Combo with "Adam Smith "Wealth of Nations"" and 9 others

Substantive Rationality

(Gives life flavor) Individuals might consider a range of possible values or actions, and attempting to make them consistent. Weber termed this substantive rationality and considered it problematic in modern society in that rationalization of social life makes it difficult for people to pursue particular values. For example, pursuit of family or religious values may be difficult in modern society, given economic pressures and dominance of bureaucratic organizations.

asceticism

-do not indulge in bodily pleasures or mindless luxuries

types of social action

-instrumental rational -value rational -traditional -affirmative action

Five types of alienation in industrial capitalism

-man from fellow man -man from society of man -man from self -man from product -man from process

Marx's contribution to social science

-revealed the economic mechanisms at work in the process of historical change. -articulated social and economic dynamics of capitalist society -provided a theory of class and class relations -identified alienating aspects of social life

power

-the chance of an individual or group to realize their own will in the social action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action

What are the two sources of rent?

1- competition for land, resulting from population increasing demand for land in general since less food can be grown per person, this leads to higher rent 2- Deminishing returns on land of the same quality

2 kinds of matter

1. Coarse - can be sensed 2. Subtle - too small and refined for our senses The invisible part of the world is also made of matter.

2 Purposes of Debriefing

1. Dehoaxing (true purpose of exp is explained) 2. Desensitizing (reduce any stress caused)

3 Enlightenment positions on religion

1. English position (Bacon's) 2. Deism 3. Atheism

Problems with materialism

1. Materialism didn't exist until the late 17th century. 2. Chimera can't exist, but they do exist—as human error and illusion. 3. Materialists claim a humanitarian cause: freeing humanity from delusion. But they also detest humanity for creating these illusions.

Socialism

A theory in which equality of all men was most important, along with rational thinking. Valued cooperation over individualism, but argued that each individual must be given the opportunity to develop to the best of his potential

Rational-legal authority

A type of authority in which the legitimacy of leaders is derived from the fact that there is a series of codified rules and regulations, and leaders hold their positions as a result of those rules.

Societal functionalism

A variety of structural functionalism that focuses on the large-scale social structures and institutuions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors.

Four signs of grace

A. productivity B. prosperity

asceticism

A. world-rejecting or otherworldly asceticism (St. Augustine) B. this worldly or inner worldly asceticism

Power and authority in social relationships - Power

Ability to get someone to do what you want (e.g. wash my car).

Theoretical Rationality

Abstract concepts form an essential part of logical reasoning or or theoretical models. These attempt to describe, explain, or understand the world in terms of models that are constructed from observation and reasoning. These forms of rationality need not be associated with social action but are more a part of logical structures and theory.

Authority

Acceptance of power because it is right or beneficial.

Exploitation

According to Marx, one class is always being exploited by another for greater profits.

Determinism

Because objects are determined, so is human behavior, because it has regularity, uniformity, and we can make inferences

Protestant ethic

Because of their belief in predestination, the Calvinists could not know whether they were going to heaven or hell or directly affect their fate. However, it was possible for them to discern signs that they were either saved or damned, and one of the major signs of salvation was success in business.

Philosophy and Religion

Being thought of as ridiculous (philosophy) is better than being dangerous or superstitious (religion)

Historical materialism

Belief that societies are defined by their economy.

Common Sense Examples

Birds of a feather flock together (BUT it contradicts "opposites attract")

Friedrich Engels

Born in Germany, was a close friend of Marx and wrote The Communist Manifesto with him. Was forced by family to be a businessman in textile industry. As a result, wrote Conditions of the English Working Class.

Karl Marx

Born into a German bourgeoisie family. Political theorist/activist. Like SMith, was in awe of innovation and production that capitalism unleashed. Took a critical view that capitalism is based on exploitation of many by the few. Wrote The Communist Manifesto.

Condillac vs Locke

Both: Observations made by sense perception are the foundation for human knowledge. Locke: The mind has 2 abilities: sensation and combination/reflection. Condillac: The second function is invalid; experience is entirely sensation. Memory is a prolonged sensation. Desire, appetite are resumed sensations.

bounties

Bounties are subsidies on goods that will be exported, with the express purpose of making those goods more competitive in foreign markets, and of creating monopolies abroad. In the logic of the mercantile system, it is thought that bounties will swing the balance of trade in favor of the government that awards such bounties. Bounties are usually petitioned for by the manufacturers of a particular good.

Methodology - Sociology as the science of social action

Focus on social action - not what we do as a result of biological drives.

Traditional non-rational action

Following customary practice without reasoning (e.g. my parents went to church, I will go to church, but without real consideration of what I believe)

EQ #8: What is the role of government according to Smith? To what extent should it regulate the markets? Who should it aim to protect in forming its economic policy?

For Smith, government should work on protecting the rules of the marketplace, while leaving the market to itself. That means that the government should protect property and make sure that the rules of law and justice are ensured (so that parties honor their contracts). Finally, governments should be responsible for defense of the society. Indeed, security is one of the most important preconditions of free and fair exchange. Adam Smith also recognizes that commerce depends on infrastructure. Some public works, he observes, could never repay their costs and therefore would never be undertaken by private entities. In these cases, governments may make themselves responsible for undertaking them. Education, Smith argues, is rather like infrastructure in that it is necessary for commerce to thrive. He touches on the fact that education also increases the quality of life, which increases security and productivity of laborers. While the state should not undertake the entire expense of education, it should certainly subsidize it.

Weber

Human behavior is shaped by individuals motives and desires. -religion can cause social change -World View, the idea or opinion of the world that members of a community or society have(religion imp role) -Lutheran Protestantism= capitalist ideology- the harder you work, the more reward you receive in the end

Similarity to Hobbes

Humean ideas are like Hobbes' idea of imagination as decaying sense; Reason does not equal freedom

Concepts and Math

If we have no experience of a concept, the concept can't be meaningful (e.g. the size of the universe, infinite divisibility)

Bacon's solution

Imprison the mind. Science should be institutionalized; men should come together in great institutions to make observations about nature. The truth is found through the senses improved by instruments.

calling

In Protestantism, the belief that saved individuals have a religious obligation to engage in worldly work.

Antithesis

In conflict with thesis, created by thesis. The two lead to synthesis

Structures

In society, patterned social interaction and persistent social relationships.

Idols

In the Novum Organum, Francis Bacon classified the intellectual fallacies of his time under four headings: 1. Idols of the Tribe 2. Idols of the Cave 3. Idols of the Marketplace 4. Idols of the Theater

Spirit of capitalism

In the West, unlike any other area of the world, people were motivated to be economically successful, not by greed, but by an ethical system that emphasized the ceaseless pursuit of economic success. The spirit of capitalism had a number of components including the seeking of profits rationally and systematically, frugality, punctuality, fairness, and the earning of money as a legitimate end in itself.

Origins of capitalism - Historically

Industrial Capitalism first emerged in Protestant (vs. Catholic) countries.

APA Ethical Standards

Informed Consent, Deception, Debriefing, Confidentiality

What are the two ways that Ricardo thinks England could go?

Insoler nation or a extroverted nation

IACUC

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Two types of rational action

Instrumentally-rational action and Value-rational action.

Party

Interest groups that cut across class and status. Political parties, and any coalition of diverse interest groups with an instrumental purpose.

Where does the higher price of rent come from?

It comes from the higher price of corn Rent is determined by the price of corn, it is not the one determining it

How does Ricardo Shift Smith's question?

It is not so much what makes a nation wealthy, rather it is how is the pie divided up between the groups?

Who argued against the case of protectionism?

John Bastiat

What are the three groups in Society that Ricardo is concerned with?

Landowners Capitalists Workers

Practical Rationality

involves the individual who considers ends, and on some systematic basis decide what is the best means or course of action to pursue in order to achieve these ends. This form of rationality can be considered to be pragmatic in that it provides individuals with a way of pursuing practical ends.

productive labor

any labor that directly results in the production of a tangible commodity (factory work, mining work, construction work, etc.)

