Comm 103 Midterm

survey

a method of collecting data by asking people directly about their experiences

action model

a model describing communication as a one-way process

interaction model

a model describing communication as a process shaped by feedback and context

anxiety

a psychological state of worry and unease

fight-or-flight response

a reaction that helps prepare the body either to confront the stressor (through a fight) or to avoid it (through flight).

slideshow

a selection of images and text created in a presentation software and projected on a screen for the audience to see.

You can see that the action model is linear:

a source sends a message through some channel to a receiver, and noise interferes with the message somehow. Many of us talk and think about the communication process in that linear manner.

hate speech

a specific form of profanity meant to degrade, intimidate, or dehumanize people based on their sex, national origin, sexual orientation, religion, race, disability status, or political or moral views.

scripted speech

a speech composed word for word on a manuscript and then read aloud exactly as it is written. -BENEFIT: Provides maximum control over the verbal content. Ensures the speaker always knows what to say. -DRAWBACK: Takes much time to prepare. Use of a manuscript can be distracting for speaker and audience.

stuttering

a speech disorder that disrupts the flow of words with repeated or prolonged sounds and involuntary pauses

extemporaneous speech

a speech that is carefully prepared to sound as though it is being delivered spontaneously -BENEFIT: Provides the speaker with notes while making the speech sound spontaneous. -DRAWBACK: Takes time to prepare. Difficult to do well under strict time constraints or if perfect grammar is required.

memorized speech

a speech you compose word for word and then deliver from memory. -BENEFIT: Allows high control over verbal content. Requires no notes, so speaker can use natural gestures and maintain eye contact. -DRAWBACK: Requires considerable effort to write and memorize. Can sound insincere. Speaker's memory can fail during delivery.

impromptu speech

a speech you deliver on the spot, with little or no preparation -BENEFIT: requires little preparation. Often makes the speaker sound genuine. --DRAWBACK: Lack of opportunity to prepare can be stressful. Thinking on the spot can be difficult.

Humans have a strong tendency to evaluate a situation—including a speech—according to what they see. Visual cues are thus important elements of effective speech delivery.

you can use facial expression, eye contact, posture and body position, gestures, and personal appearance to your advantage.

narration

you describe a series of events in sequence. You can think of narration as storytelling. In an informative speech about the field of veterinary medicine, for instance, you could describe what your aunt went through to become a veterinarian or tell a story about your first visit to an animal hospital.

polychronic orientation

- include Latin America, the Arab part of the Middle East, and much of sub-Saharan Africa—conceive of time as more holistic and fluid and less structured. Instead of treating time as a finite commodity that must be managed properly to avoid wasting it, people in a polychronic culture perceive it more like a never-ending river, flowing infinitely into the future.

You can improve your articulation by avoiding five common articulation problems:

-Addition is caused by adding unnecessary sounds to words. For example, a person might say "real-ah-tor" instead of "realtor" or "bolth" instead of "both." -Deletion occurs when a speaker omits part of a word sound, usually at the beginning or end of the word. Someone may say "frigerator" instead of "refrigerator," or "goin" instead of "going." -Transposition means reversing two sounds within a word. Examples include saying "hunderd" instead of "hundred" and "perfessor" instead of "professor." -Substitution is caused by replacing one part of a word with an incorrect sound. A person might say "Sundee" instead of "Sunday" or "wit" instead of "with." -Slurring occurs when a speaker combines two or more words into one. "Going to" becomes "gonna" and "sort of" becomes "sorta."

If defining a word or concept will help you to inform your listeners, you can choose from several methods:

-Identify the denotative meaning -Explain the connotative meaning -Provide the etymology -Give synonyms or antonyms -Define by example -Use compare-and-contrast definitions

graphic slides include

-Tables: A table is the display of words or numbers in a format of columns and rows. It is a particularly effective option when you want to compare the same information for two or more groups. -Charts: A chart is a graphic display of numeric information. Like a table, it is also useful for comparing data between two or more groups. Whereas a table presents the actual text or numbers being compared, a chart converts numbers into a visual display. Three types of charts are common. A pie chart, is a graphic display of numbers in the form of a circle divided into segments, each of which represents a percentage of the whole; for example, a pie chart could illustrate the percentages of people around the world who practice various religions. A line chart is a graphic display of numbers in the form of a line or lines that connect various data points; for example, a line chart could illustrate the percentage of U.S. children living in poverty in various years. Finally, a bar chart depicts numbers as bars on a graph, such as the percentages of people in various parts of the world who regularly use the Internet. -Pictures: Visual images can be very provocative, so many speakers use pictures as presentation aids. You can embed drawings or photographs directly into a slideshow.

Think about which presentation aids will work best for your audience, the layout of the room, and the resources available to you. Pay particular attention to these factors:

-The size and arrangement of the room: Make sure everyone will be able to see, hear, touch, taste, or smell the presentation aids you plan to use. If you're creating a slideshow presentation, use a font large enough for everyone to read comfortably. Before your speech, try your presentation aids in the space where you'll be speaking and confirm that every listener will be able to take advantage of them. -The time available for the speech: Be certain you'll have adequate time to set up and use your presentation aids effectively. If you will running a slideshow from the computer in the presentation room, try to load your slideshow onto that computer before your speech so you need only to open the document when you are ready to speak. Also be sure you don't have too many slides to get through in the time allotted for your speech. You don't want to have to rush through or skip slides to stay within your time limit. This is an excellent reason to rehearse your speech with your visual aids, as discussed below. -The resources available: Determine beforehand that you will have everything you need to make your presentation aids work. If you're bringing an Page 367object that requires electric power, make certain there is an accessible outlet and that you have a long enough power cord to reach it. If you plan to use a multimedia presentation, ensure ahead of time that the necessary equipment—such as a projector and screen—is all available. Particularly when you're speaking in an unfamiliar room, don't take anything for granted. Rather, double-check to be sure you will have everything you need.

Because your purpose is to impart information to your audience, you have a responsibility as an ethical speaker to ensure that your information is true and accurate. Specifically, you should:

-Use information only from reputable sources -Understand the information you're reporting -Incorporate verbal footnotes -Be clear about when you're speculating (make it clear that they aren't facts)

Research work indicates that public speaking anxiety—as well as other forms of stage fright—affects behavior in at least five separate domains:

-Voice: Public speaking anxiety often causes the voice to quiver or sound tense—or to sound higher than normal. -Mouth and throat: People experiencing public speaking anxiety often swallow and clear their throat more frequently than normal. -Facial expression: Muscle tension in the face causes a general lack of expression and eye contact. It can also make the face twitch slightly. -General movement: Public speaking anxiety frequently causes people to fidget or engage in random movement. It can also cause them to pace, sway, or shuffle their feet. -Verbal behavior: People experiencing public speaking anxiety often stutter more than usual.

