Communication: Exam #2

Using you own knowledge and experience

- supplementing a speech with personal touch can bring it to life -by thinking over your past experiences you can find many supporting materials for a speech -your knowledge: drawing on personal experiences

Why Organization is Important

-a speaker must be sure listeners can follow the progression of ideas in the speech from beginning to end -establishes clear relationships among your ideas -can boost confidence as a speaker and improve ability to deliver message fluidly

1st Step in Organization

-gain command of the 3 basic parts of a speech (intro., body, concl.) and the strategic role of each -strategic organization: putting a speech together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular audience

Two major functions of Conclusions

1) To let the audience know you are ending the speech 2) To reinforce the audience's understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea

Problem-Solution Order

1st main point deals with existences of a problem and 2nd main point presents a solution to the problem -used in persuasive speeches

Evaluating Internet Documents

Authorship: who is the author; what is their credential -make sure there is an author for the source and that you know their credentials Sponsorship: group that's publishing info. / sponsoring research -sponsorship organization: responsible for the content of a document on the internet -should be a business, gov. agency, or public interest group (not individual) and have credibility Recency: how current is the info. -look at copyright date, publication date, or date of last revision to determine if it is current enough

Tips for Introduction

Be brief (10-20% of speech) Find intro. material when researching Be creative in devising your own intro. Don't worry about writing intro. until you've finished the body Work out intro. in detail Don't talk too soon when starting speech. Establish eye contact, smile and begin

Types of Examples

Brief Examples: a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point -can also pile on another until you create the desired impression Extended Examples: a story, narrative or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point Hypothetical Examples: an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation -create a realistic scenario, relate it to listeners and get them involved -good idea to follow with statistics/testimony to show that it isn't far-fetched

Main points

Central features of speech Major points developed in body of speech Form skeleton of the body of the speech Number of Main Points: -Most speeches have 2 to 5 -no time to develop more than 4 or 5 -most contain 2 or 3 -if too many audience can't sort them out easily

Establish Credibility and Goodwill

Credibility: the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic -can come from reading, classes, interviews, friends, or experience Goodwill: the audience's perception of whether the speaker has the best interest of the audience in mind -usually need if having reputation or presenting an unpopular position

Strategic Order of Main Points

Depends on topic, purpose, and audience -Chronological order -Spatial order -Casual order -Problem-Solution order -Topical order

Preparation Outline

Detailed outline developed during speech preparation Contents: -Title -Specific Purpose -Central Idea -Introduction -Main Points -Subpoints -Connectives -Conclusion -Bibliography

Guidelines for Informative Speech

Don't overestimate what the audience knows -the more you assume they know about the topic, the greater chances of being misunderstood Relate the subject directly to the audience -find ways to talk about your topic in terms of listeners -using personal terms like "you" and "your" increases audiences understanding of speakers ideas Don't be too technical Avoid Abstractions -description: a statement that depicts a person, event, idea, or the like with clarity and vividness Personalize you ideas -personalize: to present one's ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the audience Be creative

During and After Interview

During the Interview: -Dress appropriately and be on time -Repeat the purpose of the interview -Set up the recorder, if using one -Keep the interview on track -Listen carefully -Don't overstay your welcome After the Interview: -Review your notes ASAP: discovering main points and info. for speech -Transcribe your notes

Signal the End of the Speech

Ending too suddenly leaves the audience puzzled and unfulfilled Give brief cues that you are getting ready to stop; "In conclusion", "My purpose has been", "Let me end by saying" Speaker can use voice to build the momentum of a speech so there's no doubt when it is over (like musical crescendo) Dissolve ending: generating emotional appeal by fading to dramatic final statement

Guidelines for the Speaking Outline

Follow the visual framework used in the preparation outline -know exactly where you are in speech and cover main points in order Make sure outline is legible -large lettering, spaces Keep the outline as brief as possible -too many notes can interferre with good communication Give yourself cues for delivering speech -underline/highlight points you want to emphasize or write down cues. -delivery cues: directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she/he wants to deliver key parts of the speech.

Four Objectives of Introductions

Get the attention and interest of your audience Reveal the topic of your speech Establish your credibility and goodwill Preview the body of the speech

Citing Sources Orally

Identify a combination of: -book, magazine, newspaper, or web document you are citing -author or sponsoring organization of the document -author's qualifications with regard to the topic -date on which the document was published, posted, or updated

Beginning and Ending the Speech

Intro: prepares listeners for what is to come Conclusion: ties up the speech and alerts listeners that the speech is going to end

Tips for the Conclusion

Keep an eye out for things to use in conclusion when researching Conclude with a bang Don't make it too long (5-10% of speech) Don't leave anything to chance. Make last impression as favorable and as forceful as you can

Tips for Main Points

Keep main points separate Try to use the same pattern of wording for Main Points -easier to understand and remember and makes them stand out Balance the amount of time devoted to Main Points -having enough emphasis to be clear and convincing -time spent on each main point depends on amount and complexity of supporting materials for each