Functional authority

authority must have power and demonstrate discipline

How did ricardo illustrate the example of comparative advantage?

by looking at wine and wool in Brittain and portugal

Malthus thinks tarrifs are good because they...

can help to limit the evils of industrialization that go hand in hand with big cities like manchester

Discoverability

causes can be discovered by using scientific methods

in a truly free city

citizens do everything with their own arms an nothing by means of money

social contract

clauses of social contract same everywhere, conditions same for all "The heart of the idea of the social contract may be stated simply: Each of us places his person and authority under the supreme direction of the general will, and the group receives each individual as an indivisible part of the whole..."

What basis die Ricardo argue for no tarrifs?

comparative advantage, he thought the country that could produce the good at the lowest opportunity cost should be lookied at

Systematic Empiricism ("data driven")

conclusions about behavior should be supported by data collected scientifically

Conclusion Subject to Revision

conclusions drawn from data are always tentative

free action causes

concurrence of : - moral causes (will which determines the act) - physical causes (power which executes it)

Confidentiality

data should be kept confidential and when possible, anonymous

Active Deception

deliberately confusing participants

Basic Research Goal

describe, predict, and explain fundamental principles and behavior (who, what, when, where, why)

Criticism 4

downplays structural/material preconditions for capitalist industry

Salvation aniety

economic success seen as a possible sign of salvation, treating the ethical pursuit of one's vocation as a religious "calling"

law of majority voting

established by convention, presupposes unanimity on one occasion at least

social impact law

every man is born free and his own master, no one can make any subject without his consent, if a minority disagrees they are excluded (minority is always wrong)

Criticism 2

exaggerates theological differences between Protestantism and Catholicism, naively accepts the piousness of early capitalists. Nostalgia?

Weber's goal is to

explain the causes of the origin of capitalism and account for why some nations became rich and others poor

Psychological consequences of Calvinism

extreme anxiety over salvation; search for a "sign" of salvation, denial of pleasure

social contract: the problem of

find a form of association which will defend and protect the person and goods with the whole common force, and in which each may still obey himself alone and remain free

mans essential needs

food, female, sleep

charisma

gift of grace, gift or power of leadership or authority. Weber belives that Germany lost WW1 due to a lack of charismatic leadership. Therefore he helps to draft the disastrous 1919 Weimar Constitution, with Article 41 which allowed for charismatic leaders to take control in times of a crisis.

Who doe Malthus defend?

he defends the landed aristocracy

Weber says the connection between protestantism and capitalism is

indirect and psychological, rather than direct and logical

Passive Deception

information is withheld form the participants

More psychological consequences

intense worldly activity; positive evaluation of economic pursuits as long as they avoid luxury

Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, represented an

intensification, not a relaxation, of religious discipline

Scientific Thinking

involves a series of assumptions and features

Criticism 3

relative commercial success of Protestants (and Jews) more likely explained by their exclusion from traditional avenues of gaining status

perfect legislator

representative of god, in direct contact with god --> no such man

Field Research

research that occurs at any other location

Laboratory Research

research that occurs within the controlled confines of scientific lab

Weber makes a case for the

role of the superstructure in determining history (For Augustine this is providence, for Machiavelli tis is virtu, fortuna & necessita)

natural vs civilised man

rousseau preferred the natural man to the so-called civilised man, as the latter is corrupted by the progressing arts and sciences

Calvinism

salvation cannot be achieved by good works or ritual absolution, predestination: only a few are chosen in advance for salvation

State of nature: man guided by

self interest, pity, no moral obligations with others

Justice Holmes: "The most stringent protection of free speech," he said, "would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic."

Hobbes because he show the value of life over freedom in this instance

Contrast to Hobbes

Hobbes thought people don't take pleasure in company, but Hume says people naturally want to be together

states

small states are better than large ones --> stronger than large states in proportion - must assure itself a safe foundation, neds stability and should be able to resist shock - could be reasons for expansion -- ruler must find middle

the civil state

social contract: man loses natural liberty and right to do whatever he pleases yet gains civil and moral liberty (best) and proprietorship pf all he possesses

the inalienability of sovereignty

sovereignty = the general will, which can never be alienated --> power can never be transmitted but not the will One person cannot change the general will

the indivisibility of society

sovereignty is indivisible, it is either with will of the body of people or only of a part of it

Methodology - Methodological individulaism

How do particular ideal types of individuals act within specific historical situations...Questions of motivation and rationality.

Capitalism came to thrive in nations characterized by an historically unique

spirit that motivates a particular form of social action

republic

state that is governed by laws

power

the ability of an individual, group, organization or nation to accomplish its goals despite resistance.

legitmation crisis

the belief that an individual or a regime does not have the right to rule. In a system of legal rational authority, examples might be voting rights' violations; discrimination; Jim Crow; the influence of money, lobbyists, and political actions committees on legislation.

legitmacy

the belief that an individual or a regime has the right to rule, and is just

sovereignty

the centralization of public power, the monopoly of legitimate violence: the military and police.

domination

the expectation that a command will be obeyed; compliance.

the infallibility of the general will

the general will is always right essential that there is no partial society within the state, everyone should think for himself

Weber feared both

the influence of socialism and far-right elements

bureaucracy

the institutionalization of sovereignty and power. the most rational means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. Bureaucracy develops more perfectly, the more it is dehumanized.

rationalization

the overall historical process by which reality is increasingly mastered by calculation, scientific knowledge, and rational acton. rationalization advances directly in relation to the decline of magic in mental processes and interpretation of reality. Rationalization proceeds by substantive rationality, a value orientation that influences the other rationalities.

Calvinist religious doctrine

the protestant ethic

Weber's main sociological concern is what he called rationalization defined as the spread of means-end action and the bureaucratic form of organization

the spread of means-end action and the bureaucratic form of organization

the right of the strongest

the strongest is never strong enough to always be the master,citizens only obliged to obey legitimate powers

routinization of charisma

the transformation of charismatic authority into some combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority

verstehen

the understanding of others, knowing peoples ideas, values, beliefs in order to understand why they behave the way they do.

Humean Compatibilism

the view that freedom of will and moral responsibility can be reconciled with determinism.

party

-any group whose action is oriented toward the acquisition of social power

Empiricism

First proposed by Bacon. The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience.

Functional authority Charismatic

(power based on personality and the ability to attract followers, charisma attributed to them by followers) challenges existing social order, Examples: Cult Leaders, Christ, Hitler, - authority invested in the individual Weber claims ("Politics as a vocation") that Britain often produces charismatic politicians due to the debating parliamentary system.

Functional authority traditional/ legitimate

(power that is based on long standing beliefs on who should have control) Example: Kings/Queens, village elders, "eternal yesterday", patriarchal -claim to legitimacy based on an appeal to custom or tradition -unquestioned authority -administration administered on a case by case basis

law

- all justice comes from man - the laws of justice are ineffective among men - in the state of society all rights are fixed by law - the law can have specific privileges, but not to specific people or objects - laws are made by the general will, which is always right

the legislator

- cannot be the same person who drew up the laws - only the general will can bind the people - legislator must be capable of constraining without violence and persuading without convincing

limits of the sovereign power

- citizens must fulfil tasks that are good for the state if the sovereign ask them to - act of sovereignty conviction between the body and each of its members - sovereign always restricted by general will

government

- legislative power belongs to the people - public force needs an agent(minister) to serve as means of communication between the state and the sovereign - government = intermediate body between state and sovereign - for people not people for govt

Two kinds of inequality

- natural - moral (class privileges, power etc.) --> arises from formation of society

democracy

- not good for he who makes the laws to execute them - corruption of legislator more evil than abuse of laws by govt - there has never been a real democracy and there never will be

2 extremes of voting

- total scattering where everyone disagrees - total unanimity where people do not care and simply vote BOTH EXTREMES ARE BAD

Productive phases in history

-Asiatic/Antique -Feudal -capitalist -socialist -communist

English position

-Believe in king's interpretation of Christianity. -Don't think about or pray to God; do science.

Connection between mind and body

-Descartes: Pineal gland? -Cartesians: Everything is directly caused by God. (d'Holbach uses absurdity)

Atheism

-Disbelief in the existence of a god. Creation is the result of natural laws; no point of origin. -2 kinds of matter: coarse and fine. Everything is material.

