but create opportunities to communicate in effective ways with stakeholders and to better prepare the organization for similar events in the future (dangerous opportunity)

Organizational life cycle

Progression through which organizations evolve as they grow and mature It is the evolution of organizational populations that consider the "natural" ways in which organizations and groups of organizations change with the ebb (outgoing phase) and flow (incoming phase) of institutional life and industry history

A broad category of barriers to advancement due to limited informal communication networks and mentoring relationships, or due to tokenism

Relational barriers (diversity processes)

Transactional leadership

Relationship in which there is an exchange between leaders and followers

Workplace bullying

Repetitive, targeted, and destructive form of communication directed by more powerful members at work at those who are less powerful "persistent, verbal, and nonverbal aggression at work that includes personal attacks, social ostracism, and a multitude of other painful messages and hostile interactions" Reported by 90% adults in the workplace

A case for supporting diversity in the workplace on the basis that it will allow the organization to draw from a better pool of talent

Resource-acquisition argument (diversity processes)

A change management style in which management showers employees with all kinds of information in the hope that employees will be able to sort out significant and insignificant information

Spray and pray (not effective) (change and leadership)

Emotional exhaustion

The core of the burnout phenomenon - 1st dimension Workers suffer from emotional exhaustion when they feel fatigued, frustrated, used up, or unable to face another day on the job

Perceived conflict

The second phase of organizational conflict Occurs when one or more of the parties believes that incompatibility and interdependence exists (possible to have latent conflict without perceived conflict and vise versa)

Ownership tension in change

The successful implementation of change efforts is contingent on ownership of the problem and ownership of the change process by those in critical positions in the organization (government forcing change in reading techniques must be backed by principals to be successful)

Dissent

When an employee has a disagreement with the organization or supervisor and chooses to voice that disagreement through dissent Dissent means to hold opinions at variance with those previously, commonly, or officially held Need to express ideas to someone who can make a difference, the importance of package dissent with a solution, and the persuasiveness of direct factual appeals in dissent situations