COM122 Exam 3 Ch 10-13

three steps of deductive reasoning

. First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and finally a conclusion. A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. In the syllogism, two statements - a major premise and a minor premise - reach a logical conclusion. Syllogisms are considered a good way to test deductive reasoning to make sure the argument is valid. For example, "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal." For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the premises, "All men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is logical and true. In deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of that class.

example of inductive reasoning

An example of false inductive logic is, "The first coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. The second coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies." Another example of false inductive reasoning is "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all grandfathers are bald" or "All brown dogs in the park today are small dogs. Therefore, all small dogs must be brown." Even if all of the premises in that statement are true, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false.

example of begging the question

For example, one might say "Avengers: Endgame is the greatest movie ever made because it is the number one top grossing movie of all time" or "The Apple iPhone is the best smartphone on the planet because no one makes a better smartphone than Apple does." Avengers: Endgame may be an excellent movie, but there are other ways of knowing that it is a good movie besides considering the amount of sales revenue it generated at the box office. Apple may very well make the best phone on the planet, however several other brands offer useful products that perform at the same level, or better, than Apple.

model of group decision making

Model of group decision making: a system that describes how groups make decisions by orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement.

example of reasoning by analogy

One of the challenges of reasoning by analogy is that the instances being compared must be proven to be parallel. For example, if someone were to argue that socialism would work in the United States just as it works in The Netherlands, he or she would have to provide ample evidence that the governmental infrastructure of the two countries are similar enough to be compared in this way.

hand gestures

add animation and energy to your presentation. Gestures should be conversational, easy, and purposeful, yet apparently spontaneous, aiding your communication with the audience.

proposition of policy

advocates that we should or should not adopt a certain idea or policy. For example, a proposition of policy might state, "the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) should regulate the producers of reality television who artificially set up dramatic and dangerous situations between cast members." In this proposition of policy, it would be important to define such terms as "regulate," "dramatic," and "dangerous" to provide a firm and logical foundation for the debate. Propositions of policy advance an action to be taken.

completely connected network

also known as the "star" network, all group members communicate with each other and exchange information. This type of network is highly effective for teamwork and group sharing. The channels of communication are open to all members and members can communicate with each other without hesitation or barriers.

norms

are informal rules that guide acceptable behaviors of a group. Norms about conflict may express varying degrees of tolerance for disagreement.

facial expressions

are movements of facial muscles that convey one's emotional state. Facial expression should be consistent with the attitude you are trying to express to the audience. For example, South African Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu exudes enthusiasm with his facial expressions and engagement with the audience.

assumptions

are often implicit, not stated openly, and beneath the surface of an argument. For example, if a car salesperson tells you that the used car you just test drove is "the best car ever made," you take into account that the salesperson is likely biased because she stands to make a lot of money if you buy the car. If you detect bias or assumptions in a message, ask yourself questions such as, "are these assumptions acceptable to me?" and "does the speaker acknowledge that he or she may have biases?" If you believe that you and/or the person you are communicating with may be relying on bias, pause the meeting so that both of you can take time to carefully consider the type of conversation you wish to have moving forward.

grounds

are the evidence, data, or facts that support the claim.

communicative process

as depicted in the figure below, is an interaction between two people in which feedback is exchanged in order to assign meaning to a message. Because it is communicative, argumentation requires not only advancing claims but also carefully listening to them. Listening is key to the communicative process of argumentation because one must listen well in order to defend one's own arguments and to respond to someone else's arguments.

ethos

as persuasive appeals that are reasonable and provide ethical proof. Ethos is a Greek word originally meaning accustomed place, custom, or habit.

delivery

as the effective ways in which to present your argument to an audience. In oratory and rhetoric, speakers must think carefully about how to deliver a persuasive message. For example, during a debate, a student might choose to walk around the room as he delivers his argument instead of standing behind the podium the whole time. A political candidate might take her time to pause frequently and establish eye contact with people in all parts of the audience, allowing her to gain vital feedback from them. A defense attorney might enumerate his key points by counting them out on his hand, and purposefully walk to the other side of the room during a transition between points.

types of conflict management

collaboration compromise accommodation avoiding competing

warrant

connects the grounds to the claim. The warrant explains why the data support the claim; a warrant is the assumption on which the claim and the grounds depend.

types of reasoning

deductive reasoning inductive reasoning reasoning by analogy

Equifinality ch 13 page 3

describes how a system can reach its goal in multiple ways through creative problem solving. If a system is open to change, it can come up with hundreds of potential ways to solve a problem.