Deism

-God exists, but is not directly involved in the world. God is ambivalent, uncaring, and uninvolved. -Bases belief on reason and nature. Rejects supernatural revelation, unlike theism.

Baron d'Holbach

-Materialist -Mind (unextended) cannot move matter (extended). Matter is self-creating (ex: maggots). -God doesn't exist; spirit can't create matter.

Chimera

-Something that exists only in the imagination (a monster from Greek mythology). -Human error = chimera = thinking something can be immaterial. -God is the most horrible chimera.

Marx's 3 stages to revolution

-Vandalizing means of production (ex:Luddites) -Trade union formation (developing a class awareness) -Political party formation (developing class consciousness to overthrow bourgeoisie government.)

religion

-___elaborates a world view (Weltanschauung) that rationalizes/explains and renders ethical the distribution of fortunes in society -explains why some people suffer and some don't

instrumental rational action

-action that is geared to the instrumental pursuit of goals

value rational action

-actions that are pursued as an end unto themselves because of a value, not because of a particular advantage

rationalization

-an ongoing process in which social interaction and institutions become increasingly governed by methodical procedures and calculable rules

Key Characteristics of Bureaucracy (as an ideal type)

1. Specification of jobs with detailed rights, obligations, responsibilities, scope of authority. 2. Heiarchy system of supervision and subordination 3. unity of command where authority resides in rules, not position 4. extensive use of written documents 5. Job training (specialization) 6. Application of rules 7. Hire and assign based on competence and experience, NOT favouritism

Methodologies for studying social action and social institutions

1. Vershtehn- Interpretative/Empathetic and emotional understanding 2. Objectivity in social science "value free", facts and values should be kept seperate. "Science" can only tell us facts, not values. 3. Ideal Types- empirically based comparative tools, can compare world cultures -Social science shouldn't be studied like a natural science

Spirit of Capitalism as is shaped by these Protestant beliefs:

1. Work is an end in itself—something to be proud of in itself and righteous—reward for work becomes less important. 2. Trade and Profit are taken not only as evidence of occupational success but also as indicators of personal virtue. 3. Organized and Methodically planned life/economy is good as a way of achieving long term goals and is righteous (planning is delaying gratification). 4. Immediate Pleasure should be denied. Reinvestment of profits is more righteous than living on them. (stockpile of investment capital that fueled western economies).

spirt of capitalism

1. acquisition of money a duty 2. wealth is an end in itself 3. moneymaking is the ultimate purpose

negative aspects of rationality

1. the rise of a calculative mentality 2. reduction of everything to cost-benefit analysis 3. value of everything, including humans, reduced to money valuation 4. dehumanization of bureaucracy

When were the Corn laws created and what were they?

1815 and they were increasing tariffs on imported grains

affective (emotional) action, traditional (habitual) action

2 types of non-rational action

purposive (means-ends) rationality, value rationality

2 types of rational action

IACUC consists of...

3 people: veterinarian, practicing scientist, member of the community

the sovereign

= all the people who have committed themselves to the social contract always acts in the general will, shall never hurt the general will. those who do not obey general will shall be 'kicked out' - cannot be represented

causation

A "cause and effect" relationship exists wherever a change in one variable (the independent variable) induces change in another (the dependent variable).

bureaucracy

A formal organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority, the existence of written rules of procedure, staffed by full-time salaried officials, and striving for the efficient attainment of organizational goals.

Verstehen

A methodological technique involving an effort to understand the thought processes of the actor, the actor's meanings and motives, and how these factors led to the action (or interaction) under study.

Bureaucracy

A modern type of organization in which the behavior of officers is rule bound; each office has a specified sphere of competence and has obligations to perform specific functions, the authority to carry them out, and the means of compulsion to get the job done; the offices are organized into a hierarchical system; technical training is needed for each office; those things needed to do the job belong to the office and not the officer; the position is part of the organization and cannot be appropriated by an officer; and much of what goes on in the bureaucracy (acts, decision, rules) is in writing.

Ideal type

A one sided, exaggerated concept, usually an exaggeration of the rationality of a given phenomenon, used to analyze the social world in all is historical and contemporary variation. The ideal type is a measuring rod to be used in comparing various specific examples of a social phenomenon either cross-culturally or over time.

Marx and class

A person's class is determined by the means of production. You either own the means of production or work for a wage.

Structural functionalism

A sociological therory that focuses on the structures of society and their functional significance (positive or negative consequences) for other structures.

Value-rational action

Action that occurs when an actor's choice of the best means to an end is chosen on the basis of the actor's belief in some larger set of values. This may not be the optimal choice, but it is rational from the point of view of the value system in which the actor finds herself.

Value-rational action

Action to express some value (e.g. Resign job or office protest over unfairness to others). END IN THEMSELVES

action determined by the emotional state of the actor

Affective (emotional) action

capitalism

An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution in which the goal is to produce profit.

socialism

An economic system in which the means of production and distribution of goods and services are publicly owned.

Theoretical rationality

An effort to master reality cognitively through the development of increasingly abstract concepts. The goal is to attain a rational understanding of the world rather than to take rational action within it.

Explain the diminishing returns on land of the same quality

As marginal product declines, the marginal costs rise leading to an ever increasing rent. The rent is determined by the rising prices

the success rate of compliance and obedience

Authority

Morality

Based on how our actions affect others, not on reason; sympathy is the foundation for morality

Non-rational actions

Based on unreflective action (e.g. breaking cell phone from anger or road rage)

market freedom, rational technology, calculable law, formally free labor, commercialization of economic life

Basic elements of capitalism

Power of Authority:

Capitalist in very top, take away their authority they lose power.

the level of individuals

Causes in sociology have to be reduced to _____

does not equal greed, machine like and impersonal

Characteristics of capitalism as a system

Post-Modernists

Claim that Weber's theory is outdated and that religion is now simply a meta-narrative (big story) that has ultimately collapsed (Lyotard, 1984).

Proletariat

Class that lives so long as they find work, and work only so long as their labor increases capital. Were seen as a commodity. An appendage of the machine that cannot raise up without creating upheaval.

Different types of power and inequality

Class, status, and party

Motivation

Comes from pleasure and pain, which motivate passions

What concept does he put down that changes everything?

Comparative advantage

Theory = Study of rationality

Concerned with understanding meaningful social actions of individuals. Distinguished between non-rational and rational actions.

Functions

Consequences that can be observed and that help a particular system adapt or adjust.

What did Ricardo look at and who benefited the most?

Corn Laws and the rising price of corn as a result the landowners benefited the most from it

Status

Cultural proplerty and a matter of respect, deference, or prestige. Status can be independent of wealth. Can be based on education, taste, morality.

Protestant Ethic

Delayed gratification - save and reinvest.

Direct Passions

Desire, aversion, grief, joy, hope, and fear

Conflict theory

Developed by Marx. A perspective that sees historical change as the product of the opposed interests of different classes.

Superstructure

Dominant ideas, beliefs, values, institutions of a society as dictated by the dominant class.

Origins of capitalism - Proposed more types through history

E.g. Financial, adventure, mercantilist. Industrial capitalism most important historically.

Class

Economic power in the market. Much broader definition than Marx or Smith. As many classes as there are degrees of wealth, income, or economic influence.

Routinization of charisma

Efforts by disciples to recast the extraordinary and revolutionary characteristics of the charismatic leader so that they are better able to handle mundane matters. This is also done in order to prepare for the day when the charismatic leader passes from the scene and to allow the disciples to remain in power.

Idols of the Market Place

Errors that result from the imperfect correspondences between the word definitions in human languages and the real things in nature which these words represent.

Origins of capitalism - Industrial capitalism

Essential quality - based on instrumental rational calcualtion (e.g. bookkeeping). Based on a specific goal and decuded by calculation,rather than tradition (habitual), emotion(affective), or values.

