Comparative final

· a) how major parties hoping to offset loss of loyal voters by becoming more catch-all (des) b) may worsen dealignment

=parties can't rely on core committed partisan voters, must attract growing number of uncomitted voters, ideo difference between parties is narrowing, worsen dealignment with party over time

· how a) globalization and b) labor union trends are leading to neocorporatism's decline

declining because of globalization, shifted econ interests companies less willing to abide by corporatist agreements, social demo parties rely on them less, shifted IGs towards pluralism

o why decline of traditional/rise of new parties is greatest where there is a) PR and b) large welfare states

decrease with major parties, highest with countries with PR, bc new parties can succeed easily, welfare states = all citizens in social insurance systems, no redistribute income significantly, depoliticized traditional economic issues

o a) conditions that modernization theory saw as vital to sustaining democracy and b) why/the logic [Lipset]

demos only arise in countries with reasonably wealthy economy, large middle classes, educated basic needs met, weak political competitions, easier compromise, state must have a political culture where citizen value participation (Almonds and Sydney)

· how ARs can use elections/who can run to divide/control opposition parties/groups

divide and control them, limited decision making rule, gives a stake in maintainking the existing power structure and buying off competitors, dictators choose opposition to compete, makes it harder for opposition groups to overthrow

· "the debate between sociological and institutional theories for party systems creates a 'chicken and egg' question" (EXP)

do political leaders create systems to match the number of parties and kinds of parties they lead, multiple parties favors OR, 2 party system wants SMDs

· the argument that over time a) majorities and b) minorities can make federalism inherently unstable

dominant majority will centralize power , reduce extent or eliminate fed, regional minorities may want more autonomy

· why SMD's lend themselves to gerrymandering (exp)

draw electoral districts to favor partiies, expands bias towards particular partiies, gap between votes and seats won, address underrepresentation

o how a) the idea of corporatism (des) b) is practiced in ARs (i.e., societal vs. state corporatism)

each component or interest in society will be represented by one organization, noncommie uses state corporatism (state controls interest groups and wants to recognize it), societal = represent constituents in party

o far right parties—a) three main elements of populism, b) core message of nativism and c) two policies they focus on

espouse populist nativism that focuses on econ decline and opposes immigration, population emphasizes united people pitted against corrupt elites, denying divisions among people, led by charismatic leader

o a) how/why PR a) wastes fewer votes (than SMD), b) resulting in broader representation and c) more democracy

even small parties can gain seats, someone in legis will represent views, pariticpation rates increase and make the system more democratic and broadly representative

· what occurs if the wrong faction within a) a regime or b) civil society prevails according to transition paradigm theory

if hardliners win = transition with lots of limitations, if radical civil society won = full democratization and no protection for members of the old regime, political instability and hardliners crush new democracy

· how a civil war's violence is affected by one side's a) information on an area and b) reliance on external resources

if have good indo = violence is less discriminating (targets only enemies) if rely on external sources of funding, access to natural resources, more violent towards civilians bs they don't require local support

· "risks of civil war depend on an ethnic group's perceived a) political and b) economic status" (EXP)

if political institutions are weak, excludes groups, if ethnically divided elites can't compromise on shared governance --> excludes groups, ethnic group pol exclusion and relative poverty, higher chance of civil war, excluded from power and fair resources, mobilizes opposition

· "contentious politics' effect depends on a) a state's capacity for policy change and b) a social movement's allies" (EXP)

if state cant adapt to new policies with ease, cant change policy easily, presence of political allies within the state can effect the group's ability to effect policy change, SM allies within the state, rigid state wont allow change to take place

· how risk of civil war is affected by the nature of a country's a) resources, b) age structure and c) terrain

if valuable resources are available and fought over, civil war is more likely, age/young men if in surplus can join militias, terrain = if mountainous rebels can hide, if ethnically fragmented primordialist

o "different a) electoral systems (def) affect b) governance and c) whether it is consensual or majoritarian" (EXP)

impact the composition of the legis and executive, if encourage many fragmented parties more consensual (need coalitions or gridlock) fewer parties need more majoritarian, which system you use affects the legislature makeup

· features of bureaucracy that are vital to a) the modern state and b) liberal democracy yet c) a possible threat to it

implements laws based on a meritocracy, no checks to see if they will abus their independence and autonomy, no vert accountability