To illustrate the action model, let's say that you need to leave work early next Tuesday to pick up a friend from the airport, and you're getting ready to ask your supervisor for permission. The action model starts with

-the source—the individual who has a thought that he or she wishes to communicate. In our example, the source is you. To convey the idea that you'd like to leave early, you must -encode it, which means to put your idea in the form of language or a gesture that your supervisor can understand. Through that process, you create a -message, which consists of the verbal and/or nonverbal elements of communication to which people give meaning. In this example, your message might be the question, "Would it be all right if I left work a couple of hours early next Tuesday?"

Communication scholars Ron Allen and Ray McKerrow have identified eight categories of topics that work particularly well for informative speeches:

1) Issues 2) Events 3) People 4) Places 5) Objects 6) Concepts 7) Processes 8) Policies

Researchers distinguish among four different types of language rules:

1) Phonological rules 2) Syntactic rules 3) Semantic rules 4) Pragmatic rules

Two forms of description are common in informative speeches

1) representation 2) narration

you can identify appropriate topics for your speech by following four steps:

1. Brainstorm to identify potential topics. 2. Identify topics that are right for you. 3. Identify topics that are right for your audience. 4. Identify topics that are right for the occasion.

five common communication myths

1. Everyone is a communication expert. 2. Communication will solve any problem. 3. Communication can break down. 4. Communication is inherently good. 5. More communication is always better.

When we speak to persuade, our goal is to

Affect listeners' attitudes or behaviors

Cultural norms can affect the content of a speech as well as its delivery.

Although the visual and vocal elements just described often accompany speech performances that are considered effective in U.S. culture, speakers with other cultural backgrounds may prefer different delivery styles. For example, many Asian cultures teach students to behave modestly and quietly, especially around adults such as their teachers, which can make delivering a speech in a classroom setting especially uncomfortable for Asian American students. Similarly, whereas U.S. audiences generally appreciate speeches that are organized linearly—so that each topic flows logically into the next—norms in some Asian cultures value more circular presentations in which the speaker comes back to the same point multiple times.

A final visual element of an effective delivery is personal appearance—clothing, accessories, and grooming.

As a general rule, your appearance should be appropriate for your audience and for the occasion on which you're speaking. Select clothing that will match the formality of—or will be slightly more formal than—the clothes your listeners will be wearing. The more your personal appearance reflects theirs, the more your listeners will perceive you as similar to them, and that perception enhances your credibility. In contrast, dressing far more formally or far less formally than your listeners will lead your audience to see you as more of an outsider. Jewelry and accessories should complement your clothing but not attract attention. Long, flashy earrings or multiple bracelets that clang together whenever you move your arm will distract your audience.

Loaded language reflects the fact that denotations and connotations represent different layers of meaning.

At a denotative level, for instance, the word cancer simply refers to a malignant growth or tumor in the body. For many people, however, the term connotes any evil condition that spreads destructively. For instance, you might hear someone describe conditions such as poverty and bigotry as "cancers on society." That example illustrates that people can use the word cancer as a loaded term when they wish to evoke feelings of fear, disgust, or anger on the part of listeners. People can also use loaded words to evoke positive emotions. Terms such as family and freedom have emotionally positive connotations even if their denotative meanings are emotionally neutral.

In addition, give credit to the source of any information you present. When you prepare a slide with data that you did not generate yourself, include the source of the data on the slide.

Doing so is an important way to avoid plagiarism

Finally, approach the delivery of your speech with a positive, optimistic attitude. Tell yourself that you can—and will—succeed. Staying as positive as you can is important for two reasons, however.

First, positive thoughts and emotions help to relieve the negative physical effects of stress. Therefore, you'll approach your speech in a more relaxed manner than you otherwise would. Second, recall from the chapter on perceiving that negative thoughts can turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy, causing you to have a poor performance simply because you expect that you will.

The interaction model picks up where the action model leaves off. It includes all the same elements: source, message, channel, receiver, noise, encoding, and decoding, but it differs from the action model in two basic ways.

First, the interaction model recognizes that communication is a two-way process. Second, it adds two elements to the mix: feedback and context

You can also use presentation aids to appeal to your listeners' senses of taste, touch, and smell.

For example, a speech about citrus fruit might incorporate slices of orange, lemon, tangerine, and grapefruit that your audience can sample

Good communicators also have the ability to emphasize different aspects of their identities

For example, at work it might be important for you to portray your organized, efficient side, whereas at a pool party you might choose to project your fun-loving nature and sense of humor in different situations.

Choose or create presentation aids that are as simple and straightforward as possible so your listeners will pay attention to their content instead of their form.

For example, develop slides that are clean and uncluttered. Stay away from sound effects, fancy slide transitions, and pictures or photographs that are irrelevant to the content of the slide.

Communicating appropriately can be especially challenging when you're interacting with people from other cultures. The reason is that many communication rules are culture-specific, so what might be perfectly appropriate in one culture may be inappropriate or even offensive in another.

If you are visiting a Canadian household and your hosts offer you food, it's appropriate to accept if you are hungry. In many Japanese households, however, it is inappropriate to accept until you have declined the food twice and your hosts offer it a third time.

speaking anxiety is a normal part of the performance experience.

In fact, speaking anxiety can even help you to perform better than you would if you didn't feel nervous. you can you use your nervousness to energize your speech.

Stay away from any presentation aid that might harm your audience physically or emotionally.

In that category are horrifying or disgusting photographs, audio or video recordings with profane or offensive language, and objects that produce dangerously loud sounds or noxious fumes.

Not only does the transaction model reflect the complex nature of communication, but it also leads us to think about context more broadly.

It suggests that our communication is affected not just by the physical or psychological environment but also by our experience, gender, social class, and even the history of our relationship with the person or persons to whom we are talking.

the single most important predictor of happiness in life—by far—is the degree to which an individual has a happy marriage.

