COM101 Exam 2 Study Guide

Sentence

A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and a predicate and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses

Clause

A word group (or group of related words) with at least BOTH a subject and a verb -other characteristics distinguish types of clauses from each other

Types of subordinate clauses (by function):

Adverb clauses •Modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs •Begin with subordinating conjunctions (adverbs) •Answer adverb questions (How? When? Where? Under what conditions? Why? How often? etc.) Adjective (or relative) clauses •Modify nouns and (occasionally) pronouns •Begin with relative pronouns or relative adverbs Noun clauses •Function as nouns within a sentence

"Lonely verb" fragments

After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the back patio. *And let the raccoons, opossums, and armadillos that visit the yard eat the leftovers.*

Noun Phrase Examples

Amy bought *a house with no roof*. -A house with no roof = Direct Object The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo -girl = noun -with the dragon tattoo = modifier A house with no roof -house = noun -with no roof = modifier Amy bought a new home, *a house with no roof*, on Euclid Avenue -a house with no roof = appositive

Appositive fragments

When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car. *A red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror.*

Main (independent) clauses

-subject + verb = complete thought Ex: "Clean dorm rooms smell good" Dorm rooms = Subject Smell = Verb •My cat eats rats. Cat = Subject Eats = Verb •Every sentence must have at least one main or independent clause.

Sentence fragment

-Fails to be a sentence because it cannot stand by itself -it does not contain even one independent clause

Imperative

Conveys a command

Interrogative

Conveys a question

Declarative

Conveys a statement

Exclamatory

Conveys an exclamation

Suspensive Hyphenation

When two or more hyphenated terms share a word or words, the shared word or words do not need to be repeated. Ex: -Hoffman's is a local family-owned and -operated business. -He is a Grammy- and Academy-award-winning composer. -She began doing better in her courses in her mid- to late-freshman year. When two or more non-hyphenated ("closed") compound terms share a second part, that part can be dropped and replaced with a hyphen. Ex: Both land- and householders are invited to the meeting to discuss new water lines.

Fused Sentence

a sentence that has no punctuation at all separating one independent clause from another. Ex: For our annual picnic, Rupert and Gertrude brought potato salad we brought hamburgers. This cup has a leak in the bottom my coffee is seeping out onto my desk. Earl and I listened to the mp3 produced by the new group neither of us was impressed. I can't find Daisy's cell phone number I can't get a message to her. -Like comma splices, fused sentences are often created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems, especially if they occur within complicated sentences. -Like comma splices, fused sentences are easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence. They can be fixed by ... -Inserting a semicolon. Ex: For our annual picnic, Rupert and Gertrude brought potato salad; we brought hamburgers. -Inserting a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Ex: This cup has a leak in the bottom, and my coffee is seeping out onto my desk. -Creating separate sentences. Ex: Earl and I listened to the mp3 produced by the new group. Neither of us was impressed.

Expletive Constructions

are fillers; they add nothing to the sense of what is being said -in English, they begin with the word "it" (the expletive), followed by "is" Exs: It is a fact that it rains here more during the summer than during any other season. It is probably true that COM 101 is the most difficult course a freshman will take. It isn't easy being green. It is always the case that a watched pot will eventually boil. -the "it is" construction does appear in some idiomatic expressions that make sense (where "it" clearly serves as a personal pronoun) It is: used when identifying a person: Ex: It's (the child is) a boy! It is: used in statements about time, distance, or weather Ex: It is (the time is) four o'clock It is (the location is) about four miles from here It is (the current weather is) raining Expletive constructions should be deleted, especially in your writing! It is a fact that it rains here more during the summer than during any other season. -Better: It rains here more during the summer than during any other season. It is probably true that COM 101 is the most difficult course a freshman will take. -Better: COM 101 is probably the most difficult course a freshman with take. It isn't easy being green. -Better: Being green isn't easy. It is always the case that a watched pot will eventually boil. -Better: A watched pot will always eventually boil.

Em Dashes

are used most commonly to replace the usage of parentheses within sentences. -If the information being set off is in the middle of the sentence, a pair of em dashes is used. Ex: On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm—the oldest dairy farm in town—and watch the cows being fed. -If the information being set off is at the end of the sentence, just one em dash is used. Ex: The stores were filled with holiday shoppers—even more so than last year. generally signify that the words they set off are: -less integral to the sentence than words set off by commas; -more integral to the sentence than words set off by parentheses; but -of equal importance to the sentence as other words not set off. Em dashes may be used when a change of structure or thought occurs in the midst of a sentence. Ex: I was about to leave when—and you won't believe what she said. -Add one space before and after em dashes in AP style.