Secondary Impressions

Formed from an original impression or an idea

Ideas

Formed from simpler ideas, which are formed from experience; so ideas are similar to experiences

Liberty

Freedom; insane people don't have it

Condillac's solution

Give up language for algebra, which has very few signs, and signs for things that actually exist. Mathematics is not non-material (as Bacon views it), but it governs the material world.

state

Government institutions ruling over a given territory, whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force.

What does population do to the margin of cultivation

Growth of population pushes out the margin of cultivation

What does ricardo assume?

He assumes flexible prices, mobility of resources that resources leave one industry and flow into the other industry

What is Ricardian Vice?

He avoided details, he focused on few variables and relyed upon assumptions

Does Ricardo support or reject Say's Law?

He rejects it Supply will always lead to its own demand==> a glut can never exist

Who is Nassau Senior?

He too is a classical liberal economist who supported Ricardo's analysis of the ecnomy and critiques restriction of the economy

What sort of reasoning did Reicardo use?

He used deductive reasoning without referring to fats or institutions

What was Ricardo's emphasis?

He wanted to look at income distribution, who got what piece of the pie

Brief background on him?

He was a good friend of Malthus, he grew up on lumbar street in NY and was a wealthy stock broker

Hereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man.

Hobbes

The passions that incline men to peace are: fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them.

Hobbes

Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to every man, the same is consequent to the time wherein men live without other security than what their own strength and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain

Hobbes

which is worst of all, [in a time of war there is] continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short...

Hobbes

Justice Jackson: Rioting is a substantive evil, which I take it, no one will deny that the State and the City have the right and the duty to prevent and punish.

Hobbes - Jackson argues that the first role of government is protect the people.

Justice Jackson: In this case, the evidence proves beyond dispute that danger of rioting and violence in response to the speech was clear, present and immediate.

Hobbes - freedom of speech ends when it poses a "clear and present" danger to citizens. (Schenck v. US)

Justice Jackson: The choice is not between liberty and order. It is between liberty with order and anarchy without either.

Hobbes - safety/order over liberty

Functional authority Rational

Legal (power based on rules; knowledgable candidates, earned respect) Example: Bureautic system, police, judges, -claim to legitimacy based on an appeal to the law and the rationality of the law and of established, fixed rules -bureaucratic means of rules -ideally, every case handled the same way - authority invested in the position of office In spite of potential problems, bureaucracy is the most efficient (indeed the only) form of large-scale social organization.

Protestant Ethic

Life as a balance sheet of sin and morality.

Justice Holmes: I believe the defendants had as much right to publish as the Government has to publish the Constitution of the United States

Locke

The like natural inducement hath brought men to know that it is no less their duty, to love others than themselves

Locke

and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions

Locke

if I cannot but wish to receive good, even as much at every man's hands, as any man can wish unto his own soul, how should I look to have any part of my desire herein satisfied, unless myself be careful to satisfy the like desire

Locke

if I do harm, I must look to suffer, there being no reason that others should shew greater measure of love to me, than they have by me shewed unto them

Locke

Constitution of India: LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship

Locke (free speech and freedom of religion)

Declaration of Independence: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--

Locke - Life, Liberty, property

Declaration of Independence: That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed

Locke - consent of the governed (i.e. democracy/elections/trial by jury/free speech)

Declaration of the Rights of Man: The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imperceptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression

Locke - life, liberty, property.

Declaration of the Rights of Man: Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights.

Locke - you have your life, liberty, property protected so long as you don't harm someone else's life, liberty or property.

Justice Douglas: The right to speak freely and to promote diversity of ideas and programs is therefore one of the chief distinctions that sets us apart from totalitarian regimes.

Locke because it shows the crucial nature of free speech in a democratic society.

Justice Douglas: The vitality of civil and political institutions in our society depends on free discussion.

Locke because it shows the crucial nature of free speech in a democratic society.

Justice Holmes: Only the emergency that makes it immediately dangerous... warrants making any exception to the sweeping command, "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech."

Locke because only when the speech causes an immediate danger to someone or something that you should make an exception to freedom of speech. In short, freedom of speech should be the norm. That's Lockean.

Justice Holmes: Now nobody can suppose that the surreptitious publishing of a silly leaflet by an unknown man, without more, would present any immediate danger that its opinions would hinder the success of the government arms (stop the war effort) or have any appreciable tendency to do so.

Locke. Holmes argues for the crucial role of free speech in a democratic society. In Abrams v US pamphlets were thrown out a window to a general audience. Free (not targeted) speech. Holmes doubts that a single pamphlet poses a "clear and present danger" (i..e. the argument from Schenck v. US)

Class

Make up economic order, defined in terms of market situation- Exists when people have economic interests in common. -A class is not a group, social action from a group of class members is linked to general cultural conditions, class situations then emerge on the basis of social action.

Party

Make up legal/political order- Parties are... only possible within groups that have an asssociational character, that is, some rational order and a staff of persons'' (938) -may represent class or status interests, or neither. They usually represent a mix.

Status

Make up social order- Groups determined on distribution of social honor. -Members of status groups share lifestyles, and groups are defined by those whom one has social intercourse. - People from different economic classes may be members of the same status group, if they share the same specific style of life. - Extreme version = CASTE SYSTEM

What's the different between Marx and Weber social class model?

Marx: Power obtain in the ownership class. Weber: Power comes from Authority

iron cage

Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which the "technical and economic conditions of machine production" control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization.

Declaration of the Rights of Man: Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general [common] good

Rousseau. Common good synonymous with general good.

Rene Descartes

Mind-body dualism -Body = matter, extension in space -Mind = thought, idea, not extended

Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then be the legislator.

Montesquieu

When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty

Montesquieu

Constitution of Tunisia: to establish a democracy ... characterized by a stable political system based on separation of powers.

Montesquieu - checks and balances.

The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch; because this branch of government, which has always need of expedition, is better administered by one than by many: Whereas, whatever depends on the legislative power, is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.

Montesquieu - if you see legislative, executive, or judiciary it's probably Montesquieu

"The Calling"

Motivates individuals to pursue worldy success. Luther- each individual has a calling or life task has its roots in a religious quest for salvation. -reflects the non-rationalist orientation to action, motivated by the moral obligation to perform duties of his labor to the best of his abilities. -individualist concept - For Weber- significance lies in in growth and dominance of capitalism and accompanied rationalization of much of social life.

Who might have written Classical Ecnomic Crittique of the British Regulation?

Nassaue Senior

Vice and Virtue

The impression of vice is pain; the impression of virtue is pleasure

Did Malthus oppose the corn laws?

No

Data falsification

No data collected; data altered/omitted; collected+guessed data Can be detected through replications and peer reiviews

Identity

No object stays the same over time, and thus, no object has identity

affective action

Non rational action that is motivated by emotions.

No free will/mind

Nothing in nature is free (ex: gravity). A human would have to overcome natural laws to have complete free will. The idea of a free mind = chimera.

Bureacracy rule by the few (few people is at the top)

Oligarchy.

Practical rationality

On a day-to-day basis, we deal with whatever difficulties exist and find the most expedient way of attaining our goal of getting from one point to another.

traditional action

One of Weber's four action typologies (the others being Wertrational, Zweckrational, and Affective action) that refers to action motivated by custom or tradition.

materialist

One who believes that material conditions are the foundation of sociocultural systems.

idealist

One who subscribes to the hypothesis that ideas are prime movers (important causal agents) in sociocultural systems.

Availability Heuristics

Overestimation of frequency of vivid memorable events

affective action

Part of Weber's action typology that refers to individual action motivated by emotions.

Methodology - Ideal types

Part of the sociological toolkit...Helpful in theoretical reasoning.

Forms of Deception

Passive and Active

Methodology - Sociology as value relevant and value free

People are thinking and feeling beings, and need to be studied as such.

"Microscope", "razor", "fork"

Philosophical mental tools; the microscope says we should break down ideas to understand them; the razor says if we can't break down a complex idea, it has no meaning; the fork is composed of relations of ideas and matters of fact

Bourgeoisie

Played a revolutionary role in history. Removed feudal ties. They were only bound by money and self-interest. Reduced family to a mere money relation. Most constantly revolutionize production.