Marital happiness is more important than income, job status, education, leisure time, or anything else in accounting for how happy people are with their lives. On the negative side, people in distressed marriages are much more likely to suffer from major depression, and they even report being in worse physical health than their happily married counterparts.

Another type of non-electronic presentation aid is a handout.

Most handouts are copies of written material that listeners keep after the speech is over. They can be especially effective when you want your listeners to have more information than you can reasonably address during your presentation. When incorporating a handout, make certain to bring enough copies for everyone in the audience. If you need your listeners to see your handout while you're speaking, distribute it at the beginning of your speech. If not, distribute it at the end so it doesn't distract your listeners' attention while you're speaking.

Delivery style also appears to affect how much anxiety people experience about public speaking.

One study found that speakers had the most anxiety when anticipating an impromptu speech, less anxiety when anticipating an extemporaneous speech, and the least anxiety when anticipating a scripted speech

If you will be incorporating presentation aids when you deliver your speech, be sure to use them when you rehearse.

Practice advancing from slide to slide in your multimedia presentation—manually or with a remote control—so you can do so effortlessly during your speech. Perhaps you must set up or uncover your presentation aid during your speech instead of beforehand. If so, rehearse those moves so you can continue speaking while doing the necessary tasks.

Technology provides a wealth of opportunities for creating interesting and memorable computer-mediated presentation aids.

Presentation software programs allow speakers to integrate many different kinds of presentation aids into a unified display.

None of us is born a competent communicator.

Rather, like driving a car, playing a sport, or designing a web page, communicating competently requires skills we must learn and practice.

We humans are such social beings that when we are denied the opportunity for interaction, our mental and physical health can suffer. That is a major reason why solitary confinement is considered such a harsh punishment

Several studies have shown that when people are prevented from having contact with others for an extended period, their health can quickly deteriorate. Similarly, individuals who feel socially isolated because of poverty, homelessness, mental illness, or other stigmatizing situations can suffer emotional distress and even physical pain owing to their lack of interaction with others.

it's important to adopt a posture that is relaxed but confident.

Slouching or hanging your head will make you appear uninterested in what you're saying. Instead, keep your back straight, your shoulders square, and your head up. That posture makes you appear strong, composed, and in control

Perhaps more important than pitch itself is the variation in pitch you use while speaking.

Speakers who vary their pitch sound energetic and dynamic and are judged by others as friendly and caring.

An important aspect of identity for many people is their spirituality.

Spirituality includes the principles someone values in life ("I value loyalty" or "I value equal treatment for all people"). It also encompasses a person's morals, or notions about right and wrong ("It's never okay to steal, no matter what the circumstances" or "I would lie to save a life, because life is more important than honesty"). Finally, spirituality includes beliefs about the meaning of life, such as personal philosophies, awe of nature, belief in a higher purpose, and religious faith and practices ("I trust in God" or "I believe I will reap what I sow in life")

gestures should look spontaneous rather than planned.

Spontaneous gestures naturally follow what you are saying and thus appear well connected to your verbal message. Planned gestures, in contrast, appear contrived and insincere. Perhaps the best way to keep your gestures from looking planned is not to plan them but to let them arise naturally from the words you're speaking. Finally, gestures should be appropriate in size for your proximity to the audience. If your listeners are relatively close to you, as in a conference room or a small classroom, you should use gestures similar to those you would use in face-to-face conversations.

One vocal factor in effective delivery is your speech rate, or the speed at which you speak.

Studies find that speaking at a faster rate makes a speaker seem more persuasive and more credible. The explanation may be that speakers who talk at a fast rate appear to be in command of what they're saying, whereas slower speakers sound less sure of themselves.

Finally, you can use people—including yourself—as presentation aids.

Suppose your speech is about the Chinese martial art of tai chi. You might choose to show your audience some of the fundamental movements of tai chi by either performing them yourself or having someone else perform them.

Perhaps some of your instructors use text slides created in presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, Google Slides, or Prezi to convey course material in the classroom.

Text slides often take the form of bulleted lists of words or phrases that are relevant to the presenter's topic. Effective text slides are clear and brief.

low-power distance culture

The United States and Canada fall in that category, as do Israel, New Zealand, Denmark, and Austria. People in low-power-distance societies are raised to believe that although some individuals are born with more advantages (such as wealth or fame), no one is inherently better than anyone else. That doesn't necessarily mean people in those societies are treated equally, only that they value the idea that they should be.

How, then, does engaging in gossip help us connect with others?

The answer is that gossip serves to strengthen the social bonds between those who exchange it. Like sharing secrets, sharing gossip with someone requires us to trust that person to handle the information sensitively.

We have said that language is symbolic and that the meaning of most words is arbitrary. If those statements are both true, then how do we all understand one another?

The answer is that language is not just a collection of symbols (words); it's also a system of rules for using those words

Co-cultural groups often arise precisely because their members share specific values.

The co-culture of veganism—which promotes diets free of animal products—largely shares values related to the preservation of animal life, whereas the co-culture of Civil War re-enactors—who stage dramatizations of famous Civil War battles to preserve the accurate history of the period—shares values related to recognizing that major event in U.S. history.

Research indicates that two aspects of your facial expression are particularly important for an effective speech.

The first is that your facial expressions should match the tone of your words. When your words are serious, your facial expression should be serious as well. You should smile when telling positive stories and express concern when telling troubling stories.

Debilitating public speaking anxiety often causes two distinct sensations.

The first is that your mind seems to go blank, and the second is that you are motivated to try to escape the situation. In the grip of intense stage fright, you become distracted by your body's efforts to manage the emotion you are feeling, and you can easily forget words or information you would readily remember under normal circumstances.

Defamation comes in two forms.

The first, libel, refers to defamatory statements made in print or some other fixed medium, such as a photograph or a motion picture. The second, slander, is a defamatory statement made aloud, within earshot of others.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis embodies two specific principles.

The first, linguistic determinism, suggests that the structure of language determines how we think. In other words, we can conceive of something only if we have a term for it in our vocabulary. Imagine a language that includes no term describing the emotion of envy. According to the principle of linguistic determinism, people who speak that language would not experience envy because they have no words to describe it. The second principle, linguistic relativity, suggests that because language determines our perceptions of reality, people see the world differently depending on which language they speak.

Effective speakers also vary their volume during their speech to create certain effects.