· a) how contentious politics ends in civil war once a regime splits and b) one form a split may take (e.g. in the US)

important regime supporters join the opposition with resources, challeng the regimes monopoly on violence, may be regional elites trying to secede (US)

· ARs most prone to violate a) empowerment and b) integrity rights and c) why dominant parties need less coercion

personalistists are most likely to represess empowerment rights military = repress physical integrity, dominant = least repressive because features more traits of demo with reduce repression

· how dominant party dictatorships' policies make citizens dependent on them [Mexico]

policies prevent peasants from escaping poverty, dependent on state patrongage through PRI, compels loyalty to state

· "civil society is not weaker—it is just that political participation has shifted to 'new and different forms'" (EXP)

political acitivty is steady or increased, shifting involvement/participation --> not to formal groups invovled in pol acitivies, volunteer and join small groups, social movement participation, use of social media

· a) where contentious politics activity occurs and b) the range of tactics employed in it

political activity at least in party beyond instituitonal bounds, groups demand change, tactics include petitions, riots, violence, civil war , revo, protest, occur by civil society, beyond institutional bounds, protests happen most in wealthy demos,

· New Public Management's (des) general aim as a solution to the bureaucratic principal agent problem

theory of reform of bureacracies that argues for the privatizing of many gov services, creating competition among agencies to stimulate a market, focusing on customer satisfaction, flatting admin hierarchies, to reduce inefficiency and corruption, privatize gov agencies, more competition, competition overcomes self interest

· two practices less institutionalized ARs rely on to ensure civilian control of the military

create many military institutions, no one becomes too powerful, informal ties of loyalty with ruler and military personnel, same ethnic group/region, leader = patron for protection

· "social movement construction of a 'stigmatized identity' (des) is a means of mobilizing support" (EXP)

identities based on ethnic, racial, religious minorities, constructing SI mobilizes, gives pol voice in contrsuction to help with the new social movement

· a) dealignment vs. realignment and b) why realignment would imply less pessimism about the future of parties

deal= voters and parties disconnect for the long term, major parties = educate voters on political issues and simplify vote choice, realignment = voters preferences change,

· a) more "institutionalized" (exp) interest groups have more assets, such as those in b) the three "sectoral" categories (exp)

3 categories = labor, business, agriculture, well institutionalized = visible large memberships significant voice on issues, less- institutionalized = less effective representatives are questioned

· "economic crises a) help democratization [Brancati] b) but hurt democracy, due mainly to elites [Bermeo]" (EXP)

Brancati = protests for demo are more likely in countries undergoing econ crises, help with transition dont help strengthen, Bermeo = key elites rejected demo in times of ciris, not public hurts demo because negative econ cause elites to hurt democracy

o how economic success helped spread liberal democracy through a) its domestic impact and b) cultural clout

Domestically, economic prosperity creates stability at home, Economic stability also gives democracies a tool to influence the development of other countries Dessire to share the unfathomable wealth of the west was also a desire to adopt its lifestyle and emulate its political system → political influence

o neocorporatist a) government-peak association interaction and policy b) formulation, c) agreements and d) implementation

neocoroporatist interact with fewer, larger, and more institutionalized PAs,

· how the a) process/forms and b) outcome of autocratization traditionally looked

Contemporary demos tend to erode gradually Democratic breakdowns were sudden events, like coups or election day vote fraud "Classic" autocratization tactics included illegal access to power, military coup, foreign invasions, and auto golpes (occurred suddenly, outright, and was a complete transition)

· "whether ARs with elections fully democratize may depend on western a) linkages and b) leverage [Levitsky/Way]" (EXP)

EARs move to demos or away from them dependeing on western linkages and leverage, econ/pol/social ties with West, leverage vulnerability to Western pressure, strong west influence cracks fown on authoritianism more external pressure to move to demo

· why it can be hard to identify an AR's effective head of government—i.e., an eminence grise

EG are people who hold power without an official position, king pres and PM

o the positive cycle scholars saw between democratic consolidation and two economic conditions

Econ development leads to the spread of more liberal values, which increases the strength of democratic institutions, provide more support (Inglehart and Welzel) Acemoglu and Robinson argue that the key precondition for demo stability is income equality, stable demo institutions lead to income redistribution, and regime stability