Causative Verbs

four sets of verbs are often confused... -lie and lay -fall and fell -sit and set -rise and raise the second word in each set is a causative form of the first Intransitive: lie - to recline fall - to move downward sit - to assume a position in which one's weight is supported by one's buttocks rise - to go upward Transitive: lay - to cause to recline fell - to cause to fall set - to cause to sit raise - to cause to rise

Periods

has two basic functions: 1. used to mark the end of a sentence Ex: The puppy whimpered in the bathroom. 2. used at the end of an abbreviation Ex: On Fri., September 12, Dr. Brophy noted that the patient's weight was 168 lbs. and that his height was 6 ft. 2 in. -note that no additional period is added to the end of a sentence when the last word is an abbreviation -not used in acronyms and trademarks Ex: IBM, NASA, SUNY

Apostrophes

has two basic functions: 1. It is used to show where a letter or letters are missing in a contraction. Ex: We've [we have] decided that if she can't [cannot] go, then we aren't [are not] going either. 2. It is used to show possession. -The possessive of a singular noun or an irregular plural noun is created by adding an apostrophe and an "s." Exs: the horse's mouth the men's department -The possessive of a regular plural noun is created by just an apostrophe. Exs: the horses' mouths the pilots' uniforms -The possessive of a proper noun ending in "s" is sometimes created by an apostrophe and an "s" and sometimes by just an apostrophe. -The choice for spoken English is made upon considerations of convenience and sound. Check your style book for written English! Exs: Moses' [not Moses's] (Spoken) Ellis's [not Ellis']; (Written—AP Stylebook) Ellis' -Apostrophes are NOT used to form plurals. -Numbers: In the decade of the 1950s, few women worked full-time outside the home. -Capital letters ("book" style): As, Bs, Cs -Plural capital letters and abbreviations: The ABCs of engineering, VIPs -But there are exceptions to the rule! -The apostrophe is used to for plurals of lower-case letters: p's, q's -The apostrophe is used to form plurals of single capital letters (only in "news" [AP] style): A's, B's, C's -Note: The use of the apostrophe in forming plurals of single lower-case letters is to avoid confusion between some letters and words (a's, i's, u's). -The apostrophe is used with all single letters in AP style for consistency of appearance.

to lie

intransitive verb meanings include: -be or stay at rest -assume horizontal position -remain inactive (lie in wait) -have sexual intercourse (lie with) Present: lie, (he/she/it) lies Past: lay Present Perfect: have lain, (he/she/it) has lain Past Perfect: had (same as present perfect) Present Progressive: I am lying Past Progressive: I was lying

to lie

intransitive verb meanings include: -make an untrue statement w/ intent to deceive -create false or misleading impression transitive verb (debated - possible phrasal verb) meanings include: -get one's way in or out of a situation by tellings lies ("lie one's way out") Present: lie, (he/she/it) lies Past: lied Present Perfect: have lied, (he/she/it) has lied Past Perfect: had (same as present perfect) Present Progressive: I am lying Past Progressive: I was lying

Present Tense

the present tense is used to make: 1. Statements of fact Ex: Syracuse is in the Eastern Time Zone. 2. Generalizations Ex: To study the textbook is a waste of time -the present tense may also be used in fiction and some nonfiction to express the "historical present" Ex: This grasshopper walks into a bar and he asks for a drink, and the bartender says, "Say, we have a drink named after you." And the grasshopper asks, "Why would you have a drink named 'Bob'?"

Brackets

-allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations. They can be used for the following purposes: -They can be used for clarification if the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear. Ex: In his memoirs, the author reveals, "The year we moved into the house [1985] was a difficult one for us, both emotionally and financially." The media mogul was overheard saying, "I would never do a deal with [Acme Corporation's CEO,] Wile E. Coyote." -When used in this way, the bracketed information should be an addition, not a substitution. -In many cases, brackets can be avoided by reframing the quotation. -Awkward: "Why can't we do the same thing [provide government-funded grants to independent filmmakers] in this country?" Christina Black asks. -Recast: Citing filmmaking grants provided by the Australian government, independent filmmaker Christina Black asks, "Why can't we do the same thing in this country?" -They may be used to provide a translation of foreign words or phrases that might not be understood. Ex: Smith writes in his autobiography: "I seldom spoke in French class. When I did, I usually just said je ne sais pas [I don't know]." -In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets. Exs: "[T]his study has been widely cited, notwithstanding its dubious methodology." Under the terms of his employment contract, his "[p]erformance-based stock options shall not vest until December 31, 2015." -may be used to indicate errors. The Latin term sic, meaning "so" or "thus," is used to indicate an error or confirm an unusual usage in the original material. Without the sic, a reader might wonder if the error was made by the writer offering the quotation. Note that sic should be italicized, but the brackets containing it should not. Ex: The final report indicated that "pilot error were [sic] the most likely cause of the crash." -If you suspect, but are not certain of, an error in the original material, a bracketed guess and question mark is appropriate. Ex: "The architect appears to have been heavily influenced by the Bacchus [Bauhaus?] style." -If you use italics to emphasize a portion of a quotation, indicate the change in brackets. Ex: She said she would consider "a very short extension of the deadline, but only under the most extraordinary circumstances [emphasis added]." -If the original material contains language you deem inappropriate for your audience, brackets can be used to remove it. Ex: He told them to "sit the [expletive] down." -In the rare event that parentheses are required within parentheses, use brackets instead. This is one of the few uses of brackets outside of quotations. Ex: Correct: In his twenties, he toured the country giving lectures to physics students (subsequently published as M-theory for Morons [2008]). Incorrect: In his twenties, he toured the country giving lectures to physics students (subsequently published as M-theory for Morons (2008)). -If the material being quoted already contains brackets, this should be noted. Ex: Richardson finds support for his position in an earlier study by the Somesuch Foundation: "The authors acknowledge that 'during the four years he [George Clinton] was president, average real wages were flat.'" (Brackets in original.)