They may speak more loudly when making particular points to express enthusiasm or conviction about those points. At other times, they may speak softly to create a serious tone or to encourage the audience to pay close attention. Varying your vocal volume will add variety to your speech and help to keep your listeners engaged in it.

No matter what type of presentation aids you choose, remember they are meant to aid your speech.

They should never themselves become your focus. Instead, they should be like accessories, embellishing your delivery but not overpowering it. Your listeners' primary focus should be on you and what you have to say.

Naming is one way you gain information about other people and represent yourself to the world.

What's something that belongs to you, yet is constantly used by others? The answer is your name. By itself, a name is simply a linguistic device that identifies something or someone. Your name does more, however, than differentiate you from others—it's also an important component of your sense of self.

a symbol is something that represents an idea. Words are symbols, for example. In addition, every culture has its own symbols that stand for ideas that are vital to that culture.

When we hear that something is "as American as baseball and apple pie," the speaker is using baseball and apple pie as symbols of U.S. life. The U.S. flag, the bald eagle, and "The Star-Spangled Banner" are also common symbols of the United States

Another part of being an effective verbal communicator is knowing how simple or how complex your language should be for your audience.

When you use language that is too complex for your listeners, you are talking over their heads. If you have been in a situation when someone has talked over your head, you know how hard it can be to understand what the speaker is trying to say. - The opposite problem is talking down to people, or using language that is inappropriately simple. Talking down often happens by mistake

Use compare-and-contrast definitions.

You can discuss similarities and differences between two or more definitions of a term. To some people, the definition of family is limited to legal and biological relationships; to others, it includes anyone to whom they feel emotionally close. If you were speaking about the concept of family, you could compare and contrast those two definitions of the term.

Text and graphic slides are excellent options for displaying information, but there may be occasions when you want your audience to listen to or see an audio or a video recording.

You may choose to use audio or video recordings in a speech when they will aid your presentation. You can play audio or video directly from a media player, such as an iPod or DVD player, or you can embed it in a multimedia presentation.

Define by example.

You may help your audience to understand a concept by providing examples that illustrate its meaning. In a speech about the immune system, you might define the term pathogen by giving examples of types of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.

A word that is concrete refers to a specific object in the physical world, such as a particular laptop computer, a specific restaurant, or an individual person. In contrast, a word that is abstract refers to

a broader category or organizing concept of objects. According to English professor Samuel Hayakawa, words can be arrayed along a "ladder of abstraction" that shows their progression from more abstract to more concrete

According to the action model, you would then send your message through

a communication channel, which is a type of pathway for conveying messages. For example, you can pose your question to your supervisor face-to-face, or you can send it by e-mail or through a text message. Selecting the most appropriate channel is a matter of adapting to the communication context.

monochronic orientation

a culture that sees time as a valuable commodity that should be used wisely and not wasted. People in these cultures (i.e. Germans, and most Americans) save time, spend time, fill time, invest time, and waste time as though time were tangible. They treat time as valuable, believe that "time is money," and talk about making time and losing time

threat

a declaration of the intention to harm someone

model

a formal description of process

One specific form of weasel words is an allness statement,

a statement implying that a claim is true without exception. For instance, when you hear someone claim that "experts agree that corporal punishment is emotionally damaging to children," the implication is that all experts agree. Note, however, that the speaker provides no evidence to back up that implication. Likewise, when someone says, "There's no known cure for depression," the implication is that no cure exists. All the statement actually means, however, is that no cure is known to the speaker.

You-statement

a statement that shifts responsibility for the communicator's feelings or thoughts to the other party in the communication

interview

a structured conversation in which one person poses questions to which another person responds

language

a structured system of symbols used for communicating meaning

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

a theory that shapes a person's views of reality

euphemism

a vague, mild expression that symbolizes and substitutes for something blunter or harsher. (i.e. she's expecting versus she is pregnant)

general search engine

a website that allows you to search for other websites containing information on a specific topic

research search engine

a website which one can search for research published in books, academic journals, and other periodicals

questionnaire

a written instrument containing questions for people to answer

Social scientists use the term digital divide to

acknowledge the cultural gap between societies that do and do not have regular Internet access

Language has a profound ability to communicate

affection. Some statements express our fondness for another person, such as "I like you." Others reinforce the importance of our relationship with the person, such as "You're my best friend." Still others convey hopes or dreams for the future of the relationship, including "I can't wait until we get married." Finally, some statements express the value of the relationship by noting how we would feel without it, such as "My life would be empty without you." Statements such as those are characteristic of our closest personal relationships.

persuasion

an attempt to motivate others, through communication, to adopt or to maintain a specific manner of thinking or doing

text slide

an electronic display of text used to accompany a speech.

database

an electronic storehouse of specific information that people can search

vested interest

an inherent motivation to pay attention

Speeches that are fluent have

an uninterrupted flow of words and phrases. There is a smooth rhythm to the delivery, without awkward pauses or false starts. In contrast, disfluent speeches are characterized by the use of filler words, such as "um" and "uh," and by the unnecessary repetition of words. Researchers have known for some time that people who speak with fluency are perceived as more effective communicators than people who do not.

presentation aids

anything used in conjunction with a speech or presentation to stimulate listeners' senses.

Clichés

are words or phrases that were novel at one time but have lost their effect owing to overuse. When politicians talk about "making a difference" or business leaders refer to "thinking outside the box," they may lose credibility with their audiences; those phrases are clichés that can make speakers sound uninformed or out-of-touch. Even if a cliché expresses the point you want to make, you will usually be more persuasive if you use different words. Encouraging someone to "evaluate your situation from a new perspective" can be more powerful than telling the person to "think outside the box," because the latter phrase is so overused.

In the action model, your supervisor acts

as the receiver of the message, the person who will decode or interpret it.

Although presentation aids take time and energy to prepare, research shows that using them properly can dramatically enhance a presentation. They work by improving at least three audience responses -

attention, learning, and recall

Nonprint materials

audiovisual resources such as sound recordings, movies, and photographs.