openness

describes how a system must exist in an environment of change in order to survive. No system exists in a void. Systems must adapt to changes in the environment in order to survive and thrive. Because of the repeated cycles of input, systems must process input and produce some sort of outcome. For example, if a family member loses a job, then everyone in the family must make adjustments in order to maintain the stability of the family.

hierarchy

describes how every system has a chain of command and a way of getting things done. In nature, we tend to think of hierarchy as a food chain.

feedback

describes how systems must constantly respond to feedback. Feedback is a process of revising, correcting, recalibrating, and circling back in order to grow and change amongst new incoming information in the environment. By processing new information and producing an outcome, systems are able to gain feedback that guides future decision making.

Interdependence

describes the relationships and connections that exist among and between the parts of a system. When all members are connected and dependent on one another, anything that happens to one member changes all other members. For example, when a member of a Greek organization speaks with a local community group, he or she is representing all members of that Greek organization. In marriage, a couple of tightly connected; what one partner does affects the other.

wholeness

describes the system as a sum of its parts, as opposed to disconnected sets of parts. For example, because a family is bigger than one individual member of it, family members must work together to complete tasks by combining everyone's areas of strength.

Toulmin Model

explains how the use of claim, grounds, and warrant forms the basis of any argument. developed by Stephen Toulmin

post hoc

fallacy assumes a causal relationship where none has been proved. The Latin phraseology of this fallacy, "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" translates to "after the fact, because of the fact." The post hoc fallacy assumes that when two things are occurring at the same time, one is somehow causing the other.

red herring

fallacy is introducing irrelevant material into an argument in order to distract or deflect attention away from the heart of the message or argument.

slippery slope

fallacy is the argument that a seemingly harmless proposal would be an irreversible first step that would inevitably lead to the most deleterious disadvantages. For example, "If we lower the drinking age to 18, then we shall likely soon be asked to lower the smoking age, the age to enter rated R movies, and the driving age too." Another example, "truly I have great suspicion that if we once begin to sing by rule, the next thing will be to pray by rule, and preach by rule; and then comes popery." A common example of the slippery slope fallacy is when a speaker argues that marijuana is the "gateway drug" to cocaine and other highly dangerous substances during a debate over the legalization of marijuana. The slippery slope fallacy plays on people's emotions and on people's general lack of information about the topic at hand.

chain network

follows an organizational hierarchy and chain of command. All subordinates receive commands or instructions from a superior. This superior is usually at the top of the chain, and gives commands from that location. Subordinates on lower points of the chain receive commands from the superior.

hasty generalization

is a broad jumping to conclusions after hearing only a few, insufficient examples. A hasty generalization is also known as drawing a faulty conclusion due to the reliance on a generalized, blanket stereotype. One common cause of hasty generalization is using anecdotal evidence to make future decisions.

an argument

is a claim with support. An argument is typically followed by a conclusion

a system

is a complex of interacting elements and that they are open to, and interact with their environments. General systems theory, created by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, described how all living systems must adapt to their environment in order to survive.

non sequitur

is a conclusion that does not follow from the premises on which it is based. Non sequiturs repeat in the claim what is already stated in the evidence, with the result that there is no inference or progression in the argument. A non sequitur is circular reasoning which in Latin means, "it does not follow."

Retrospective sensemaking

is a continual learning process in which groups must adapt to change and find new ways to cope. Retrospective sensemaking is a "hindsight is 20/20" approach to groups and organizational change. Former Auburn University football coach Pat Dye once said that "hindsight is 50/50." Both of these perspectives are useful to describing how groups use past experiences to make changes for the future.

expert opinion method

is a decision making method in which the groups asks the member with the most expertise to select the final choice. This method is typically fairly quick and is useful when one group member clearly has more expertise and thus a higher stake in the implementation of a plan.

proposition of fact CH 10. page 6

is a descriptive claim that seeks to determine if an idea is true or false. For example, a proposition of fact might state, "the sun rises and sets each day" or "climate change exists." Another proposition of fact might state, "the content seen on reality television is not real."

