Com Midterm

triangle of meaning

1 helps us to understand the symbolic and arbi- trary nature of words by demonstrating the words have a triangle of meaning. The symbol is the word (lower left- hand corner). The top of the triangle is the thought—the meaning you give the word. The lower right-hand corner is the referent—or the actual thing itself

Three benefits of communication

Pesonal-. Effective communication can help us develop more meaningful relationships. Improving communication skills will help us to become more confident in expressing our ideas and justifying our point of view. Professional- you will better understand how to tailor messages to specific audiences, build persuasive arguments, organize and support your ideas, You will need communication skills to create a positive first impression during a job interview. social-You will learn how to influence people—to persuade them to your point of view. You will also become a critical consumer of the information you receive from a variety of sources, including politicians, journalists, and advertisers. You will be able to distinguish a strong claim from a weak one and make decisions in your and your community's best interest.

The three models of communication

actional model- That is, a speaker sends a message to a listener who receives the message. This model views communication as something a speaker does to a listener. It also suggests that communication has a begin- ning and an ending. While we agree that communication is often much more complex than this, there are times when the actional model best describes the communication event. For example, as you drive down the highway, you see the "Golden Arches." This symbol (placed there by someone who wants to communicate with you) represents something you are quite familiar with and tells you that a McDonald's restaurant is nearby. Do you take the exit or continue driving? The sender of that message may never know. Interactional model- considers the role of feedback in the communi- cation process.6 Feedback occurs when the listener responds to the speaker's message. In this model, however, the message goes back and forth between the speaker and listener. In other words, they take turns sending and receiving messages (See Figure 1.2). There are times when this model describes the communication event, but the exchange is limited. In this case, you and your friend are taking turns playing phone tag. Your friend calls you back only to leave a message on your machine. You retrieve the message, and communication has taken place. Much like playing tennis, communication goes back and forth between sender and receiver. While you and your friend are taking turns communicating, there is a delay in feedback. Transactional model- considers the simultaneous sending and receiving of messages that occur in context.7 In this model, feedback is constantly being shared verbally and nonverbally between both people involved in the encounter. There is no one speaker or listener, but transactions that take place between people. This model also takes into account the context of the situation and the relationship between individuals (See Figure 1.3). This model best represents all the elements of the communication process we described earlier (people, message, channel, interference, feedback, and context).

the elements of verbal delievery

articulation-are parts of your physical anatomy that allow you to form your words. pronunciation-is how a word is said and stressed. volume-The loudness or softness with which you speak should be varied to sound conversational. In natural conversation, no one ever talks with the same amount of volume at all times. People tend to get louder when they want to stress a point or softer when they want to show effect. rate- You will also want to vary the speed with which you speak. This might include some well- planned pauses for emphasis or effect. We have all heard speakers who, once in front of an audience, start talking like a speeding bullet. This, too, can be distracting. However, it is important to know that sometimes when you are nervous, you tend to speak quickly. You should look to your audience for clues to whether this is happening. pause- can be used to emphasize a point, collect your thoughts, or transition to a new point. The use of pauses can also demonstrate poise and confidence, which will enhance your credibility with your audience. vocal variety-The way that you vary the last four vocal qualities (volume, rate, pauses, and pitch) will enhance your overall vocal variety. Vocal variety allows speakers to become more conversational and expressive. In other words, vocal variety will provide evidence of your communication compe- tence.

proper outline format

attention getter- An attention getter is a strong opening statement that uses a creative device to capture your audience's attention and moti- vate them to listen. relevance statement-. Your topic may be of general importance, but how does it relate specifically to your audience or classmates? credibility statement-. Now tell your audience why you are qualified to speak on this topic by providing a credibility statement. For example, our tornado speaker grew up in the heart of Tornado Alley, our Colosseum speaker is a history major, and our blues speaker is a dedicated fan. thesis- which is a major part of your introduction, in Chapter 5. Recall that the thesis statement is the framework for the body of your presentation. It reveals the purpose, topic, direction, and main points of your presenta- tion. In doing so, it provides the audience with a preview of what's to come. preview statement- provides a little more detail about each of the main claims before you delve into them. This further allows your audience to anticipate the direction of your speech.