Being open-minded requires first being

aware of potential differences and then avoiding the tendency to judge all differences negatively.

mindfulness

awareness of how their behaviors and ways of thinking are likely to differ from our own.

self-awareness

awareness of one's behavior and how it affects others

objective

based on facts rather than opinions. When you speak objectively, you avoid trying to convince listeners of a particular point of view

essential qualities for communicating with cultural awareness:

being open-minded about cultural differences, knowledgeable about cultural communication codes, and flexible and respectful when interacting with others.

subjective

biased toward a specific conclusion

Language expresses who we are in at least two ways:

by naming and identifying us and by enhancing our credibility

Many words imply certain ideas that are separate from their literal meanings. The literal meaning of a word—the way a dictionary defines it—is its

denotative meaning

out-groups

describe groups we see as different from us

audience analysis

carefully considering the characteristics of one's listeners (audience) when preparing a speech

I-statement

claims ownership of what a communicator is feeling or thinking

metacommunication

communication about communication. Let's say that Jude asks her husband, Han, to read over the speech she is preparing to give at a conference for small-business owners. Han reads the speech and marks it up with critical comments such as, "This argument isn't convincing," "Awkward wording," and "I can't tell what you're trying to say." After reading Han's comments, Jude is disheartened, and Han is confused by her reaction. she metacommunicates with Han by explaining that her hurt feelings were caused not by what Han said but by the way he said it. That phrase conveys Jude's thoughts about her communication with Han; thus, it is metacommunicative.

interpersonal communication

communication between two people in the context of their ongoing relationship, and it is the most common form of communication we enact

public communication

communication directed at an audience that is larger than a small group

small group communication

communication occurring within small groups of approximately 3 to 20 people

communication competence

communication that is effective and appropriate for a given situation

mass communication

communication to a large audience that is transmitted by media

intrapersonal communication

communication with oneself

Even if you have chosen a compelling topic and successfully framed it for your audience, you must still deliver your speech in a way that will draw—and hold—your listeners' attention. Strategies for delivering an informative speech effectively, include:

creating information hunger, being organized, making learning easy, involving your audience, and being ethical

recent studies in orphanages and adoption centers, conducted in an ethical manner, have convincingly shown that human interaction—especially touch—is

critical for infants' survival and healthy development

phonological rules

deal with the correct pronunciation of a word, and they vary from language to language. If you speak French, for example, you know that the proper way to pronounce travail is "trah-VYE." According to English phonological rules, however, the word looks as though it should be pronounced "trah-VALE."

pragmatic rules

deal with the implications or interpretations of statements. "Nice to meet you" is a common greeting among speakers of English. Depending on the context and the speaker's tone of voice, you might think the speaker really is happy to meet you, or you might infer that he or she is just saying so to be polite. If there's a sarcastic tone in the speaker's voice, you might even infer that he or she is unhappy to meet you. In each instance, pragmatic rules lead you to your conclusion.

visualization

developing a particular mental image of winning or giving a successful performance

We can also enhance or diminish our credibility by using dialects.

dialects are language variations shared by people of a certain region or social class. For instance, whether you call a soft drink a "soda," a "pop," a "coke," or something else depends largely on where you grew up. "Pop" is the favored term in the U.S. northwest and midwest, whereas "coke" is used mostly in the south, and "soda" is favored in the southwest and northeast. According to communication accommodation theory, developed by communication scholars Howard Giles and John Wiemann, we may be able to enhance our credibility by speaking in a dialect that is familiar to our audience. In contrast, when we use a dialect different from that of our listeners, they may see us as an outsider and question our credibility.

A factual claim makes an assertion that we can verify with evidence and show to be true or false ("I live in the United States"). An opinion expresses a personal judgment or preference that we could agree or disagree with but that is not true or false in an absolute sense ("I live in the greatest country on Earth"). Competent communicators know how to keep opinions and factual claims separate in verbal communication. Unfortunately,

distinguishing factual claims from opinions is easier said than done, especially when we're dealing with strong opinions on emotionally heated issues.

channel-rich contexts

environments that incorporate many communication channels at once. In face-to-face conversations, for instance, you can pay attention to people's words, see their expressions and gestures, hear their tone of voice, and feel their touch at the same time. You can evaluate the information from all those channels simultaneously

channel-lean contexts

environments that use relatively fewer channels. Tweeting, for instance, relies on text alone; you don't experience a person's voice or gestures on Twitter. As a consequence, you pay more attention to the words, because that's all you have to go on.

In general, the larger the group, the more

formally structured you should make your presentation.

syntactic rules

govern the order of words within phrases and clauses. The question, "What is your name?" makes sense to an English speaker because the words are in the proper order. To ask the same question in American Sign Language, a system of visual signs used by hearing-impaired people to communicate, we would sign "your - name - what?" Signing "what - your - name?" is incorrect because it violates the syntactic rules of American Sign Language

avatars

graphic representations of people; it is useful to practice in front of avatars online

societies

groups of people who share a culture with one another

co-cultures

groups of people who share values, customs, and norms related to mutual interests or characteristics other than their national citizenship. Your co-culture isn't based on the country in which you were born or raised. Instead, it is composed of smaller groups of people with whom you identify

semantic rules

have to do with the meaning of individual words. Those meanings may be arbitrary, as we saw above, but speakers of a language agree on them. When you hear the word lawyer, for instance, you think of an attorney, not a paper mill or a cell phone or a Caribbean vacation. It is a semantic rule that connects lawyer with attorney and not with one of those other meanings.

research has shown that having an active social life is

one of the most powerful predictors of a person's overall happiness.

What is the first step to preparing an effective speech?

identifying the goal(s) you want to accomplish in your speech

four basic styles of delivery:

impromptu, extemporaneous, scripted, and memorized

To be effective, speakers must be aware of how long their presentations are supposed to last

in order to be realistic about how much material they can cover.

Several elements of the voice influence how people understand and evaluate what the speaker says

include rate, volume, pitch, articulation, and fluency

When we speak to introduce, our goal is to

inform listeners of someone's background

communication occurs as 5 basic types:

intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, public, and mass

anchor-and-contrast approach

is used when someone makes a sweeping request (the anchor) and then asks for something more reasonable (the contrast).

You'll then need to select one topic as the focus of your speech, being sure that

it is appropriate for you, for your audience, and for the occasion.

Almost any physical object can be an effective presentation aid if

it is relevant to your topic and if it can be incorporated easily and safely.

a term's denotative meaning is

its dictionary definition

etymology

its origin or history. In a speech about affectionate communication, you could explain that the word affection derives from the Latin word affectio, meaning "an emotion of the mind."

A term's connotative meaning is

its socially or culturally implied meaning. One connotative meaning of the word home, for example, is "a place where you feel safe and secure."