Four functions of sentences

1. Declarative 2. Interrogative 3. Exclamatory 4. Imperative

Participial phrase fragments

Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. *Worrying that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head.*

Main & Subordinate Clause Ex

*It is college application season in America, including at the White House* (MC), *where Malia Obama*(SC), a senior at the elite Sidwell Friends School in Washington, *is in the middle of the pressure-filled process of writing personal essays, asking for teacher recommendations and narrowing her choices.* (SC)

Verb Phrases

-AUXILIARY (HELPING) VERB(S) + MAIN VERB Ex: Alice *will have walked* to town by then. -will have walked = verb phrase Ex: Paul *should have been reading* those chapters in Moby Dick -should have been reading = verb phrase -verb phrases do not include adverbs -do not confuse "verb phrase" and "phrasal verb"

Absolute Phrases Examples

-Angela sat on the chair, *her back aching from seat's poor design* -the car's gearbox lay on the garage floor, *its transmission oil dripping away* - *her eyes slowly closing*, Phyllis began to feel the full impact of the medication -Bailey and I sat alone on the front bench, *the wooden slats pressing hard on our behinds and the backs of our thighs*

Adjective Phrases

-a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence -can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence

Squinting modifers

-adverbs that are placed at a boundary of two clauses or phrases with the unfortunate result that the reader cannot tell which clause or phrase the adverb should go with -these modifiers are called 'squinting' because they seem to look in two different directions at the same time Ex: The Chancellor announced *this spring* construction would begin on campus improvements Possible meanings: *This spring*, the Chancellor *announced* that construction on campus improvements would begin. The Chancellor announced that construction on campus improvements would *begin* *this spring* -this type of error appears frequently in headlines and news writing -it is prevented by taking special care when positioning adverbs

Adjective clause examples

The alpine skier, *who had never before left Scandinavia,* found that he loved the tropics. The man *whom you gave the check to* appeared shocked. We stopped at the used book store *where Alan spent nearly $100.00 on an old encyclopedia set.*

Dangling Modifier Examples

When starting on cold mornings, I find that my car needs to idle for a few moments. While crossing the street, the bus hit her. Coming into the room, the seats were in disarray. Playing basketball, Gerald's nose was accidentally broken by Norris.

Adverb Phrases

-simply two or more words that act as an adverb -it can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell "how", "where", "why", or "when"

Types of fragments

1. Subordinate clause fragments 2. Participial phrase fragments 3. Infinitive phrase fragments 4. Afterthought fragments 5. "Lonely verb" fragments 6. Appositive fragments

Absolute Phrases

NOUN + PARTICIPLE + OPTIONAL OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS *Our hearts pounding with excitement*, we watched the race -hearts = noun (subject of phrase) -pounding = participle -with excitement = modifier -rather than modifying a specific word, it will modify or describe the entire clause - it is called a sentence adverb

Hyphens

have four basic functions: -They can join two or more words to form compounds, especially when so doing makes the meaning more clear to the reader. Ex: We met to discuss long-range planning. There were four-month-old piglets at the fair. That old stove was quite a coal-burner. -They can replace the word "to" when a span or range of data is given. (An en dash is used in Univ. of Chicago style and is automatically inserted by some word processing applications.) Ex: The organization was active 1930-1935. -They are also used to indicate ratios and betting odds in AP style. -They can indicate a word break at the end of a line.