Informed Consent

Potential participants are informed about procedures and risks that might be involved; free to withdraw from study at any time; written consent required

POWER

Power is the ''chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a social action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action'' (926). -Economically conditioned power is not identical with power -Economic power may be the consequence of power existing on other grounds -Power may be valued for its own sake, man does not strive for power for economic reasons alone. It is conditioned by the social honor it entails -Legal order is an additional factor that enhances chance to hold power

What are Weber's four types of rationality?

Practical, theoretical, substantive, and formal. Weber's focus was on formal rationality.

Protestant Ethic

Predestination - worldly wealth as a sign of future grace.

Indirect Passions

Pride, humility, love, and hatred

What book did Ricardo write?

Principles of Political Economy and Taxation He wanted to determine the laws which regulate the distribution of income: rent, profit, and wages

Legal-rational authority - bureaucracy

Problem: over time, goals of bureaucracy come to dominate over individuals goals - individuals become trapped in an 'iron cage' of rationalization.

Means of production

The instruments necessary to a productive process. ex: tools and machinery, raw materials, factories, land.

action that rationally calculates and selects among different means according to which best or most efficiently attains the actor's chosen goals

Purposive (means-ends) rationality

zweckrational

Rational action in relation to a goal.

Reason and Passion

Reason is slave to passion; passion and desires motivate behavior

Original Impressions

Received from the senses; they're internal and come from external things

bureaucratization

Refers to the tendency of bureaucracies to refine their procedures to ever more efficiently attain their goals.

Rational action

Reflects a conscious purpose and some thought.

IRBS

Research involves 1) some risk, 2) minimal risk, or 3) no risk

Emotional non-rational action

Responding to an immediate stimulus without thought (e.g. get into a fight when insulted).

Synthesis

Result of thesis and antithesis; becomes new thesis, or situation.

I know that [civilized men] do nothing but boast incessantly of the peace and repose they enjoy in their chains....

Rousseau

In reality, the difference is, that the savage lives within himself while social man lives outside himself and can only live in the opinion of others

Rousseau

Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains.

Rousseau

Constitution of India: WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Rousseau ("socialist" is an economy based on regulating private property. A step toward communism.)

Constitution of Tunisia: the best guarantee for the respect of human rights... [is for the] use of the nation's riches for the benefit of the people;

Rousseau - "use of nation's riches for the benefit of the people" implies regulating property for the common good.

[It is my purpose] to show, in short, how abject we are, and never daring to ask ourselves in the midst of so much philosophy, benevolence, politeness, and of such sublime codes of morality, we have nothing to show for ourselves but a frivolous and deceitful appearance, honour without virtue, reason without wisdom, and pleasure without happiness.

Rousseau - because (he argues) civilization corrupts us

The first man who, having enclosed a piece of ground, bethought himself of saying This is mine, and found people simple enough to believe him, was the real founder of civil society.

Rousseau - private property is the cause of jealousy

Between the title of the strongest and that of the first occupier, there arose perpetual conflicts, which never ended but in battled and bloodshed. The new-born state of society thus gave rise to a horrible state of war; men thus harassed, and depraved were no longer capable of retracing their steps or renouncing the fatal acquisitions they had made, but, labouring by the abuse of the faculties which do them honour, merely to their own confusion, brought themselves to the brink of ruin.

Rousseau - society is a state of war, a battle between the haves and have nots.

ideal type

Weber's construct of a 'pure type', constructed by emphasizing logical or consistent traits of a given social item.

"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest."

Smith

Justice Holmes: The ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas — that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out.

Smith (free market of ideas)

The real and effectual discipline which is exercised over a workman is not that of his corporation (i.e. a government protected guild, trade union, or corporation with the power to monopolize the competition) but that of his customers.

Smith - customers demands keep a business honest (in supplying what they want)

The patrimony of a poor man lies in the strength and dexterity of his hands; and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper without injury to his neighbor is a plain violation of this most sacred property.

Smith - people can make their own wealth. They don't need the hierarchy. (Also, very Lockean because "of his most sacred [private] property")

The real price of everything, what everything really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it.

Smith - price is a result of supply and demand (how hard you'll work for something)

Legal-rational authority - bureaucracy

Social embodiment of instrumental rational action...Has certain features: hierarch, continuity, impersonality, and expertise.

Methodology - Sociology as value relevant and value free

Sociology is most interested in how thinking and feeling individuals act socially.

Applied Research Goal

Solve some immediate real life problem

Origins of capitalism

Starts with similar concerns as Marx - origins of capitalism, power relations. But with more idealist methodologically indiviualist approach. Broader definition of capitalism than Marx.

Calvinism

all-powerful God, world exists for Gods glory, not for human purposes, purposes of God are incomprehensible to mankind

What are the two reasons for a higher price of grain?

Tariffs are rising Population pressure=more price of grain==> raises rents

What does Ricardo say about effective demand?

That in the long run, the economy will always lead to no unemployment because supply will follow in Say's law

What group doe Ricardo defend?

The Capitalists

what group is really benefiting from the Corn laws?

The Landlords

Ontology

The branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of being/existence. 1. Materialists: only matter exists 2. Idealists: only mind exists

Formal rationality

The choice of the most expedient action is based on rules, regulations and laws that apply to everyone. This form of rationality is distinctive to the modern West.

Substantive rationality

The choice of the most expedient action is guided by larger values rather than by daily experiences and practical thinking.

What is contributing to a stationary state?

The corn laws

What happened in 1845?

The corn laws were done away with, England then unilaterally moves to become a freetrade nation, within the next 60 years, they become the most powerful nation in the world

Thesis

The current situation. It must create it's opposite (antithesis) in order to survive. The situation must change by nature.

Charisma

The definition by others that a person has extraordinary qualities. A perosn need not actually have such qualities in order to be so defined.

Materialism

The doctrine that nothing exists except matter.

Base

The economic conditions, the tools, material resources, means of production and distribution.

What did the corn laws have on wages?

The higher duties on grain meant a higher price of grain and this lead to an increase in the subsitence wage, an increase in wages and a decrease in profits==> This is bad for the economy.

Self

The idea of it has no impression; it is not simple and identical over time, but is just a "bundle of impressions"

What id discussed int the 3rd edition of principles?

The idea that maybe technology will lead to unemployment

What was the Iron Law of Wages?

The idea that the wage will always tend to, in the long run, be equal to the subsistence wage Ricardo tells the workers that they are on a stagnant escalaotr

Informed Consent Forms

The nature of the study, any potential risks or inconveniences to participants, the procedure for ensuring confidentially of the data, the voluntary nature of their cooperation and their freedom to withdraw at any time without prejudice or consequence

Impressions

The original source of material and ideas; include emotions, sensations, memory

irrationality factor

The paradox of supremely rational organizations, bureaucracies, acting in very irrational ways for the total society.

What famous petition did Bastiat give?

The petition of the candle maker -He was arguing for free trade because it can delay the coming of the stationary state

Means-end rational action

The pursuit of ends that the actor has chosen for himself; the choice is affected by the actor's view of the environment in which she finds herself, including the behavior of people and objects in it.

Communism

The social system that permits, for the first time, the expression of full human potential.

division of labor

The specialization of work tasks or occupations and their interrelationship.

capitalism, secularized version, protestant ethic

The spirit of _____ is a _____ of the _____

modernity

The state of being modern, usually associated with industrial and hyperindustrial societies.

macrosociology

The study of large-scale organizations, sociocultural systems, or the world system of societies.

microsociology

The study of small scale patterns of human interaction and behavior within specific settings.

Behaviorism

The study, largely associated with psychology, of behavior.

Critique of WEBER

The theory is questionable as there are examples of protestant countries such as Scotland which did not industrialise whilst some parts of Catholic Germany did. Slavery and colonialism (where countries took over the power of others) are arguably more important than Calvinist beliefs in accumulating the capital required for industrialisation.

The process of Dialectical Materialism

The thesis creates the antithesis, the two then combine into the synthesis, which becomes the new thesis. All leads to socialism

formal rationality

The use of zweckrational—goal oriented rational behavior—to achieve a goal without thought to wider social values, traditions, or emotions.