Like cultures, co-cultures often adopt distinctive symbols, language, values, and norms that distinguish their members from outsiders. Although co-cultures may not adopt entirely distinctive languages, they frequently use terminology—called

jargon—that is understood only by others in the same co-culture.

being an effective communicator gives

job applicants a sizable advantage

occasions present us with ambiguity, or a

lack of certainty. Because cultures can differ so substantially in their communication patterns, such ambiguity is common when we interact cross-culturally

Another form of language that sometimes influences a speaker's credibility is equivocation,

language that disguises the speaker's true intentions through strategic ambiguity. We often choose to use equivocal language when we're in a dilemma, a situation in which none of our options is a good one. Suppose, for example, that you're asked to provide a reference for your friend Dylan, who is applying for a job on your town's police force. One of the questions you're asked is how well Dylan handles pressure. Even though Dylan is your friend, you can immediately think of several occasions when he hasn't dealt well with pressure. Now you're in a bind. On the one hand, you want Dylan to get the job because he's your friend. On the other hand, you don't want to lie to the police lieutenant who's phoning you for the reference. - Several studies have shown that when we're faced with two unappealing choices we often use equivocal language. You might tell the lieutenant, "Well, it depends; there are different kinds of pressure." As you can probably tell, that statement doesn't give the lieutenant much information at all. Instead, it might imply that you don't know how well Dylan deals with pressure, but you don't want to admit that you don't know. It might also imply that you do know how well Dylan handles pressure but don't want to say. In either case, you are likely to come across as less credible than if you had answered the question directly. Researchers John Daly, Carol Diesel, and David Weber have suggested that those sorts of conversational dilemmas are common and that we frequently use equivocal language in them.

defamation

language that harms a person's reputation or gives that person a negative image.

profanity

language that is considered vulgar, rude, or obscene in the context in which it is used.

content dimension

literal information that is communicated by a message

Periodicals

materials that are published on a regular basis, such as magazines, newspapers, and scientific journals.

describing

means using words to depict or portray a person, a place, an object, or an experience

gestures

movements of the hands, arms, or head that express meaning

public speaking anxiety (also called stage fright)

nervousness or fear brought on by performing in front of an audience

You can avoid crossing the line from informative to persuasive speaking by keeping your remarks

objective rather than subjective

you can make presentation aids from

objects, flavors, textures, odors, handouts, and even people.

Events are

occurrences that are noteworthy for the meanings they represent. You may choose to speak about an event that was publicly experienced, such as last year's NCAA basketball Final Four or the death of actor Robin Williams. You might also elect to speak about a significant event in your personal life, such as a visit to a foreign country or a religious conversion. In each instance, you can educate your audience about the event and communicate the significant meaning it has, either for your listeners or for you.

Another difference appears in the way people talk to authority figures. Individuals in a low-power-distance society are

often taught that it is their right—even their responsibility—to question authority. In such a society it's not unexpected for people to ask "Why?" when a parent or teacher tells them to do something. In comparison, individuals in a high-power-distance society learn to obey and respect those in power, such as parents and teachers, without question

Now let's imagine that you are sharing your story with Simone while you are having coffee in a crowded employee café. Would you tell your story any differently than if the two of you were alone? What if you were in a classroom on campus? What if your parents were in the same room? All those situations are part of the context,

or the environment you are in. Your environment includes both the physical and the psychological context. The physical context reflects where you are physically interacting with each other. In contrast, the psychological context includes factors that influence people's states of mind, such as the formality of the situation, the level of privacy, and the degree to which the situation is emotionally charged. According to the interaction model, we take context into account when we engage in conversation. That is, we realize that what is appropriate in certain contexts may be inappropriate in others, and we adapt our behaviors accordingly.

If you've studied physics, you know that every action has a reaction. A similar rule applies to communication. Let's say you are telling your officemate, Simone, about a long-lost friend with whom you recently made contact on Facebook. As you relate your story, Simone nods along and says "Uh-huh" to show she's listening—or maybe she yawns because she was out late the night before. She might also ask you questions about when you originally met this person or how you got back in touch. In other words, Simone reacts to your story by giving you feedback,

or various verbal and nonverbal responses to your message. Thus, Simone is not just a passive receiver of your message—instead, she is an active shaper of your conversation.

No matter who's listening to your speech,

other factors are almost always competing for their attention.

ethnicity

our perception of our ancestry or heritage

nationality

our status as a citizen of a particular country

Each society uses symbols that carry

particular meanings for its members

low-context culture

people are expected to be direct and to say what they mean. Individuals in low-context cultures prefer precise, concrete language for sending and receiving messages, and are unlikely to rely on the context of a message to determine its meaning (i.e. USA)

In an individualistic culture,

people believe their primary responsibility is to themselves. Children in individualistic cultures are raised hearing messages such as "Be yourself," "You're special," and "There's no one else in the world who's just like you." Those messages emphasize the importance of knowing yourself, being self-sufficient, and being true to what you want in life. Indeed, the motto in an individualistic culture might be "I gotta be me!" People in individualistic societies also value self-reliance and the idea that people should help themselves instead of waiting for others to come to their aid

masculine culture

people tend to cherish stereotypically masculine values, such as ambition, achievement, and the acquisition of material goods. They also value sex-specific roles for women and men, preferring that men hold the wage-earning and decision-making positions (such as corporate executive) while women occupy the nurturing positions (such as homemaker). Examples of masculine cultures are Austria, Japan, and Mexico.

feminine culture

people tend to value nurturing behavior, quality of life, and service to others, all of which are stereotypically feminine qualities. They also tend not to believe that men and women's roles should be strongly differentiated. Therefore, in a feminine culture, it is not unusual for a man to care for children or for a woman to be her family's primary wage earner. Most feminine cultures also provide new mothers with more paid maternity leave than do masculine cultures, so that those mothers can focus their attention on their new infants. Examples of feminine cultures are Sweden, Chile, and the Netherlands.