· cases (e.g., Russia and Pakistan) indicating that democratic deconsolidation results in democratic backsliding (exp)

High level of public skepticism regarding the value and purpose of democracy prefigured democratic backsliding Following in both Pakistan and Russia, elected leaders that were unopposed

· "a) the US began as a decentralized federation, b) but the federal government has gained more power" (EXP)

decentralizied but fed gov gained more power by denying funding to states on different issues, laws applying to everyone and welfare laws --> power is more centralized

o "after transition a) full democratic breakdown (exp) is rare but b) two forms of only partial consolidation occur" (EXP)

breakdown is only useful for a subset of episodes of autocratization, coup de tats (sudden autocratization is rare), may result into a closed dictatorship or electoral authoritarianism, should be more gradual (Lindberg reading),

o how fostering a form of social mobility helps dominant party dictatorships maintain power [USSR]

brings educated public into the party, social mobility for those who avoid dissonance, fate of individual is tied to the party, educates the party and gives them opportunity in exchange for them not to dissent

· how the a) process/forms and b) outcome of autocratization have looked in more recent years

Multi-party regimes slowly become less meaningful in practice Gradual process through harassment of opposition, subversion of horizontal accountability on the rise In the 3rd wave, democratic erosion became common; incumbents legally access power and gradually undermine democratic norms and abolish key democratic institutions There was a legal coming to power through elections; gradual weakening of the legislature

· a) two forms social movements take if they institutionalize and b) what is often true of groups who succeed them

new groups can replace them, become NGOs, groups that succeed can have more challenging agendas

o politically closed vs. electoral [civilian] AR—a) main features/distinctions and b) tactics the latter don't need

PC = no opp party is granted a legal space in pol arena (china), EAR = hold elections, some pluralism some party competition, violates demo norms, 2 types: hegemonic and competitive, some, unequal playing field

· how an AR leader's relationship with his support coalition shows the former is not all-powerful

SC is how the leader got into power and maintain the leader, authoritarian leader has to rely on the SC to stay in power

· why in theory a) contentious politics should face an even greater b) collective action problem than normal politics

no incentives to join group or protest, politics outside of institutions could be illegal

o "liberal democracy's late 20th century ascendance rested on its a) inherent appeal but also on b) economic factors" (EXP)

Political system flourished because of its deep commitment to both individual rights and collective self determination Universal human desire for liberal democracy Offered the most salient model for economic and geopolitical success Economic growth of western europe

o the positive cycle scholars saw between democratic consolidation, experience with democracy and civil society

Rising expectations of goc lead to improved delivery and a reinforced faith in democratic performance Length of time spent under a demo leads to rising demo support Experience of demo leads to strengthening civil society networks and participation, which reinforce dmeocratic performance and legitimacy

· why a regime's formal respect for democratic rules at a given time may not indicate democratic consolidation

Possible for a country to follow democratic procedures without being a consolidated democracy Fully democratic practices may not be rooted in democracy Indicators of democratic legitimacy and the internalization of democratic norms might be better at showing nuanced assessment

· "a) conventional wisdom about which type of party system makes governing easier b) may be wrong" (EXP)

SMD with 2 partiies makes politics easier and policy more coherent, but SMD candidates have to appeal to large voters, vulnerable to threatened loss of even a small group of their supporters

· "horizontal accountability in Brazil has been a) helped by courts yet b) limited by judicial independence itself" (EXP)

horizontal account to check and impeach corrupt executives, limited judicial indep. difficult to clean corruption in gov, relies a bit on legit

· why some argue that a) neocorporatist organization helps workers counter b) the natural influence of business (EXP)

business interests are crucial to econ well being, gov in market econ pay attention to business interests, neocorp is better at countering infleunce of business, igs in large strong orgs, large and united more direct influence on gov

o three empirical indicators that democratic deconsolidation is occurring

The degree of express commitment to democratic rule among a country's population The degree to which a country's citizenry rejects alternatives to democracy The political power held by anti-system parties aiming to undermine or delegitimate key components of the liberal democracy

· why/how AR-style national elections can prevent defections from the regime's support coalition

buy and intimidate voters to supporting canddiates, dicators can guarentee overwhelming victories at the polls, no way of knowing the true level of opposition in society

· how federalism in less institutionalized/newer democratic states can undermine democracy

by allowing semi authoritarian rule at the state level but demo at the national level, less oversight at the state level