beliefs/values

beliefs-are statements that your audience holds to be true values-are the extent to which audience members attach importance or worth to those beliefs.

captive/voluntary audinences

captive audience-is one that is required to attend a presentation and may not have an inherent reason for listening to a speech. voluntary audience-, on the other hand, attends a presentation with a interest in doing so. W

organizational patterns

chronological-your main points will follow a time sequence. This pattern is appropriate if you want to inform your audience about a series of events as they occurred. spatical- arranges ideas according to place or position. For example, you would use the spatial pattern for an informative speech demonstrating the location of various parts on a guitar (e.g., head- stock, fretboard, bridge, pickups, etc.). This pattern is especially useful if your topic is geographic or involves the discussion of multiple physical spaces. topical-organizes your speech by breaking your overall topic into smaller subtopics. If you choose the topical pattern, each main idea you identify in writing and researching your speech becomes a main point of the speech. In other words, each main point is a subtopic of a larger topic. casual- highlight the cause-effect relationships that exist among the main points. In this format, one of the main points is devoted to establishing causes, and the other main point describes the effects.

the different types of communication apprehension

communication app-"an individual's fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with others." trait-like- they may be born with an enduring personality trait that causes them to be apprehensive. In other words, they may have a genetic predisposition for feeling anxious when communicating. Perhaps one of their parents or grandparents passed along this trait. situation-based- occurs when we are anxious temporarily due to the event. For example, if you are called to deliver the eulogy at a funeral for a dear friend, your grief may intensify your apprehension. Or, you could be anxious during a job interview because you want or need the job. In this class, you may be uneasy because you are being evaluated on your speeches. audience based- on the other hand, occurs when we are anxious because of who we will be communicating with. You may be more anxious talking to adults than children. Or, you may be uneasy in front of people you don't know. You may be anxious to speak in front of teachers because of their supervisory role, or you may tend to be more anxious to speak in front of your peers and classmates. context-based- causes us to be anxious in certain settings, such as one-on-one, groups, meetings, or public speaking. In these cases, we are socialized into thinking we are supposed to be apprehensive. In other words, we are not born with commu- nication anxieties. Rather, we are taught to be apprehensive. Perhaps you have known and admired someone (a teacher or friend) who was apprehensive about public speaking, and you have learned to model that apprehensive behavior. skills deficit- But perhaps the source of the communication apprehension is not because we were born with it or because we learned it. Maybe we are fearful of public speaking because we simply do not know how to do it effectively. That is, we lack the skills and therefore the confidence to be a good public speaker.

critical thinking

critical thinking is characterized by the ability to defer judgment until you have enough information on which to act. Thinking critically means that you don't eagerly accept everything you are presented, yet you don't reject everything out of hand. It is a wait-and-see attitude. It involves a tolerance for ambiguity. It is a curiosity that drives you to seek high-quality information and recognize it when you find it.

The difference between ethics and ethical communication

ethics-helps to explain a great deal about how we make the choices we make and why we behave as we do. We often make choices based on what we "ought" to do as opposed to what we "want to do" in certain situations. To understand why we behave as we do, it is necessary for us to learn about ethics. Ethics asks what is right or wrong, good or bad, and what stan- dards and rules should guide our behavior. ethical communication- results when we apply ethical standards to the messages we produce and consume. The question becomes, what standards do we use to make decisions about our messages?

external/internal interference

external- can be static or noise that distracts the speaker or listener from the message, such as loud music, traffic, people laughing or talking, or a bad connection on your telephone or email server. A room that is too drab, hot, or cold can cause interference in communication internal-e also affects our ability to listen or communicate. These can cause speakers and listeners to lack concentration and may include personal concerns, physical ailments, stress, or conflict. Have you ever found it difficult to listen to a lecture in one class because you were getting ready to take a test in your next class? Maybe you were up late studying and found it difficult to stay awake. Or, when giving a speech, perhaps your appre- hension (internal interference) causes you to shake or stammer. These mannerisms, in turn, become external interference for your audience.