Library Resources

Librarians: -experts in their own field, trained in library use and research methods -can help you find your way, locate sources, and even track down specific info. The Catalogue: -a listing of all the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a library Reference works: -a work that synthesizes a large amount of related info. for easy access -encyclopedias, yearbooks, quotation books, biographical aids Newspaper and Periodical Databases: - a research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of magazines, journals and newspapers -abstract: a summary of a magazine or journal written by someone other than author -academic database: a database that catalogues articles from scholarly journals

Kinds of visual aids

Objects and models Photos and drawings -enlarge for audience -avoid passing -display with presentation technology Graphs: used to show statistical trends and patterns -helps audience grasp complex series of numbers -line graphs: one/more lines to show changes over time -pie graph: highlights segments of circle to show distribution patterns -bar graph: use vertical / horizontal bars to show comparisons Charts: summarizes a large block of info. usually in list form -helps listeners visualize info -show steps of process -keep simple and clear Video -cue to start clip -keep it short -integrate smoothly -avoid low-resolution Speaker -use body to demonstrate procedure -practice to coordinate words with actions

Speeches about objects

Objects: anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form Choose a specific purpose that focuses on one aspect of your subject Examples: -chronological order-history/evolution of object -spatial order-main features of object -topical order

Presentation Technology

Pluses and Minuses -can demonstrate speech by wowing audience through their technology proficiency while loosing the message with use of sounds and images Planning to use -choose which aspects of your speech to illustrate -decide after writing speech, where slides could clarify/strengthen your ideas Use Strategically Use to enhance specific points Don't overpower presentation Don't read from screen

Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids

Prepare well advance -gives you time and resources to devise creative, attractive aids -can use when practicing speech Keep visual aids simple Make large enough Limit amount of text -briefer is better Use fonts effectively -properly sized titles, body texts -clear easy to read -normal case -2 fonts per slide -standardized across slides Use colors effectively -consistent across slide -high contrast -easy to see -limit number Use image strategically -large enough -high resolution -clear,simple -title included -no extraneous images Display where listeners can see Avoid passing around Display only when discussing Explain clearly, concisely Talk to audience, not visual aide Practice with visual aide (make notes in delivery notes) Check room and equipment

Tips for Using Testimony

Quote or paraphrase accurately -make sure you don't misquote someone -make sure you don't violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase -make sure you don't quote out-of-context Use testimony from qualified source -qualified on subject at hand (recognized experts or citizens with special experience on the topic) Use from unbiased sources Identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Getting the Audiences Attention and Interest (pick one)

Relate the topic to the audience -people pay attention to things that affect them directly -vivid language to describe something all have experienced State the importance of your topic -demonstrate the topic signifigance Startle the audience -use an arresting or intriguing statement -make sure it's related to the topic Arouse the curiosity of the -building suspense pulls the audience into the speech Question the Audience -rhetorical questions get the listeners to think about your speech -pause after each question to add dramatic impact and allow the question to sink in Begin with a Quotation -doesn't have to be famous but should be short Tell a Story -arouses the interest of the audience and gets them emotionally involved in the speech Other methods: -referring to the occassion -inviting audience participation -using audio/visual aid -relating to previous speaker -beginning with humor

Types of informative speeches

Speeches about: -objects -processes -events -concepts

Tips for Research

Start early Make a preliminary bibliography -a list complied early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain helpful info. about a speech topic. Take notes efficiently -take plenty of notes -record notes in consistent format -make a separate entry for each note -distinguish between direct quotes, paraphrase and own ideas Think about your materials as you research

Guidelines for Preparation Speech

State specific purpose Identify central idea Label the intro., body, and concl. Use consistent pattern of symbolization, indentation -Main points (Roman numerals), subpoints (capital letters) etc. -visual framework: the pattern of symbolization and identification in a speech outline that shows the relationship among the speakers ideas State Main Points and Subpoints in full sentences -ensures that you develop your ideas fully Label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews Attach a bibliography Give the speech a title, if you desire -brief, attracts audiences attention, and encapsulates the main thrust of speech

Reinforce Central Idea

Summarize your speech -restate main points and central idea End in Quotation -most common and effective devices to conclude a speech Make a Dramatic Statement Refer to Introduction -gives speech psychological unity Combining 2 or more of these makes a strong conlcusion Make direct appeal to audience for action (persuasive)

Preview the Body of the Speech

Tell the listeners what to listen for in your speech Include a preview statement (provide smooth lead into body) Give specialized information (definitions/backgrounds) needed to understand rest of speech

Understanding Statistics

They can be easily manipulated and distorted There is more to statistics that meets the eye Are the statistics representative? (of what they claim to measure) Are statistical measures used correctly? -mean: average value of group of numbers -median: middle number in group of numbers arranged highest to lowest -mode: the number that occurs most frequently in group Are the statistics from a reliable source? -be aware of possible bias in use of numbers -seek figures gathered by objective, nonpartisan sources