Begging the question

is a fallacy that assumes something in an argument that actually requires proof. The fallacy of begging the question occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. Begging the question is also called arguing in a circle.

consensus

is a group decision that is acceptable to all members of the group. The Latin root of the word consensus is agreement, and its literal meaning is to feel "together." Consensus building is the process of collaboration and problem solving.

a team

is a group of five or more individuals who are committed to a common project or topic. In general, teams tend to have either tight or loose connections in the way that they communicate with one another. The figure below demonstrates some of the ways in which groups and teams communicate.

groupthink

is a group's drive for consensus at the cost of considering dissenting views and alternatives. Groupthink can be thought of as the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility. Also known as a form of cultural gridlock or over-exaggerated group loyalty, groupthink is often caused by tremendous peer pressure and desire to conform. Groupthink occurs when team members to go along with, rather than to evaluate or analyze, the group's proposals or ideas.

ethical persuasion

is a human being's internal ability to treat others with respect, understanding, caring, and fairness as they carefully weigh the ethical impact of their persuasive words upon an audience. The ethics of persuasion is mainly concerned with morality and a person's ability to overcome the temptation to use unethical persuasion to increase personal gain without the knowledge of the audience. An ethical speaker devotes himself or herself to three basic codes of ethics: 1) exploring the other person's viewpoint; 2) explaining his or her own viewpoint; and 3) creating resolutions.

argumentation

is a logical way of presenting a position that is supported by evidence. Argumentation urges listeners to share the perspectives and insights of the presenter. It is a structured exchange of ideas that allows the audience to evaluate the arguments presented by a speaker or author.

unanimous decision method

is a method of decision making in which a group must continue deliberation until every group member agrees that the same decision is the best decision. Authentic unanimity is highly time-consuming and nearly impossible to achieve. When a group does reach unanimity, though, it can be expected that all group members will be fully committed to the decision.

average group opinion method

is a method of decision making in which group members rank the alternatives that meet all of the desired criteria. These rankings are then averaged and the alternative receiving the highest average ranking becomes the choice. This method is useful when it is difficult to get group members together. It is very useful for simple, routine decisions. Some of the disadvantages of this decision making method is that there is not enough interaction between members, no commitment is built to implement the decision, and unresolved conflict may emerge and thus damage future group effectiveness.

majority rule method

is a method of decision making in which the group votes on each alternative and the one that gets more than half the votes is selected. The advantages of this method are that is can be used when there is insufficient time to decide by consensus. It can be used when complete member commitment is not necessary for execution. This method also closes discussion on issues that are not highly important. Some of the disadvantages are that this method usually leaves an alienated minority, encourages either-or thinking, and a full commitment to implement the decision is not always present.

Extemporaneous speaking

is a prepared talk that includes key points and typically employs the use of a keyword speaking outline. An extemporaneous speech sounds spontaneous, but is carefully prepared, researched, and written in advance.

keyword outline

is a skeletal listing of main points that contains key words, phrases, and abbreviations to jog your memory while you are talking.

podium

is a small platform placed in a location where everyone in the audience is able to see the speaker. If you plan to use a podium, approach the podium with a quiet confidence. Take a few seconds to get yourself comfortable before you speak. Arrange, or "fan out," your notes the way you want them. When you're ready to speak, lift your head, look at the audience, smile and begin.

group cohesion

is a social process that characterizes groups whose members interact with each other and thus become tightly bonded and interdependent. In their 2002 book entitled Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies, Jim Collins and Jerry Porras described how cultures are often cult-like. They describe how organizational members often "drink the kool-aid" of their corporate culture, fervently supporting a certain ideology in order to fit in. Corporate cultures, like all cultures, run the risk of becoming so tightly knit to a fervently held ideology that they become a culture full of "yes" people.

demagogue

is a speaker who tries to inflame feelings without regard to the accuracy or adequacy of his or her claims in order to promote a certain agenda. Also known as a fear monger or leader of the rabble, a demagogue is often a political leader who seeks support by appealing to the desires and prejudices of ordinary people rather than by using rational argument. Demagogues exploit opportunities and situations for political gain.

syllogism

is a standard structure of reasoning that contains two premises - a major premise and a minor premise - and a conclusion. As previously suggested in the sections about deductive reasoning and logic, a conclusion is derived from these premises. A commonly used example of a syllogism is, "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

enthymeme

is a truncated syllogism that serves the function of rhetorical persuasion. Often called a "logical leap of faith," if any element of the syllogism is missing, such as a major or minor premise, the listener must fill in the logical gap.

conformity

is a type of social influence that often causes a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. This change in beliefs and behavior is in response to real or imagined pressure from the group. The informal rules guiding acceptable behavior in a group are typically shaped by culture and personal agendas. When asked about where these informal rules for behavior originate, members of a group may respond by saying, "that is just how we do things around here."

bandwagon fallacy

is accepting or rejecting a claim simply on the basis that many others are doing so. For example, "the President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him." Just because someone is popular, does not mean that he or she is respected. Likewise, just because others are following a certain behavior or thought pattern does not mean that you must do the same thing that everyone else seems to be doing.