the elements of non-verbal delievery

eye contact- communicates to your audience that you are credible and that you care about how they are receiving your message;5 however, this can vary from culture to culture.6 In the United States, we value when someone looks at us while they speak. In fact, we may tend to disbelieve someone who cannot look us in the eye. In some Asian cultures, however, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect in interpersonal contexts. However, in the public speaking context, eye contact establishes the connection between the speaker and the audience. facial expressions-As you look into the faces of your audience using eye contact, they are looking right back at you. As they watch you present your message, they are looking at your face to determine whether what you say is consistent with how you say it. If you say you are excited about your topic, does your face agree? If your topic is serious, does your face indicate this? posture-you can indicate your speaker credibility and confidence in your message. Let's first discuss posture. In the chapter on communication apprehension, we discussed several strategies you could use to relax your body through tension and release exercises. These techniques will allow you to walk to the front of the room more relaxed and appear more confident. Once you get to the front of the room, you will want to stand with your weight distributed evenly on both legs and with your feet approximately shoulder-width apart. This will keep you from swaying back and forth. As a speaker, you do not want your audience wishing they had taken their Dramamine before your speech! Indeed, swaying because one leg gets tired can become quite annoying and certainly detracts from the content of your message. Also, begin your presentation with your arms resting comfortably at your side. This may indicate to your audience that you are relaxed and ready to present, which will certainly affect their perceptions of your credibility. movement- should be meaningful and well-planned. Again, your audience may be wishing they had taken that Dramamine if you move aimlessly about the room. Rather, use movement for emphasis or to show transition. If you are using a presentation aid, you will want to plan where you will be before, during, and after your demonstration of the aid. This is a very natural place in the presentation for movement.

general/specific purpose

general purpose-contain the overall intent of the message. specific purpose-should focus on one aspect of the topic.

the different types of delievery

impromptu-happens when you are called to talk "off the cuff." That is, you have little or no time to prepare your remarks. This happens daily. You may be asked to explain your actions, provide directions, defend an idea, participate in class discussions, or simply converse with a friend or classmate. You do not always plan what you say, but you may think of ways that you can best convey your message. For example, in a class discussion, as you listen to your classmates provide contributions, you can begin to formulate your own. You can identify a key point you'd like to make as well as decide how you will begin and end your comment. manuscript-For example, if you are giving a television or radio address, you will need to give a clear and concise message in a short amount of time. Television newscasters speak from manuscripts through a teleprompter and do not have much leeway to stray from the script. This planning ahead is because they have strict time limitations and are skilled in the practice of making the news sound conversational. memorized- might be a good strategy during special occasions, such as introducing other speakers or making a toast at a wedding. Sometimes, speakers will memorize the attention getter and conclusion of their presentation to make sure they have a strong opening and memorable close. Additionally, certain quotes may need to be memorized to ensure the accuracy of the citation. extemporaneous- allows you to gauge your audience's reactions (feedback) and adapt your message accordingly. For example, if you say a term and you notice that a member of the class looks confused, this may indicate to you that you need to define or more carefully explain that term. If you see someone in the back of the room struggling to hear you, you know that you need to adjust the volume of your presentation.

different types of speeches

informative-you the speaker serve the role of teacher. It is your responsibility to present information that contributes something of significance to the body of knowledge of your audience. In other words, teach them about some object, person, event, process, or concept that they would not know otherwise. persuasive-the speaker serves as an advocate. You choose a topic that is controversial in some way and attempt to influence your audience's attitudes, beliefs, or actions about the issue. Some of the categories of topics we discussed earlier, such as current events, social issues, local issues, or beliefs, are particularly suited to persuasive speaking. entertainment- are designed to make an important point in a creative or humorous way. In general, it's a good idea to begin the process of creating a speech to entertain by thinking of the serious message you want to communicate and then finding humorous ways to make your points. Keep in mind that your speech should have an identifiable thesis statement, main points, and supporting material. However, these elements will be presented in a much more subtle manner than in a formal informative or persuasive speech. If you are thinking about ways to interject humor throughout your presentation, pay attention to the culture, values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience. After all, these elements often determine whether your audience will deem your use of humor effective or offensive. commemorative-are typically presented as part of celebrations of anniversaries, national holidays, or important dates and are accompanied by tributes to the person or persons involved. For example, a speech given to commemorate the anniversary of the attacks of September 11, 2001, may overview the significance of the events that happened on that day and pay tribute to those who lost their lives in their attempts to save others. are usually formal presentations, so your language use should be expressive, elegant, and eloquent.