Another difference between the individualistic and collectivistic culture centers on

people's comfort level with public speaking. Many people feel anxious when they have to give a speech, but especially those in collectivistic societies, where people are taught to blend in rather than to stand out. Asserting yourself and standing up for yourself are valued in individualistic cultures, but pressure to adopt these norms can cause embarrassment and shame for people in a collectivistic culture.

high-power distance culture

power is distributed less evenly; certain groups, such as members of the royal family or the ruling political party, have great power, and the average citizen has much less. People in high-power-distance societies are taught that certain people or groups deserve more power than others and that respecting power is more important than respecting equality. Mexico, Brazil, India, Singapore, and the Philippines are all examples of high-power-distance societies.

instrumental needs

practical, everyday needs

People in collectivistic cultures are taught that their

primary responsibility is to their families, their communities, and their employers. These cultures focus on the importance of taking care of the needs of the group rather than the individual. People place a high value on duty and loyalty and see themselves not as unique or special but as a part of the group or groups to which they belong. Among the Kabre of Togo, for instance, individuals try to give away many of their material possessions in order to build relationships and benefit their social groups. The motto in a collectivistic culture might be "I am my family and my family is me." Collectivistic cultures include Korea, Japan, and many countries in Africa and Latin America.

ethics

principles that guided us in judging whether something is morally right or wrong

According to Allen and McKerrow, issues are

problems or points of controversy about which people desire resolution. You could choose to speak on a contemporary issue facing the United States, such as unemployment, immigration, or the war on terror. You might also select an issue that has been controversial for some time, such as affirmative action or sex education in public schools. When you focus your informative speech on an issue, your purpose isn't to persuade your listeners to adopt any particular point of view but rather to give them the facts necessary to form their own opinions.

defining

providing the meaning of a word or concept

informative speaking

publicly addressing others to increase their knowledge, understanding, or skills—in several different ways.

in-groups

refer to groups we identify with

Words are the building blocks of language and verbal communication. We use them to

represent ideas, observations, feelings, and thoughts. Words—whether we speak or write them—can have a profound influence on how we relate to others. Language is symbolic, is usually arbitrary, is governed by rules, has layers of meaning, varies in clarity, and is bound by context and culture

symbol

representation of an idea

model

representation of the object

explaining

revealing why something occurred or how something works.

explicit rules

rules that have been clearly articulated. Perhaps your parents used to say, "Don't talk with your mouth full."

implicit rules

rules that have not been clearly articulated but are nonetheless understood; rules that almost everyone in a certain social group knows and follow. People in North American cultures, for instance, follow implicit rules when riding in an elevator, such as "Don't get on if it's already full" and "Don't make eye contact with others while you're riding."

Seeing that you know and care about your topic will matter to your listeners. What will matter to them even more, however, is

seeing why they should know and care about it. To frame an informative speech effectively, you must therefore make clear how the topic is relevant to your audience.

code-switch

shift between jargon and plain language, in order to be understood by others.

Some instrumental needs have

short-term objectives, such as ordering a drink in a bar, scheduling a haircut on the telephone, filling out a rebate card, and raising your hand when you want to speak in class. Others encompass longer-term goals, such as getting a job and earning a promotion. The communicative behaviors entailed in serving instrumental needs may not always contribute directly to our health, relationships, identity, or spirituality. Each behavior is valuable, however, because it serves a need that helps us get through daily life.

demonstrating

showing how to do something by doing it as it is explained. For instance, you could teach listeners how to play Candy Crush Saga, clean a camera lens, or stretch properly before exercise by demonstrating those activities during your speech.

relational dimension

signals about the relationship in which a message is being communicated. For example, by telling your friend that you are feeling unhappy, you may also be sending the message, "I feel comfortable enough with you to share my feelings", or "I want you to help me feel better." Likewise, you might interpret your housemate's statement that you're out of cereal as also saying, "I'm sure you're aware of this, but I'm just reminding you," or you might take it as meaning, "I'm irritated that you never replace the food you use up." Even though messages like those are unspoken, we often infer meanings about our relationships from the tone and manner in which the statements are made.

information hunger

the desire to learn

No matter what their differences, cultures have

some common components, as our definition of culture made clear. Those components are symbols, language, values, and norms

When planning a speech, you'll often find it helpful to consult various

sources for information or guidance.

high-context culture

such as Korea and the cultures of Native Americans and the Maori of New Zealand—are taught to speak in a much less direct way. In such cultures, maintaining harmony and avoiding offense are more important than expressing true feelings. Speech is more ambiguous and people convey much more of their meaning through subtle behaviors and contextual cues, such as their facial expressions and tone of voice.

Finally, consider what your audience already knows about the topic of your speech. Armed with this information, you can avoid two mistakes:

talking down to your listeners and talking over their heads. Talking down means telling people what they already know as if they didn't already know it. Talking over people's heads means assuming they have information or an understanding they don't actually have.

Whereas objects are

tangible items, concepts are abstract ideas. Oppression, compassion, integrity, bias, and forgiveness are all examples of concepts because each is a notion or an idea rather than a concrete object. Some powerful speeches have focused on concepts that were significant to their audiences. In January 2016, for instance, Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau delivered a speech describing the importance of diversity for social and economic development. Diversity isn't an object that can be seen or felt; it's a complex idea and one that affects millions of lives as a social concept

When we speak to inform, our goal is to

teach listeners something they don't already know.

A form of language related to equivocation is weasel words,

terms or phrases intended to mislead listeners by implying something they don't actually say. Advertisers often use weasel words when making claims about their products. When you hear that "four out of five dentists prefer" a certain brand of toothpaste, the implication is that 80 percent of all dentists prefer that brand. That level of preference would be really impressive—but the statement does not actually make that specific claim. For all we know, only five dentists were surveyed. If that were the case, the support of "four out of five" would appear much less impressive. - One way people use weasel words is by making broad, unsupported generalizations. To make herself sound intelligent and informed, for instance, Eva is fond of starting statements with "People say that . . ." or "It's widely known that . . ." These phrases are weasel words because they imply a broad level of agreement with whatever Eva is saying, but they provide no evidence of that agreement. That is, Eva never specifies which people say or know whatever she is claiming, or how many people say or know it, or why we should trust their beliefs or knowledge in the first place.

Language allows for written and spoken communication, and it also ensures

that cultures and cultural ideas are passed from one generation to the next

To understand the transaction model, imagine that you have taken your car in for service and you are describing to the mechanic the noise your engine has been making. As you speak, a confused look falls across the mechanic's face. According to the interaction model,

that facial expression would constitute feedback to your message. The transaction model recognizes that you will interpret that expression not only as feedback to your message but also as a message in and of itself, making the mechanic a source and you a receiver. Note that this process occurs while you are describing your car problems to the mechanic. In other words, you are both sending messages to, and receiving messages from, the other at the same time.

the transaction model illustrates

that the conversation flows in both directions at the same time. As a consequence, each person must continuously adapt his or her communication behaviors to those of the other person, in order to keep the conversation flowing smoothly

empathy

the ability to think and feel as others do

cognitive complexity

the ability to understand a given situation in multiple ways

By taking account of feedback and context, the interaction model presents the communication process more realistically than

the action model does.