Quotation Marks

have two basic functions: 1. They are used to set off direct quotations (exact renderings of someone's spoken or written words). Ex: "I think your new car was a good purchase," Philip remarked to Justine. On page four of the article, the author described "the beauty of the late afternoon" in the small town that he had studied. We were puzzled, so we asked, "Do you have any idea what you're doing?" -Note that indirect quotes (which are often preceded by "that," "if," or "whether") are not set off by quotation marks. Ex: He told me that he went to school in Boston. 2. can be used to set off words or phrases that have specific technical usage, or to set off meaning of words, or to indicate words that are being used in a special way in a sentence. Ex: The part of the flower that bears the pollen is the "stamen." What you call "hoagies," we call "grinders" or "subs." He must outgrow his "Peter Pan" behavior. Notice her many uses of "wherefore" in that story. -should NEVER be used to emphasize a word or words in a sentence! Ex: Wow! You looked "really great" in that dress tonight! -enclose commas and periods. Ex: She called the performance "lackluster," so she won't be recommending it to her friends. He said without enthusiasm, "I'm pleased to be here." -are enclosed by colons and semicolons. Ex: She called the performance "lackluster"; she won't be recommending it to her friends. The following are all "brand new items": the bed, the sofa, and the kitchen table. -either enclose or are enclosed by question marks and exclamation points, depending upon whether the question mark or exclamation point is a part of the direct quotation. Do you have a copy of the article called "Introduction to Reporting"? Alice asked me, "Do you hear what I hear?"

Adjective Phrase Examples

-the movie was *not too terribly long* -a person *smarter than me* needs to figure this out -the final exams were *unbelievably difficult.* -the pie is *very delicious* and *extremely expensive* -everyone was *extremely delighted* when the winner was announced -the new outfit was *very pricey* but *really beautiful* -mom said the cost of a car is *way too high* -*faster than a speeding bullet*, Superman finished in no time. -Students *upset about the rising cost of tuition* staged a rally. -that complex has *quite small but cheap* apartments

Oxford Comma

-Until recently, the formal "Oxford comma" (a comma used in a list before the word "and") was standard usage. -It has become less so in the last decade and is discouraged in AP ("news") style. -It is logically unnecessary and inconsistent with other rules. -Even so, it can add clarity, especially in a long or complicated sentence. Compare these two versions of the same sentence: It is college application season in America, including at the White House, where Malia Obama, a senior at the elite Sidwell Friends School in Washington, is in the middle of the pressure-filled process of writing personal essays, asking for teacher recommendations and narrowing her choices. -Without the Oxford comma, the words "asking" and "narrowing" can be either participles in participial phrases or gerunds in gerund phrases, or the phrase "asking ... choices" might be an appositive. The sentence's meaning is unclear. It is college application season in America, including at the White House, where Malia Obama, a senior at the elite Sidwell Friends School in Washington, is in the middle of the pressure-filled process of writing personal essays, asking for teacher recommendations, and narrowing her choices. -With the Oxford comma, the words "asking" and "narrowing" are obviously gerunds. The sentence's meaning is clear. Clarity is your primary objective!

Participal Phrases

-always function as adjectives -not all adjective phrases are participial phrases, but all participial phrases are adjective phrases PARTICIPLE (PRESENT OR PAST) + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS Ex: 1. The bored security guard *twiddling his thumbs* stared down the hallway. - * modifies the noun "guard" 2. I enjoy sleeping in a bed *covered with blankets* - * modifies the noun "bed"

Misplaced prepositional phrases

-can function as adjectives or adverbs -when a prepositional phrase is placed at the end of a sentence, it can appear to function as an adjective when it was intended to function as an adverb Ex: The runners stood ignoring the crowd *in their lanes* (adjective) The runners stood *in their lanes* ignoring the crowd (adverb) -when there is more than one clause, an adverbial prepositional phrase at the end of a sentence can appear to modify the wrong verb Ex: Thomas had a bag of cookies that Jacqueline had baked *in his backpack* Thomas had *in his backpack* a bag of cookies that Jacqueline had baked *In his backpack*, Thomas had a bag of cookies that Jacqueline had baked

Infinitive Phrase Function

-can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs Ex: 1. *To avoid a lecture from his parents* was Michael's motive for thriftiness. - * functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence 2. the best thing *to happen to me* was getting a new car for my birthday - * functions as an adjective modifying "thing" 3. she washed the dishes *to keep her roommates from complaining* - * functions as an adverb because it explains why she washed the dishes

Prepositional Phrase Function

-function in sentences as adjectives or adverbs -as adjectives, they answer the question "Which one?" -as such, they are sometimes considered adjective phrases Ex: the bus stop *at the end of the street* seldom saw riders -which bus stop? the one at the end of the street! -as adverbs, they answer the questions "How?" "When?" or "Where?" -as such, they are sometimes considered adverb phrases Ex: 1. Allan opened the locked door *with his credit card* -how did he open the door? with his credit card 2. Jill decided to go home *after the movie* -when did she go home? after the movie 3. *Under the bridge*, the troll slept fitfully. -where did the troll sleep? under the bridge*