ad hominem

is an argument in which an attack on a person is substituted for a response to an argument. The Latin translation for ad hominem is "against the man." Ad hominems attempt to distract listeners from an argument by making personal attacks on a person's character, demeanor, or appearance.

inductive reasoning

is an argument that begins with a specific case and moves to a broader generalization that is considered probable yet not infallible. This type of reasoning involves inducing conclusions from particular instances or data. In other words, you're making an educated or informed guess based on the information or data that you have. It might sound right, but that doesn't mean it is right.

bias

is an assumption that is often implicit, not stated openly, and beneath the surface of an argument. As discussed in several previous chapters, bias gets in the way of an otherwise objective deployment of logic. Bias shades our judgment and causes us to use such distorted thinking as stereotypes and selective perception.

proposition of value

is an evaluative claim that seeks to determine if an idea is right or wrong.

deductive reasoning

is argument that begins with a broad generalization and moves to a more specific application or conclusion. This type of reasoning deduces a conclusion from a general principle.

negotiation ch 13 page 6

is discussion aimed at reaching an agreement. In the popular 1981 book entitled Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In, Roger Fisher and William Ury described four principles for effective negotiation: separating people from the problem, focusing on interests rather than positions, generating a variety of options before settling on an agreement, and insisting that the agreement be based on objective criteria.

fallacy

is false reasoning. Fallacies are arguments that appear to be valid but are false. They rely on faulty logic.

propaganda ch 11 page 3

is persuasion that uses overly emotional appeals to sidestep logic and critical thinking. Propaganda may evoke emotions such as joy, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, or laughter in order to strike a chord with an audience. Often, propaganda plays on cultural patriotism and pride to achieve its mission. Propaganda is often used by a group, often a closely knit organization, in a sustained and organized campaign using multiple media for the purpose of influencing a mass audience.

Either-or thinking

is polarized, black-or-white thinking that ignores diverse views and gray areas of an issue. Also known as the black-and-white fallacy, "excluded middle," false dilemma, or false dichotomy, the either-or fallacy occurs when an argument is built upon the assumption that only two choices or possible outcomes exist. For example, a political candidate might say, "vote for me or live through four more years of higher taxes" or an advertisement might read, "if you don't use our beauty products, you'll never look youthful." The world will not end if a certain political candidate does not get elected. And, no, the world will not end if you do not choose to use any of the products that are marketed to you on a daily basis.

speaking rate

is speaking at a conversational rate so that that the audience can thoughtfully follow along.

Evidence

is statements that are offered in support of a claim.

input

is the acceptance of new, incoming stimuli or information

reasoning

is the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way. Reasoning is the analysis that explains why a claim is true

Ethical communication

is the careful assessment of arguments, thoughtful use of communication, responsible use of credible research, respect for the integrity of ideas,listening to others, and genuine concern for audience.

proposition

is the claim or main point you offer for the audience's consideration.

claim

is the main argument or assertion that an arguer asks the audience to accept.

Homeostasis

is the natural desire to maintain a sense of balance and equilibrium in the system. After an unexpected disruption to normal operations, resilient systems seek to regulate themselves or their environment in order to continue functioning. The desire for balance can sometimes cause systems to be resistant to change. For example, when a crisis occurs, a group can pretend like nothing happened or they can face the problem head on and decide on a way to usher in a new normal.

eye contact

is the nonverbal communication of looking at a person when you are speaking with them. When you keep eye contact with someone, you indicate that you are focused and paying attention. The majority of your speaking time should be spent looking at and talking with the members of your audience. Eye contact builds trust and connection with an audience. Maintaining eye contact indicates an openness in communication. It also tells the audience, "Hey, I am confident and self-assured, you can trust me." For example, investor Warren Buffet is known for maintaining eye contact during interviews and public talks.

movement

is the nonverbal communication of walking purposefully across the speaking area. If you are using a podium, consider moving away from it and closer to your audience to emphasize a major issue. Move from one side of the podium to the other as you transition from one point to another.

output

is the outcome of the process. Open systems constantly process new information in order to adapt to the environment.

conflict

is the part of group decision making in which group members express and debate different ideas about the best ways to solve a problem. Group tension typically occurs and in some teams competing factions can form.

emergence

is the part of group decision making when group members begin moving toward a consensus and determining the best ways to implement a decision. During this phase, some people may need to soften their positions so as not to seem dominating. Individuals may need to put the interests of the team above their own personal needs and decisions.