Teleological view of history

The view that all of history is moving toward some purpose or ultimate endpoint, a.k.a. Communism.

Capitalism

an economic and political system dependent on private capital and profit-making that was dominant since the break-up of feudalism. Most of the means of production are privately owned, and income is distributed largely through operation of markets. Brought about the rise of the mercantile class.

social evolution

Theories of cumulative sociocultural change which generally hold that human societies move from simple to complex forms of organization.

Protestant Ethic

Theory focused on role of ideas in social change - idealist theory.

Condillac

There is no 1:1 correspondence between words and reality. We don't have words for all ideas and things that exist. Language makes physical things ambiguous, abstract. Language ought to be simple.

Tell me about the capitalists?

They have a drive to accumulate capital and then invest it in order to compete. They are interested in maximizing profits, over time their profits naturally decline, but they are able to move up the escalator

What did ricardo think about the corn Laws, He hated them...

They needed to go in order for comparative advantage to take place in a free-trade system

Action

Things that people do that are the result of conscious processes.

Behavior

Things that people do that require little or no thought.

Instrumentally-rational action

Thoughtful action toward some goal (e.g. go to class, do well on test) (Based on rational calculation of costs and benefits) MEANS TO AN END

Social stratification

To the structural functionalist, a structure involving a hierarchy of positions that has the function of leading those people with the needed skills and abilities to do what is necessary to move into the high-ranking positions that are most important to society's functioning and survival.

action determined by the actor's habitual or customary ways of behaving

Traditional (habitual) action

Two types of non-rational action

Traditional non-rational action and Emotional non-rational action

What three types of authority was Weber interested in?

Traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority. The dominent authority is rational-legal authority.

rational and non-rational action

Types of social actions, action that involve at least one other person

Tell me about the landlords?

Uniquely benefiting from the system They are parasites because they are gaining at everyone else's expense The corn laws benefit them

domination, inevitable

Unlike Marx, he believed _____ to be _____

Methodology - Ideal types

Useful abstraction of reality that captures essential features of some social phenomenon (e.g. ideal type of a "party").

action that is done in conformity with absolute moral or ethical values

Value rationality

independently of any assessment of the probable success or ultimate consequences of such action

Value rationality is done _____

"Ought" and "is"

Values and fact in philosophy, respectively; it is impossible to derive an "ought" from an "is", but reason helps distinguish them.

the German word for understanding, used to describe Weber's approach to sociological explanation

Verstehen

Cause and Effect

We have no impression of cause and effect; we perceive them objectively but universal cause and effect does not exist

Reason

We're not ruled by reason, but reason helps determine external relations

protestant, europe are poor

Wealthier countries are typically _____. Catholic countries in _____.

center-right

Weber allied himself with the _____

relations of authority and domination

Weber believed _____ were important characteristics of society

Unlike Marx...

Weber believed domination to be inevitable

values, researcher, she/he chooses to study and what concepts they use

Weber believed that the _____ of the _____ informed what _____

influence of socialism and far-right elements

Weber feared both the _____

Capitalism and the law

Weber is famous for espousing that economic forces do not affect the law. this is not a misrepresentation but is oversimplistic. he actually says that law is affected only indirectly by the economic circumstances as it is reletively self-governing. law is fundamentally related to but not determined by economic factors

facts, values, separate

Weber maintains that _____ and _____ can and should be kept _____

Study of rational and non-rational actions

Weber mostly concerned with documenting the rise of instrumental rational action. Bound up with the origins and development of capitalism.

this-worldly asceticism

Weber's "spirit"

Weber's Analysis of Rationality

Weber's fear was that formal rationality was becoming more dominant in modern, western society, with substantive rationality declining in importance. Weber notes that formal rationality developed as capitalistic forms of organizations emerged and its expansion is associated with the development of formal organizations and methods. This formal rationality, and the organizational features associated with them, tend to crowd out other forms of rationality and limit the possibilities of creative social action.

rationalization, spread of means-end action and the bureaucratic form of organization

Weber's main sociological concern is what he called _____ defined as the ______

positivistic, Durkheim, deterministic, Marx's, interpretative endeavor

Weber's sociology is not _____ like _____ and not _____ like _____. Rather it is an _____

charismatic authority

Weber's term for authority which rests on the extraordinary characteristics of the leader attributed to them by followers.

wertrational

Weber's term that refers to value-oriented rationality.

Protestant Ethic

Weber's thesis that protestant values and beliefs placed value on hard work and thrift, thus promoting the transition to capitalism.

Traditional power is

When power passes from one generation to another.

master

an employer; the person who provides wages to laborers

protestant calvinists tend to be upwardly mobile while catholics are marked by cultural deficiencies including an allergy to hard work

Within wealthy countries _____

Men endeavor to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring objects for a moment; and women, intoxicated by the adoration which men, under the influence of their senses, pay them, do not seek to obtain a durable interest in their hearts.

Wollstonecraft

One cause of this barren blooming I attribute to a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men, who, considering females rather as women than human creatures, have been more anxious to make them alluring mistresses than rational wives;

Wollstonecraft

Strengthen the female mind by enlarging it, and there will be an end to blind obedience.

Wollstonecraft

The conduct and manners of women, in fact, evidently prove, that their minds are not in a healthy state

Wollstonecraft

The understanding of the sex has been so bubbled by this specious homage, that the civilized women of the present century, with a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspire love, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition, and by their abilities and virtues exact respect

Wollstonecraft

Constitution of Tunisia: the most effective way of protecting the family and ensuring the citizens' right to work, health care and education.

Wollstonecraft - because of the crucial role of education. (Arguably Rousseau because of healthcare and right to work. These are social programs, unlike Locke's reliance of private programs.

Protestant Ethic

Work and labor as a "calling".

David Hume

Writer and publisher; empiricist, skeptic to an extent (skeptical of God)

Legal Rational authority is

a bureaucracy (political or economic). This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations. By virtue of the role you play in society.

civilization

a hopeless race to discover remedies for the evils it produces

The spirit is not

a necessary condition of contemporary capitalism

This spirt combines

a passionate pursuit of unlimited wealth with a renunciation of worldly pleasure through consumption of wealth

Debriefing

after the study has been completed, participants receive info about the study (purpose, methods, etc.)

Centralization

all power comes from a central area

Formal Rationality

is a broader form of rationality that characterizes organizations, especially bureaucratic ones. This leads to "universally applied rules, laws and regulations that characterize formal rationality in the West ... particularly in the economic, legal, and scientific institutions, as well as in the bureaucratic form of domination." (Ritzer, p. 123). Rational-legal forms of authority such as the contemporary legal and judicial systems are examples of formal rationality.

Closed system

isolated, no outside distractions

liberty in the state of nature

man appears to have liberty in the state of nature, but is actually a slave of his own appetites

freedom

man is born free, but from the minute after he is born

in a well ordered city

men want to get involved and help

rationality

mindset that employs methodical calculation in action, mental processes that attempt to master reality by calculation. 1. formal 2. practical 3. theoretical 4. substantive rationality

Criticism 1

mistaken about timing (capitalism often preceded Protestantism), confuses cause and effect (Protestantism the effect, not the cause)

Rules

must be clearly outlined and presented in written form. (strict)

slavery

no right to slavery at all because it isnt legitimate - if a man removes all liberty, he so alienates himself and removes all morality

Deception

occurs when participants are mislead about the nature of the study; should only be used when no other feasible alternative is available

psychological premium

one can sleep at night convinced that one is of the elect.

end of the state is near when

people stop doing their state duties

Scientific Fraud

plagiarism and data falsification

What occurs in a stationary state?

population stops growing No more net investments per-capita income quites growing No economic profits at all

Plagiarism

presenting someone else's ideas as being one's own

Rents are _______ determined

price

Many of the Oligarchy is based on...

race, you have to be the right race.