Noun Phrases

-functions in a sentence as a noun (as a subject, object, or subject complement) -OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) + NOUN + OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) -can be appositives, renaming nouns or pronouns

Dangling Modifiers

-is said to dangle because it looks like it might fall off the sentence it is attached to -dangling modifiers are adverbial phrases of various sorts, participial and infinitive phrases being the most common Recognizing them: -move a copy of the subject of the main clause into the subject position of the modifying phrase; -change the verb in the modifier so that it agrees with the new subject of the modifying phrase; and -if this new sentence doesn't make sense, the original phrase is a dangling modifier Fixing them: -change the modifier to make it compatible with the main part of the sentence; or -change the main part of the sentence to make it compatible with the modifier

Gerund Phrases

-look exactly like participial phrases, but they function as nouns, not adjectives GERUND + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS Ex: 1. *Twiddling his thumbs* kept the bored security guard from fall asleep - * is a noun that is the subject of the sentence 2. A good strategy for avoiding dirty dishes is *eating every meal off paper towels* - * is a noun that is the subject complement (predicative nominative) of the linking verb "is"

Adverb Phrase Examples

-meet me *at the mall* -without thinking, he turned *down the road* -they must kiss *before sunset* -she went online *for more information* -*in the forest* many creatures snarl and growl - I will never do that, *not in a million years* -Dad spoke softly *to calm her fears* -they have a house *by the ocean* -she slammed the door *in a huff*

Misplaced Modifiers

-misplaced modifiers do not make sentences ungrammatical -misplaced modifiers are wrong because they say something the writer did not intend them to say

Ellipses

-used to indicate words that are omitted as superfluous or able to be understood from contextual clues. Exs: The professor said, "Your exam will be on Friday. I know that only a few of you are prepared, so I will be leading special tutoring sessions on Wednesday and Thursday. This is a major exam, so do your best." The professor said, "Your exam ... on Friday ... is a major exam, so do your best." -should be placed where the words are omitted. It does not replace a period at the end of a sentence, which may also be needed. Ex: "I know that only a few of you are prepared ... . This is a major exam, so do your best." -In some styles of formal writing, ellipses may be used to indicate pauses or breaks in thought, as in dialogue. In other styles, they may not be so used!

Fixing fragments

-you can add them to other sentences -you can make them into independent clauses by adding missing elements -you can leave them alone (if you created them intentionally) Ex. Will the village council pass the ordinance? *Probably.*

Commas

1. can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there are two independent clauses joined by a conjunction, especially when the clauses are not very short Ex: -the rain fell all day, so I decided to stay home and sleep But -they came and they went. 2. can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a series of independent clauses, the last two of which are joined by a conjunction Ex: -the bus ride to the resort was rough, the cabin was dry, the food was awful, and we were ready to leave after the first night 3. used to precede or set off, and therefore indicate, a nonessential dependent (a clause that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main clause) Ex: -the cookies, which were just baked, exuded a wonderful fragrance -they showed up at midnight, after most of the guests had gone home 4. can follow an introductory phrase Ex: -in the cool autumn afternoons, Ellen and Michael loved jogging in the park 5. can set off words used in direct address Ex: other than that, Mrs. Lincoln, how was the play? 6. can separate two or more coordinate adjectives (adjs that could otherwise be joined with "and") that modify one noun Ex: the robin gazed hungrily at the big, fat, juicy worm. -note that cumulative adjectives (in which an adjective modifies another adjective) are not separated by commas Ex: she wore bright yellow rubber boots -note that non-coordinate adjectives are not separated by commas Ex: he drove a tiny yellow French car 7. can separate three or more items in a series or list Ex: Charlie, Melissa, Stan, and Mark will be this year's soloists in the spring concert. Or Charlie, Melissa, Stan and Mark will be this year's soloists in the spring concert. 8. is used to separate and set off the elements in an address or other geographical designation. Irving has lived at *123 Elm Street, Anytown, NY 12111,* for eleven years. 9. is used to set off direct quotations. "The king has no clothes," said the boy, "but I have a bathrobe he can borrow." Astonished by what she saw, Eileen blurted out, "I can't believe it!" 10. is used to set off titles after a person's name. Alice Jones, *M.D.,* is their family physician. 11. is used to separate elements of dates (in some cases). We will leave on April 17, *2018,* and return on April 19 at 8:00 p.m. 12. are used to set off word groups when the "natural order" of a sentence is interrupted (as by an appositive or adverb) or rearranged (as when a prepositional phrase or subordinate clause begins a sentence). Exs: Rob, the finest fellow I ever met, came to dinner last night. (Appositive) I don't like it. I will, however, do as you ask. (Adverb) The pansies in the window box continued blooming in the winter cold. (Natural Order) BUT In the winter cold, the pansies in the window box continued blooming. (Rearranged)