In this section we look at three different models that communication scholars have developed over the years:

the action, interaction, and transaction models.

stress

the body's reaction to any type of perceived threat; the anxiety or fear that many people feel before giving a speech or performing in front of a crowd is a form of stress.

graphic slide

the electronic display of information in a visually compelling format that can enhance listeners' attention.

relational needs

the essential elements we look for in our relationships with others

A second way in which words express who we are is by reflecting our credibility. Credibility is

the extent to which others perceive us to be competent and trustworthy

uncertainty avoidance

the extent to which people try to avoid situations that are unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable. Individuals from cultures that are highly uncertainty-avoidant are drawn to people and situations that are familiar, and they are relatively unlikely to take risks, for fear of failure. They are also uncomfortable with differences of opinion, and they tend to favor rules and laws that maximize security and reduce ambiguity

articulation

the extent to which the speaker pronounces words clearly

social validation principle

the idea that people will comply with requests if they believe others are also complying

transaction model

the model describing communication as a process in which everyone is simultaneously a sender and a receiver; the most complete and widely used of the three models

communication

the process by which we use signs, symbols, and behaviors to exchange information and create meaning

enculturation

the process of acquiring a culture

desensitization

the process of confronting frightening situations directly, to reduce the stress they cause.

Vocal volume is the loudness or softness of the voice. The appropriate volume for your speech depends on several factors, such as

the size of your audience, the size of the room in which you're speaking, and whether you're using a microphone.

fluency

the smoothness of a speaker's delivery

norm of reciprocity

the social expectation that favors should be reciprocated

A culture's values are

the standards it uses to judge how good, desirable, or beautiful something is. In other words, values are cultural ideas about what ought to be. Psychological research indicates that U.S. culture values ideas such as equal opportunity, material comfort, practicality, efficiency, achievement, democracy, free enterprise, and individual choice

To illustrate the relationship between words and their denotative and connotative meanings, psychologist Charles Ogden and English professor Ivor Richards developed the semantic triangle. In its three corners, the semantic triangle portrays three necessary elements for identifying the meaning in language. The first element is

the symbol, which is the word being communicated. In the second corner is the reference, which is the word's connotative meaning. Finally, there's the referent, which is the denotative meaning.

jargon

the technical vocabulary of a certain occupation or profession. Jargon allows members of that occupation or profession to communicate with one another precisely and efficiently.

ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge other cultures' practices as inferior to one's own

culture

the totality of learned, shared symbols, language, values, and norms that distinguish one group of people from another

slang

the use of informal and unconventional words that often are understood only by others in a particular group.

anticipatory anxiety

the worry people feel when looking ahead to a speech; research show that anticipatory anxiety often starts when the speech is assigned

Meaning in language is affected by the social and cultural context in which people use it. Societies and cultures differ in

their degree of individualism and their use of communication codes. Many of those differences are evident in verbal messages

Good communicators, however, tend to have certain characteristics that help them to behave competently in most situations:

they are self-aware, adaptable, empathic, cognitively complex, and ethical.

As we'll see in this section, we can speak with many different goals in mind, such as to inform, to persuade, to entertain, to introduce, and to give honor. BUT

those goals are not necessarily mutually exclusive; sometimes a speaker has more than one goal for the same speech.

When we speak to entertain, our goal is to

to cause listeners enjoyment

When we speak to give honor, our goal is to

to give recognition or commemoration to a person, place, or event

5 Reasons Why We Speak

to inform, to persuade, to entertain, to introduce, and to give honor.

adapt

to modify your behavior to accommodate what others are doing

Internet research, library research, personal observations, and surveys can all yield quality supporting material for your presentation. Because these sources differ in the information they provide, however, it's often

to your advantage to use more than one when you're preparing a speech.

communication codes

verbal and nonverbal behaviors whose meanings are often understood only by people from the same culture. Three kinds of communication codes—idioms, jargon, and gestures—differ significantly from society to society, and the variations can make communicating across cultures and co-cultures challenging.

Even if we don't realize it, our cultural traditions and beliefs influence how

we make sense of communication behavior. Each of us is affected by the culture in which we grew up, and we tend to notice other cultures only when they differ from ours. To many people, culture—like an accent—is something that only other people have.

Vocal pitch is a measure of how high or how low the voice is.

when speakers are nervous, their vocal pitch becomes higher than normal. As a result, high-pitched speech often makes the speaker sound nervous and unsure, whereas a deeper pitch may convey greater confidence. If you focus on relaxing while you speak, your voice may also relax, allowing you to speak at a deeper pitch.

The communication process also includes noise,

which is anything that interferes with a receiver's ability to attend to your message. The major types of noise are physical noise (such as background conversation in the office or static on the telephone line), psychological noise (such as other concerns your supervisor is dealing with that day), and physiological noise (such as fatigue or hunger). Any of these could prevent your supervisor from paying full attention to your question.

gossip

which is informal—and frequently judgmental—talk about people who are not present during the conversation. Gossip is a common communicative behavior in all sorts of social group settings, from neighborhoods to offices to churches and synagogues.

Language expresses

who we are, connects us to others, separates us from others, and motivates action.

To maximize your effectiveness as a speaker, consider

why your audience will come together to hear you.

ambiguous language

words that have more than one meaning

antonyms

words that have the opposite meaning

synonyms

words that have the same meaning as your word

criticism

words that pass judgment on someone or something

loaded language

words with strongly positive or negative connotations

If you're an active social networker,

you already have an understanding of the difference between in-groups and out-groups. Your Facebook friends list and your groups on messaging apps like Snapchat or Kik are your in-groups. In contrast, your out-group includes people who are not in those circles—among them, those you have "unfriended" or blocked from messaging apps.

representation

you describe something in terms of its physical or psychological attributes. You could represent the Great Wall of China by telling your audience what it looks like or what kind of awe it inspires when people see it. When you describe by representation, you are helping your listeners to imagine their physical or emotional experiences if they were to encounter what you are describing