Impersonal System

rationality is emphasized, using what is effective

What did Ricardo think about labor?

thought that exchange value should be proportional to direct labor involved in production Labor is the source of value in exchange therefore the landowners are not valid owners of money

Why animals are used in research

to learn about people and to learn about animals

Prior to capitalism's emergence, Weber argues,

traditional behavior was a central obstacle because workers and entrepreneurs treated work as a means to an end (enjoyment, luxury)

Match the following: Wages, Landowners, Captialists

wages=labor landowners=rent capitalists=profits

Weber believed relations of authority and domination

were important characteristics of society

Replications

when someone else performs the same experiment

public good

A public good is often a public work that benefits all of society. Public goods can be enjoyed equally by all members of society

Operational Definitions

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables

EQ #3: What kind of society does Adam Smith's observations most correspond to? A rural society, a small society, a large and diverse society?

Adam Smith makes the point that the division of labor, which is the starting point for his entire work and all the observations that follow, is to be observed even in quite primitive societies. However, he also writes that the division of labor flourishes best when the market is very large, and that the industry of the city is reinforced by that of the country. For him, then, his observations are most true of a large, complex society composed of both rural and urban areas, where technological innovation is appreciated and practiced.

EQ #1: Adam Smith seems to argue that freedom promotes order. How is this to be understood? How does he construct his argument?

Adam Smith writes that individual freedom promotes social order. When people are free to make their own financial and business decisions, they generally choose what is of the greatest benefit to them. These decisions balance one another, distributing goods and services in the most efficient way possible, which creates social order.

Ways of Knowing

Authority, Reasoning/Logic (Rationalism), Experience (Empiricism), Common Sense (Folk Wisdom), Intuition, Science

How pseudoscience hurts us

Can lead to tragedies; could rely on it and then give up working treatments; opportunity cost; false hopes

Basic Research Common Topics

Cognition, learning, memory, psychobiology (focused primarily on theory testing)

How are theories tested?

Deduction, research hypotheses

Goals of research in Psychology

Describe, predict, explain, and control behavior

Assumptions

Determinism, discoverability, objectivity, systematic empiricism, conclusion subject to revision, empirical questions

Intuition

Direct acquisition of knowledge without intellectual effort or sensory processing; sudden insight; "feeling of knowledge"

Serendipity

Discovering something while looking for something else

drawbacks

Drawbacks allow a merchant to "draw back" or to recuperate whatever taxes or inland duties are levied upon his good when he manages to export them. This lets him cancel out taxes he pays at home if he manages to sell goods abroad.

Operational Definition EXAMPLE

Fear - a behavior produced by sudden intense stimulation or by specific classes of stimuli that must be identified empirically for each species studied

Pseudoscience

Field of inquiry that attempts to associate with true science

The Invisible Hand

Freedom in the market and self-interest on the part of individuals do not lead to chaos and disorder. On the contrary, they produce order and concord. This is what Adam Smith referred to as the "invisible hand" that guides society toward stability and harmony, while each individual pursues his or her own best interests.

Economic Regulations are Counter-Productive

Governmental regulations of commerce are generally counterproductive and sometimes dangerous. The internal, organic wisdom of the market is the most effective regulator. This idea lines up with Smith's ontological views. Smith sees nature as being fundamentally ordered, and human society has a similar order, so long as it is free from interference.

EQ #4: How does Adam Smith account for value? What constitutes value?

In accounting for the particular value of various products, Smith argues that the value of a particular product reflects the labor that is invested in it. In an open exchange, one would not purchase a good that one could create oneself with less effort. However, Smith also recognizes that not all labor is equal. One process of production might require more ingenuity, education, attention, or training and experience than another. These inconsistencies are compensated by price. While this is the basis of Smith's understanding of value, he also develops his understanding to include issues of supply and demand, which further inform and complicate his idea of labor as the seat of value.

Reinvestment

Investments should be centered on improving the methods of production, and capital should be directed toward such investments, rather than consumed directly. This ensures a constant growth in the level of wealth of a society and an increase in income over time.

mercantilism

Mercantilism is the name for the economic theory and practical system that Smith was writing against. The major tenets of mercantilism were that money constituted wealth, and that exports would always benefit a country while imports would always harm it, because money comes into the country through exportation and leaves it through importation of goods. Smith believed this view was mistaken.

EQ #6: According to Smith, four kinds of people make up society: productive laborers, unproductive laborers, landowners, and merchants or farmers who possess stock. How do these four groups relate to one another? Which group is primary? Which groups, if any, are superfluous?

Merchants or farmers who possess stock are in a position to provide the capital necessary to begin or maintain a business. Productive laborers engage with capital in order to produce commodities. Laborers work upon land (whether in a factory or on plot of rural land), and the rent of the land they work upon is paid by a portion of the revenue that their products gain. With the other parts of this revenue, the wages of the laborers are paid and capital is replaced. Profits may be re-invested. Unproductive laborers are supported by the efforts of productive laborers, and from the surplus revenue gained from their labor--i.e., the revenue that is not devoted to paying wages, rent, or replacing capital. Unproductive laborers may be menial servants, or they may be lawyers, judges, politicians, etc., paid with money that is left over after the costs of production have been replaced.

EQ #7: What is the role of money for Adam Smith?

Money is a tool of exchange, which facilitates commerce. Wealth is determined and stored in what money purchases, not money itself. The amount of money circulating in a particular society is also no measure of the wealth of a society, because the same amount of money can constitute the income of several people, as it changes hands. That said, money that is not being used as a tool of commerce, but is lying around, is wasted. Since money always makes money, or capital represented by money can always be used in raising more capital and thereby increasing productivity, money always presents the opportunity to increase wealth.

Pseudoscience examples

Phrenology (skull bumps) Graphology (handwriting study)

Attributes of good theories

Productivity, Falsifiability, Parsimony

Experience Pros/Cons

Pros) "experience is the best teacher" Cons) incomplete info and biases/expectations

Pros/Cons of Authority

Pros) important info is passed on, fast way to acquire knowledge Cons) info could be wrong/biased/incomplete, discourages further questioning

Reasoning/Logic Pros/Cons

Pros) reasoning may be sufficient to yield truth in some situations Cons) reasoning alone is not sufficient

Intuition Pros/Cons

Pros) we have probably used intuition as a source of knowledge for a long time Cons) mysterious process

Governments Should Have Limited Powers

Prosperity grows in an open, competitive marketplace, where exchange is free of government interference. The role of government is to defend citizens and property, to ensure justice, and to establish the rule of law. These are the activities to which government should ultimately limit itself.

public debt

Public debt is incurred by the government when its expenses exceed revenue generated from taxes. Public debt is financed through private means, and usually stems from defense expenses.

public works

Public works are institutions or constructions (e.g., roads, lighthouses, bridges) constructed and funded by the state, and open for use by all citizens, sometimes upon the condition of paying a small fee.

EQ #10: Why is Adam Smith opposed to a system of government that would oppress its laborers by enslaving them or levying high taxes upon them?

Smith's criticisms of these systems of government is based not on moral grounds, but on economic ones. Smith argues that not allowing a laborer to enjoy the fruits of his labor makes him disinclined to work, since it disrupts a natural incentive system. When laborers are disinclined to work, and can only be motivated to work through threats and violence, they are far less productive. Systems of government that oppress their laborers make the economic system less productive and efficient, lowering the quality of life for the entire society.

Examples of Authority

Some who has life experience; parent; expert; teacher; professor; someone with a high education; coach

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to ignore or forget disconfirming events

Wealth of Nations

The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, is a careful, thorough, and brilliant criticism of the mercantile system that governed economic policy in Great Britain during Smith's life. Smith charts the evolution of mercantile principles from the fall of Rome, through feudal times, and into the age of commerce in which he was born. Well-educated and relatively well-traveled, Smith was able to observe and learn from a number of trades. He also watched as poverty in Europe motivated many of the desperately poor to emigrate to the New World. The Wealth of Nations blends sound observations of the market with elements of moral philosophy and policy recommendations in order to create not just a criticism of mercantilism, but a rich economics text that has held up remarkably well through the centuries.

EQ #2: What are the benefits of specialization and the division of labor?