Subordinate clause fragments

Flooring the accelerator, Juan wove through the heavy traffic. *As his ex-girlfriend Gigi chased him down the interstate.*

Infinitive Phrases

INFITINIIVE + OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS Ex: To write a lengthy essay -to write = infinitive -lengthy = modifier -essay = object

Titles

In all but AP style, titles of books, movies, albums, and plays are written in italics, bold-faced type (less commonly) or are underlined (when italics, etc., are unavailable). Exs: Moby Dick Death of a Salesman The Best Punctuation Book, Period (italicized) Titles of chapters, articles, short stories, individual songs, and poems are enclosed in quotation marks. Exs: "Introduction" Billy Joel's "Scenes from an Italian Restaurant" -AP style puts quotation marks around the titles of almost all created works. Originally, this was for practical reasons; now it is for reasons related to graphic design.

Afterthought fragments

Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors. *Such as rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk.*

Infinitive phrase fragments

Jiggling his foot nervously, Ronald sat in the provost's office. *To explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class.*

Preposition Phrases

PREPOSITION + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE OR PREPOSITION + MODIFIER(S) + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE Ex: 1. On the rotting tree limb -on = preposition -the rotting tree limb = noun phrase 2. From eating too often -from = preposition -eating = gerund -too = modifier -often = modifier

Adjective clauses

RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT) OR RELATIVE ADVERB + SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete Thought That Functions as an Adjective OR RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete Thought That Functions as an Adjective The party *where she had lost her glasses* Where (meaning "in which" or "at which") = Relative Adverb She = Subject Lost = Main Verb The man *whose skin had turned green* Whose = Relative Pronoun

Hyphens and Compounds **

Rules differ when dealing with different parts of speech. Nouns—see Casagrande, pp. 108-10. Verbs—see Casagrande, pp. 110-11. Adjectives and adverbs—see Casagrande, pp. 93-107 Permanent compound modifiers—terms found in a standard dictionary Ex: award-winning, self-sustaining, knee-high Temporary compound modifiers—terms not found in a standard dictionary

Other Agreement Issues

Rules that apply: -If the subject is separated from the verb by a phrase beginning with "along with," "as well as", "besides", "not", etc. do not regard those phrases as part of the subject Ex: Sen. Batson D. Belfry, along with the newsmen, IS expected to arrive shortly -With words that indicate portions "of" something, like "percent", "a lot", "majority", "some", "all", etc., the number of the verb must agree with the number of the noun following "of" Ex: Fifty percent of the pie HAS disappeared. Fifty percent of the pies HAVE disappeared. -Distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc,. when considered as a unit, use singular verbs Ex: Ten dollars IS a high price to pay for that sandwich. -Some collective nouns may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in a sentence Ex: The staff IS in a meeting The staff ARE free to attend the conference, if they wish. - "Were" replaces "was" in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact. Ex: If Joe WERE here, you'd be sorry.

Subordinate (dependent) clause

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION or RELATIVE PRONOUN + SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete Thought •After the elephant ate my shirt After = Subordinate Conjunction Elephant = Subject Ate = Verb •Whom I saw eating the rotting garbage Whom = Relative Pronoun I = Subject Saw = Verb

Colons

The colon has five basic functions: 1. It can introduce something, especially a list of items, after an independent clause. Ex: In my mailbox were three pieces of mail: a postcard, a catalog and a wedding invitation. 2. It can separate two clauses in a sentence when the second clause is being used to explain or illustrate the first (independent) clause. Ex: Most of the dogs in the neighborhood are quite small: two of them are Chihuahuas. 3. It can introduce a statement or a quotation after an independent clause. Exs: His parents say the most important rule is this: Always tell the truth. We repeated the final words of Frost's poem: "And hours to go before we sleep." 4. It can be used to follow the greeting in a formal or business letter. Ex: Dear Dr. Wilson: 5. In the U.S., it is used to separate minutes from hours (and seconds from minutes) in showing time of day and measured length of time. Ex: You should be at the restaurant by 12:20.

Semicolons

The semicolon has two basic functions: 1. It can separate two independent clauses, particularly when these clauses are of equal importance. Exs: -The crowds gathered outside the museum hours before the doors were opened; this was one exhibit no one wanted to miss. -She always complained when her relatives stayed for the weekend; nevertheless, she was a little sad when they left. -Note that the second example uses a conjunctive adverb. Punctuation of conjunctive adverbs within sentences is only an extension of standard rules! 2. It can be used as a comma is used to separate such elements as clauses or items in a series or list, particularly when one or more of the elements already includes a comma. Ex: The path took us through the deep, dark woods; across a small meadow; into a cold, wet cave; and up a hillside overlooking the lake.