Tips for Using Examples

Use examples to clarify ideas -put abstract ideas into concrete terms that listeners can easily understand Use examples to reinforce your ideas Use examples to personalize ideas -include examples that will add human interest to your speech Make your examples vivid and richly textured -supplies everyday details that bring examples to life Practice delivery to enhance your extended examples -use your voice to get listeners involved; maintain eye contact with audience

Tips for Using Statistics

Use to quantify ideas -help to make problem alive or dramatize it in personal terms -impact of examples is enhanced when combined with statistics Use Statistics sparingly: -use only when needed; make sure they're easy to grasp Identify the sources of your statistics Explain your statistics thoroughly: -must be interpreted and related to your listeners -make them meaningful to audience Round off complicated statistics Use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

Using Visual Aids

When a visual aid is presented, people find a speaker's message more interesting, grasp it more easily, and retain it longer Visual aids can enhance every aspect of a speech An average speaker who uses visual aids will come across as better prepared, more credible, and more professional Visual aids can help combat stage fright and heighten audience interest, shift attention away from the speaker, and give the speaker greater confidence in the presentation as a whole

Supporting your Ideas

You need strong materials to bolster speaker's point of view Supporting material: the materials used to support a speaker's ideas Three major kinds of supporting materials: -Examples -Statistics -Testimony

Speaking Outline

a brief outline used to jog a speaker's memory during the presentation of a speech

Examples

a specific case used to illustrate or represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, etc. vivid, concrete examples have a strong impact on listeners' beliefs and actions with examples: ideas become specific, personal, and lively without examples: ideas often seem vague, impersonal, and lifeless

Internal Preview

a statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next -more detailed than transitions -often combined with transitions

Internal Summaries

a statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speaker's preceding point or points -usually used after finishing a complicated/particularly important main points -lead audience into next main points smoothly by combining with transitions

Sign Posts

a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses attention on key ideas -frequently they are just numbers -can introduce main points with a question inviting subliminal answers getting audience involved -can use them to focus attention on key ideas

Research Interview

an interview conducted to gather info. for a speech Before the Interview: -Define the purpose of the interview -Decide whom to interview -Arrange the interview -Decide whether to record the interview -Prepare your questions Avoid: -questions answerable without interview -leading questions -hostile, loaded questions -yes/no questions

Reveal the Topic

be sure to clearly state the topic of your speech

Speeches about concepts

concepts: belief, theory, idea, notion, principles, or the like avoid technical language, define terms clearly, and use comparisons and examples to illustrate concepts define concept, identify major elements, and illustrate it with examples Examples: -topical order-focus on main features or aspects of your concept

Informative Speech

designed to convey knowledge, understanding

Quoting vs. Paraphrasing

direct quotation: testimony that is presented word for word out-of-context quote: distortion of statement by removing words, phrases around it paraphrase: to restate or summarize a sources ideas in one's own words paraphrasing is better to use than direction quotation when: -the wording of a quote is obscure -a quote is longer than 2 to 3 sentences

Speeches about events

event: anything that happens or is regarded as happening Examples: -chronological order- recounting the history of an event; relating incidents in order they occurred -topical order-approaching from different angels0 features, origins, implications, benefits, future, development, etc

Topical Order

main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics -used in informative and persuasive speeches -used more often than any other speech organization

Spatial Order

main points follow a directional pattern (top to bottom, left to right, front to back, etc) -used in informative speeches

Casual Order

main points show a cause-effect relationship -two main points (cause; effect) -used in informative and persuasive speeches

Supporting Materials

materials used to support a speaker's ideas -listeners need them to accept what speaker says -important to organize supporting materials so they are directly relevant to the main points they are supposed to support

Chronological Order

method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern -can explain process/demonstration -used in informative speech

Statistics

numerical data -an effective way to clarify and support ideas when used properly -cited in passing to clarify or strengthen a speaker's point -can be used in combination to show magnitude or seriousness of issue

Speeches about Processes

process: a systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result of product Explain how something is made, how something is done, or how something works Two types: explains a process so listeners will understand it better; perform the process themselves. Examples: -chronological order-explaining the process step by step from beginning to end. -topical order-focus on major principles or techniques involved in performing the process

Testimony

quotations or paraphrases used to support a point Types of testimonies -Expert testimony: testimony from people who are recognized as experts in their fields ~ supports your position by people knowledgable about topic -Peer testimony: testimony form ordinary people with first-hand experience or insight on topic ~ gives more of a personal point of view on issues that can be gained from expert testimony

Internet Sources

use the internet to supplement, not replace, library research Search Engines: -develop a search strategy that will allow you to zero in precisely on the info. required for your speech -click on the type of research resource that serves you best (news, images, videos) Specialized Research Resources -virtual libraries a search engine that combines internet technology with traditional library methods of cataloguing and accessing data -government resources -wikipedia ~reliability now compares with printed encyclopedias ~good place to start learning about topic, but note to end ~many resources related follows articles

Connectives

word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationships among them -Transitions -Internal Previews -Internal Summaries -Sign Posts Properly applied connectives makes speeches more unified and coherent

Transition

word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished a thought and is moving on to another -technically states both the idea the speaker is leaving and the idea he/she is coming up to