The division of labor creates an enormous increase in output and occasions technological specialization, which further increases productivity. The enormous supply which results from the division of labor drives down the cost of goods. A society in which the division of labor is highly developed also involves more of its members in production, giving more people access to wages. These two factors make more goods available to more people, and ensure that more people will be able to afford them. This leads to what Adam Smith calls "universal opulence."

Book I, Chapter I Without the assistance and co-operation of many thousands, the very meanest person in a civilized country could not be provided, even according to, what we very falsely imagine, the easy and simple manner in which he is commonly accommodated.

The quote captures Smith's description of the complexity and scope of the division of labor, and its ability to increase the standard of living in a given society. Smith believes that the propensity to truck, barter and exchange is part of human nature, and it is precisely this capacity that best organizes the economic system in large scale societies. The cooperation of the many thousands, inspired by each person's self interest, is what allows for the economic system to flourish, spreading opulence and raising the overall quality of life. Since observations on the progress inspired by the division of labor begin the book, Smith uses the contemplation of simple items (pins, for instance) as a starting point for his theorizing on the organization of economics in general.

Gross National Product

The wealth of nations does not consist in the amount of gold and silver in its vaults, as mercantilists believed, but rather in the sum total of its annual production and its commerce. In making this observation, Smith articulates the concept of gross national product. This observation also allows him to make the argument that wealth is increased not by exports alone, but by commerce in general.

Theories and new evidence

Theories can always be proven wrong with new evidence; can be updated with new evidence

Quote from Book I, Part II, Section I "To prohibit a great people, however, from making all that they can of every part of their own produce, or from employing their stock and industry in the way that they judge most advantageous to themselves, is a manifest violation of the most sacred rights of mankind."

This statement, in which the "great people" Smith is referring to are those subjects of the British crown that will, a few years later, become the first American citizens, is telling. Not only does the quote display Smith's belief that free trade constitutes one of the fundamental rights of man—a belief which, whether held by Smith or not, would come to be very important in the self-conception of the young Republic—the quote also foreshadows the fact that the major disputes between the Crown and its American colonies were economic. Smith's economic theory is ahead of its time in a number of ways. This statement in particular, however, had it reached the right ears, might have changed the course of history.`

unproductive labor

Unproductive labor, according to Smith, is work that does not result in a tangible product. Unproductive laborers includes lawyers, government officials, and artists. Though the work of unproductive laborers may indirectly facilitate productive labor, the salaries of unproductive laborers ultimately rely on profits generated by what is produced by productive labor.

Belief Perseverance

Unwillingness to consider any evidence that contradicts a strongly held view

EQ #5: How are wages determined, and limited, according to Smith?

Wages are the result of an implicit negotiation between employers and the stock they employ (or masters, as Smith terms them), and laborers. The greater the stock in a society, the more competition there is between masters for labor, and wages are therefore increased. When stock is scarce and labor abounds, wages are driven down. Wages are also influenced by the nature of the work: its agreeableness, the difficulty and expense of education necessary to practice it, the likelihood of one being successful at it, its constancy, and the amount of trust placed in the practitioners of a certain trade. Finally, wages also depend on the economic growth of a society. Wages will always be low in a society where there is zero growth.

EQ #9: How is wealth created, and how is prosperity maintained?

Wealth is created by means of the revenue that can be saved, revenue over and above the amount necessary to replace the cost of production. Since real wealth does not consist in money but in goods, wealth can only be real insofar as it is exchangeable for such goods. Wealth in its money form, though it may have a high exchange value, is too precarious to be considered real wealth for Smith. Prosperity in a particular society is maintained through growth. In a society where wages are stagnant, and the division of labor does not expand to meet a growing market, there is bound to be great misery and desperation. The quality of life must be on the rise in order for a society to maintain its prosperity, for stagnation results in a depreciation of the quality of life for those at the very bottom.

Common Sense (Folk Wisdom)

What everyone knows or should know; info may be contradictory

Beware of Special Interests

When a certain group within society is allowed to exert undue pressure on government, convincing it to be swayed by its interests, the entire society suffers. Vested interests are always harmful, and government should therefore not involve itself in regulation at the behest of a certain social or economic group.

The Benefit of Free Exchange

When the market is left to itself and exchanges are free, both sides benefit. Indeed, no one would enter into an exchange that comes at a loss to them. In foreign commerce, this means that imports and exports can both be very valuable to a society. One society's wealth does not have to come at the expense of another society. A society has more to gain if its trading partners are wealthy.

commodity

a good (manufactured or not) that is sold on the market

effectual demander

a person who desires to purchase a certain commodity, and also can reasonably afford to purchase it. It is effectual demanders, not absolute demanders, that regulate the market price of a commodity.

laborer

a person who sells his labor for a wage; a person engaged in producing concrete goods

faction

a special interest group which seeks to control the administration of a certain trade or to influence government to make laws to favor or disfavor certain trades

Authority

acceptance of ideas as valid knowledge because some respected source claims they are valid

Determinism

all events have causes; events are predictable to a certain degree X->Y

absolute demander

all persons who desire to purchase a certain commodity, whether or not they can reasonably afford it

Hypothesis

an educated guess about a relationship between variables

fixed capital

capital which does not gain revenue from changing hands, but rather from investing in productivity

circulating capital

capital which gains revenue by changing hands, e.g., goods that are purchased to be sold at a profit

Empirical Questions Advantages

clearly defines terms (no ambiguity), discussions of abstract concepts in concrete terms, helps us communicate ideas to others, allows experiments to be repeated

Executive Function (EF)

collection of prefrontal skills that underline goal-directed behavior (including attention, working memory, inhibitory control, problem solving, self-regulation, and delay)

Pseudoscience Characteristics

deliberate attempt to associate itself with true science; relies on anecdotal evidence; development of theories that are too vague to be tested by scientific methods; experts with no expertise; selective use of data; confirmation bias by pseudoscientists

Applied Research

goes from data directly to a real world application; outcomes may have relevance for basic research

Productivity

good theories advance knowledge by generating a great deal of research

Lab Research Characteristics

greater control, conditions can be specified, participants can be selected, participants can be in conditions more systematically

Reasoning/Logic (Rationalism)

knowledge is derived from reasoning and truth is deduced from some given evidence

Experience (Empiricism)

knowledge is derived through direct observation or experience; "testimonials" are personal experiences

rent

money paid to a landowner for the use of land, necessarily a monopoly price, or the highest price that a tenant can afford to pay

Objectivity

occurs when results can be produced by someone else; occurs when peer review; replication of experiment should produce same results

Where do empirical questions come from?

personal experiences, observations, past research, serendipity, and theories

Basic Research

principles can be used in applied situations; applied research depends on the basic solid foundation of basic research

Theories characteristics

provides tentative explanation of phenomenon, basis of making predictions about behavior, best summarizes existing empirical knowledge of the phenomenon, organizes the knowledge in the format precise statements of relationships among variables

Field Research Characteristics

proximity to everyday life, results can make immediate difference in the lives of people being studied, can confirm lab findings

Empirical Questions

questions that can be answered by collecting evidence; must be answerable with data; terms must be precisely defined

Empirical Questions

questions that can be answered by making objective observations

Induction

reasoning from the specific to the general; test to theory; it is impossible to prove a theory to be "true"

Deduction

reasoning hypothesis are derived from theories

Quantitative

results are presented in numbers and graphs

Qualitative

results presented as analytical narratives (or behavior, descriptions)

Theories

set of consistent statements about some behavioral phenomenon

stock

stored wealth that lies in the hands of a master, or employer

Parsimony

the fewer assumptions and concepts, the better

balance of trade

the money difference between the value of exports and imports of a certain country compared with another country, measured over time

capital

the portion of stock which is employed not for immediate consumption, but for generating revenue

market price

the price of a commodity that reflects the relationship between the effectual demand for and supply of a particular commodity in a given market

natural price

the price of a commodity which reflects only the cost of the labor, land and stock employed in bringing it to market

Falsifiability

theories must be stated in such a way that predictions derived from them can potentially be shown to be false

Science

way of learning about the world; most reliable way to develop a belief; a means of systematically asking questions about some natural phenomenon