Effects of Communication Apprehension

internal effects- stem from psychological issues that may become physical. If you suffer psychological discomfort while you anticipate a speaking situation, this internal state may lead to physical symptoms such as sweaty palms, shaky hands, and butterflies. It's easy to identify these physical effects, but the psychological effects may cause more than just physical symptoms. You may completely forget your presentation or even convince yourself that you are physically ill and cannot possibly show up for your presentation. external effects- stem from behavioral issues, such as avoid- ance or disfluency. First, the speaker may avoid communication altogether. If you were not required to take this course, would you? How long would you put it off—until your senior year? Were you previously enrolled in a communication course but withdrew prior to your first presentation? Or, do you avoid social situations because you are uncomfortable commu- nicating with people you don't know very well?

transitional devices

internal previews-is a very brief statement of what the speaker will discuss next. While the preview statement in the introduction serves to outline the main points of the speech, an internal preview highlights ideas to be discussed within the body of the speech. Consider this example. The two causes of communication apprehension that I will discuss are heredity and skills deficit. This preview clearly establishes what the audience should be listening for in this main point. Internal previews should be brief and to the point so they draw the attention of the audience to your main points without interrupting the flow of the speech. internal summaries- offers a review of what has just been discussed before moving on to the next point. Internal summaries are especially useful if you have just finished a complicated point. Instead of immediately moving from difficult material to the next point, you may choose to provide a quick summary of the key points just discussed. Consider this example. So, as we have seen, both heredity and a lack of training in speaking may contribute to public speaking apprehension. Internal summaries help the audience remember key points in your speech and signal that you are moving on to another point. Like internal previews, internal summaries should be brief statements that highlight the main points just discussed. signposts-signal the next point to be made. In a sense, signposts provide an oral road map of the main points in the speech. Signposts are often numerical.

audience analysis

is the process by which we gather and analyze information about our listeners and adapt our messages to their knowledge, interests, attitudes, and beliefs.

six parts of communication

people-It is important to understand that the speaker and listener involved in the communication event each bring to the encounter their experiences, goals, values, attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge, which affect everything they say and interpret in the event. message-Communication also involves messages, which can be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal messages include the words we use in the encounter. This is what we say. As we construct our verbal messages, we make choices about the words we use. Obviously, we want our words to be appropriate, clear, descriptive, powerful, and accurate. The goal is to construct a message in such a way that the listener understands and interprets our intended meaning. Given what we know about differing frames of reference, this can sometimes be challenging. In public speaking, there are strict time limits on the message. Thus, speakers must plan carefully the words and details of the presentation. channel- We communicate through channels, and those channels can affect the message. We may speak to one another face-to-face or communicate through some medium, such as a telephone (voice or text message), computer (email, instant message, website), or video. By the time you read this book, there may be even more channels to consider. interference- Communication is not always easy and is sometimes affected by interference. Interference is anything that gets in the way of shared meaning between the speaker and listener. Interference can be either external or internal. feedback- is very important to the communication process and involves both the speaker and the listener simultaneously. As the speaker sends the message, the listener is responding either verbally or nonverbally. As we send messages, we look to see whether our listeners understand or agree with us. Our listeners may ask questions for clarification, nod their heads in agreement, or express disagreement in their facial expressions. This feedback tells us what we should say or do next. Feedback also tells us whether our listeners received the message we intended. An unexpected response from a listener (a raised eyebrow, a frown, a confused look) can tell us that perhaps we should rephrase what we said. context- The time of day, location, or social situation all provide context to the communication encounter. For example, if you enroll in an 8:00 a.m. The time of day, location, or social situation all provide context to the communication encounter. For example, if you enroll in an 8:00 a.m.