Noun clauses

•Any clause that functions as a noun is a noun clause. The pale green *paint* made the kitchen look institutional. *What Bailey used on the walls* made the kitchen look institutional. •Note that noun clauses can begin with subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns! Samantha said *that our papers are due next Sunday night.* *Whoever asks for help* will receive it.

Punctuate This: the very least you could say for him was that Ford knew his public he was always insistent that in spite of his public disgrace they would take him back he was never particularly remorseful it seemed for having dragged his citys name through tabloid mud nor did he see any problem with running for re-election as mayor until cancer took him out of the race it appears he was right to think that his brother standing in his stead still got 33 percent of the vote for some people apparently pretty much anything is forgivable in politics that may not have been the lesson Rob Ford intended to teach us but it is clearly one we need to learn

The very least you could say for him was that Ford knew his public. He was always insistent that in spite of his public disgrace, they would take him back. He was never particularly remorseful, it seemed, for having dragged his city's name through tabloid mud. Nor did he see any problem with running for re-election as mayor, until cancer took him out of the race. It appears he was right to think that: His brother, standing in his stead, still got 33 percent of the vote. For some people, apparently, pretty much anything is forgivable in politics. That may not have been the lesson Rob Ford intended to teach us. But it is clearly one we need to learn.

Comma Splices

is a sentence in which only a comma (not a semicolon or a comma and a coordinating conjunction) is used to separate independent clauses. Exs: The cat ate the rat, the rat ate the peanut butter. I went into the second grade, I had my first basic lessons in grammar there. She walked all the way home, she shut the door. Register for next semester as soon as you can, get the classes you want. -are often created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems. are easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence. They can be fixed by ... -Inserting a semicolon in place of the comma. Ex: The cat ate the rat; the rat ate the peanut butter. -Changing the first independent (main) clause into a dependent (subordinate) clause. Ex: When I went into the second grade, I had my first basic lessons in grammar there. -Inserting a coordinating conjunction after the comma. Ex: She walked all the way home, and she shut the door. -Making the sentence into two sentences. Ex: Register for next semester as soon as you can. Get the classes you want.

Tense Shifting

moving from one tense to another in a single paragraph or sentence. Sometimes its inappropriate; sometimes its appropriate -Inappropriate tense shifting: When we ARRIVED at the park, the guide IS ready to lead us up the mountain. -Appropriate tense shifting: We STAYED in the old lodge that IS located at the beginning of the trail -within a narrative, tenses should not change, but if statements of fact or generalizations are made, these may be stated in the present tense

Misplaced Adverb Qualifiers

the most commonly misplaced adverb qualifiers are those we use most commonly: -nearly -almost -just -only -improper placement of one of these words can lead to misunderstanding and confusion Nearly: -I NEARLY drove to NYC last weekend, (I gave the trip much consideration, but at the last moment decided not to go.) -I drove NEARLY to NYC last weekend (I drove all the way to Yonkers, but I had to stop when my transmission caught on fire) Almost: -Jane gave ALMOST $50.00 to the hospital charity. vs -Jane ALMOST gave $50.00 to the hospital charity Just: Bob just finished his project on time. (Bob completed it on time only a few mins ago) Bob finished just his project on time (everything else was late) Bob finished his project just on time (it was completed right at the deadline) Only: Only I love you (no one else love you) I only love you (I don't really like you that much) I love only you (I love you and no one else) I love you only (I love you and no one else) -adverb qualifiers should be placed where the word or words they are intended to modify are obvious to your readers

Existential constructions

the sentence begins with the adverb "there" and a form of "to be" or another linking verb -point out the existence of something. -In English, they begin with the adverb "there," followed by a linking verb (usually a form of "to be"). -Commonly, errors are made when singular forms of "to be" are used with plural forms of the sentence's subject. Exs: There is dozens of books on the table. There was some old dishes that looked usable. There seems to be odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house. -Checking subject-verb agreement in existential constructions is easy when we re-order the sentence to reveal the subject. Ex: There is a house in New Orleans they call "The Rising Sun." Re-ordered: A house they call "The Rising Sun" is there in New Orleans. There is dozens of books on the table. Re-ordered: Dozens of books is there on the table. (Wrong) Dozens of books are there on the table. (Right) There are dozens of books on the table. (Corrected) There was some old dishes that looked usable. Re-ordered: Some old dishes that looked usable was there. (Wrong) Some old dishes that looked usable were there. (Right) There were some old dishes that looked usable. (Corrected) There seems to be odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house. Re-ordered: Odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house seems to be there. (Wrong) Odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house seem to be there. (Right) There seem to be odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house. (Corrected)