reinforcement

is the part of group decision making when the group feels a strong sense of cooperation and accomplishment after a decision is made. In this final phase, all members of the team need to commit to the objectives and plans, whether they personally agree with them or not.

decision making

is the process of choosing among alternatives. Decisions can be reached in several different ways: expert opinion method, average group opinion method, majority rule method, unanimous decision method, and consensus method.

reasoning by analogy

is the process of making a comparison between two similar cases and inferring that what is true in one case is true in the other. An analogy is an inference based on resemblances and assumes that things that are alike in most respects are probably alike in the respect in question. Reasoning by analogy is also known as reasoning from similar or parallel circumstances.

sensemaking

is the process of making sense of a new, unexpected, and sometimes chaotic interruption to the norm. Sensemaking is based on the premise that, when an unexpected interruption occurs, we understandably want to make sense of what is going on.

throughput

is the processing or comprehension of this new information.

ethical advocacy

is the public support for or recommendation of a particular cause or policy. When you deploy arguments in public, particularly when you are arguing for or against something specific, you are participating in advocacy.

Rehearsing

is the reciting and practicing of an argument or position to be delivered later. The more you rehearse, the more confident and effective you will be in your public speaking environment. There are several ways to rehearse: extemporaneously, in private, in your classroom or speaking environment, with a recording, and with friends.

proof

is the support for a claim or the reasons to justify accepting a claim.

vocal pause

is using a momentary pause (instead of uh, um, like, you know) to allow you and your audience to think. Pause can also be used for dramatic effect.

Vocal variety

is varying your volume, pitch, and/or rate to express a change of emotion, thinking, or intensity.

group diliberation

is working and communicating together as a team to reach a decision about a particular topic. In group deliberation, members of a group develop and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the group and its common shared goals.

goodwill

means having the best interest of your audience at heart. A credible speaker always extends goodwill to the audience and wants to do right by them. Goodwill means never wanting to harm anyone. A speaker who demonstrates competence and goodwill would certainly be considered ethical.

strawman fallacy

occurs when someone takes another person's argument, distorts or exaggerates it in some kind of extreme way so that it appears as "straw," and then attacks the extreme distortion, as if that is really the claim the first person made. The strawman fallacy is an answer to an argument that has not been advanced and that is not germane to the discussion.

feedback loop

occurs when systems self-correct based on new information from the environment. For example, if a family member is trying to find a sport or musical talent that suits her skills and abilities, and she receives negative feedback about her ability to be successful in gymnastics or tuba, then she tries something else such as track or piano. If a business or organization tries to market a new product, but receives feedback that it is not a good fit or that it is not affordable for the intended audience, then they respond to this feedback by altering the nature of the product.

competence

of a speaker is his or her ability to demonstrate knowledge of a given topic. By developing genuine expertise and consulting authoritative sources, a competent speaker is able to explain the topic well and help the audience to understand it better. The competent speaker is an ethical speaker.

Orientation:

part of the model of group decision making in which group members are getting to know and trust each other in the early stages.

a circle network

people of similar rank have open communication, and the message gets relayed by them to other people in the group. For instance, the CEO may pass information to the managers; then, the managers will pass on the information to the employees in their department.

qualifier

shows that a claim may not be true in all circumstances. Qualifiers include words such as "if," "presumably," "some," or "many." These words qualify the claim and help your audience to understand that there are instances in which your claim may not be correct. For example, someone could argue that "teeth whitener works if you don't drink coffee."

reservations

specify those situations in which a claim might not be true. A reservation, also known as a rebuttal, shows that there may be an exception to a claim. Reservations will often use the word "unless." For example, one could argue "teeth whitener doesn't work if you are a coffee drinker unless you drink the kind of coffee that doesn't stain teeth."

example of reasoning

support for the claim "it is cold outside" could include data from a thermometer, a newscast, or a personal observation such as how cold you felt when you walked outside. Reasoning includes noting that it is December and the temperature is usually cold in December, or reasoning that because it just snowed that it must be cold outside.

"Y" network

the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y. Information flows upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening to encompass the number of employees reporting to a supervisor.

consensus method

the group deliberates until all members of the group agree on an acceptable plan of action that they can support and effectively implement.

wheel network

there is one person in the middle who makes all the decisions, passing them on directly to each member of the team. The wheel network is a centralized form of communication in which team members typically check in with the central member of the team to retrieve information about decisions that affect the group.

conclusion

which is located after a word such as "thus" or "therefore."