Lost Subjects

the writer loses track of what is the actual subject of the sentence -When a sentence is long and complicated, its actual subject is easily forgotten, and it can "feel" right for the verb to agree with a word that isn't the subject. Ex: The *assortment* of dishes, including odd plates, cups, and saucers, *were* placed in a cardboard box in the kitchen. vs The *assortment* of dishes, including odd plates, cups, and saucers, *was* placed in a cardboard box in the kitchen. -Particularly confusing are postnoun modifiers (prepositional phrases and participial phrases) that include nouns. -To check for subject-verb agreement, work from the verb backward till you reach the first noun eligible to be a subject of the sentence. The verb and this noun must agree in number. Ex: A group of yachts with brightly colored banners flying from their masts were entering the harbor. group = eligible to be a subject yacht, banners, masts = ineligible to be a subject were entering = verb A group of yachts with brightly colored banners flying from their masts was entering the harbor.

to lay

transitive verb meanings include: -put or set down -place for rest or sleep; bury -bring forth and deposit (an egg) Present: lay Past: laid Present Perfect: have laid, (he/she/it) has laid Past Perfect Tense: had (same as Present Perfect) Present Progressive: "I am laying" Past Progressive: "I was laying"

Adverb clause ex.

•Some Examples: I began counting the days to graduation *as soon as I walked onto campus for the first day of my freshman year.* *Because Fred's desk was covered with candy wrappers,* he couldn't find his room key. Philip didn't feel like eating lunch *after he ate his breakfast of anchovies and raw oysters.* •Like many adverbs, adverb clauses can be moved around in their sentences

Compound subjects

two or more subjects are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a correlative conjunction (which contains a coordination conjunction) Ex: -and -or -either... or -neither... nor Rules that apply: if the coordinating conjunction is "and," the compound subject requires a plural verb -Hector and Eloise ARE planning to attend the party. If the coordination conjunction is "or" or "nor," the verb must agree in number with the second (or last) subject -Neither Hector nor Eloise IS planning to stay late -Tom and several other ARE WILLING to drive Hector and Eloise home If the nouns of the subject refer to the same person or thing, a singular verb is used -My brother and best friend Hector IS planning to attend the party. If the compound subject beings with "each" or "every", a singular verb is used -Each dog and cat IS eligible for free spaying or neutering -Every nail and screw in the house WAS purchased at the local hardware store If the compound subjects form a well-recognized single unit, a singular verb is used with them. -Ham and eggs IS my favorite breakfast -Breaking and entering IS against the law

Present Perfect Tense

used to describe actions that have occurred continuously or repeatedly from some time in the past right up to the present Ex: Fred HAS LIVED in Guadalajara for eight years. The phone HAS BEEN busy for nearly an hour. It HAS RAINED off and on all month.

Past Tense

used to describe events that took place is past time -because the present tense is used for generalizations and statements of fact, the past tense is the primary vehicle for narrative. Ex: Fred LIVED in Guadalajara for eight years. The phone WAS busy for nearly an hour. It RAINED off and on all month

Past Perfect tense

used to emphasize the fact that a particular event in the past was completed before a more recent past-time event took place Ex: Fred HAD LIVED in Guadalajara for eight years The phone HAS BEEN busy for nearly an hour It HAD RAINED off and on all month

Parentheses

used to enclose information that gives extra detail or explanation to the regular text. They are used in two basic ways: -They can separate a word or words in a sentence from the rest of the sentence. Ex: On our way to school, we walked past the Turner Farm (the oldest dairy farm in the area) and watch the cows being fed. -They can form a separate complete sentence. Ex: Please bring a dessert to the party. (It can be something very simple.) I look forward to seeing you there.

Question Marks

used to mark the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (generally, a question that expects an answer). Rhetorical questions don't always need them. Ex: Is there a reason to bring that much money with us?

Exclamation Point

used to mark the end of a sentence that expresses a strong feeling, typically surprise, joy, or anger. Ex: I want you to leave now and never come back! What an incredible movie!

Important rule for comma usage

•When an adverb clause precedes the main or independent clause, a comma is needed between them. ADVERB CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE . *Because the elephant ate my shirt,* I had to leave the circus tent. •When an adverb clause follows the main or independent clause, a comma is not normally needed between them. MAIN CLAUSE + 0 + ADVERB CLAUSE . I had to leave the circus tent *because the elephant ate my shirt.* •ESSENTIAL adjective clauses ARE NOT set off by commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. A person *who eats too much pizza* will soon develop pepperoni breath. •NONESSENTIAL adjective clauses ARE set off by commas. A relative clause is nonessential when you do not need the information it provides. Joey, *who eats too much pizza,* has developed pepperoni breath.

Phrase

•A phrase is a word group (or "group of related words") that does not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause. •Phrases can be short or long. Before noon After slithering down the stairs and across the road to scare nearly to death Mrs. Philpot busy pruning her rose bushes •Phrases have names based on their function or the type of word that begins or governs the word group.