· two opposite ways/processes by which federations emerge (e.g. US/Australia/Switzerland vs. India)

contiguous units within larger empires, separate sovereign states in the US, emerged from separate states coming together to form state or stay together after colonial rule, India= arose via demo and implicit bargaining between regional elites and central gov

· "US parties a) long differed from Europe's and polarization between them is b) not new nor c) solely ideological" (EXP)

US parities = less ideologically divided, more catch all, less ideo distant than european parties, less core social group, partisanship, more about increasing electoral advantage incentivize polarization, (block pres goals and use Congress agenda to assert own message)

· Latin American parties a) at first resembled Europe's, b) but were weakened by regimes and the region's form of populism

cadre parties increase in the 19th century like europe and become mass parities, conservative (favored landowning elites) vs. liberal favoring reforms, remained weak in authoritarian military interruptions to demo process, used clientelism with urban supporters for populaism, made parties weak when rebuilt under demo, socialist partieis didn't have much reach outside urban areas

· groups represented by early a) conservative, b) liberal and c) socialist parties and d) the organizational type (a and c)

conservative = originated as cadre parties, defending traditions, econ status of the elites, libs = wanted expanded rights for the bougeosie, growth of market economies, socialist = wanted mass parties to represent the emerging working class

o why some fear online communication's a) "isolating effect" (des) and b) "slacktivism" (des) hurt social movements

could isolate individuals and limit participation in SMs, low cost low commitement acitivism with little impact, social media can bypass traditional media to disseminate ideas

o a) relative deprivation (def), b) especially tied to identity, as a psychological explanation of contentious politics

a group or indivi. belief that they are not getting their share of something of value relative to others, psych theory to why people are mad with gov, identity = self-indentified group not getting what they deserve because of who they are, race ethnc. gender are sources

· a) what it takes to win a plurality/FPTP district and b) what this may mean when multiple candidates contest it

a SMD system in which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins, more than 2 contestants, needs to edge out the closest competitor, run off may occur if necessary

o how professional bureaucracy poses a principal-agent problem (des)

a problem in which a principal hires an agent to perform a task but the agents self-interest does not align with the principals. task might not be carried out, no one can hold bureacracies accountable

o ideal transition to democracy in terms of a) who takes part, b) the process, c) the pact and c) what completes the process

a regime change typically involving a negotiated process that removes an authoritarian regime and concludes with a founding election of a new demo regime, majro political actors in author regime and opponent, make a pact = a concious agreement among important political actors in the authoritarian regime and civil society to establish new form of gov, makes new demo consititution, ends with a founding election = first demo election marking the completion of the demo transition

· a) how the security dilemma (des) raises risks of violence and b) why it is worse if identity and other divides overlap

a situation when 2 or more groups do not trust and may fear one another, dont believe that institutional constraints will protect them, and the likelihood that violence breaks out between them, because the state is weak for protection, if identities overlap the security dilema is worse because the ethnic group may believe its not getting its fair share, unequal distribution of resources/ power, us vs. them mentality, fear and resentment

· a) why repression (def) is a defining trait of ARs (vs. democracy), b) why they use it and c) two reasons they may not

actual or threatened use of physical sanctions against an individual or organization within a territorial jurisdiction of state, used to improse cost on target, deter specific activities, goal is to lessen perceived threats to their rule and maintain control, but expensive and requires gov capacity and can backfire

o how the nature of military organizations in multiethnic postcolonial/neopatrimonial African countries may lead to coups

african armies are divided by regional and ethnic divisions, not concerned with national interests, coups are military leaders want more power for their ethnic group / region

· how political opportunity structures/context affect a) whether or b) how a group employs terrorism

against occupation, facing repression/ financial constraints/ competition for followers, target institutions for power (churches)

· a) symmetrical vs. asymmetrical federal states (des), b) including how the latter are formed and for what reason

all states have some relationship with rights in relation to the national gov, asymmetrical fed system fed system where diff subnational gov (states or provinces) have distinct relationships with and rights in relation to the nat gov, ends with civil rights, ethnicially divided socities, some states have special rights, symmetrical = all subunits all have the same relationship with central gov, formed through individual negotiations with subnational leaders and central gov

o a) what local AR elites/party members may seek from competing in elections and b) how it helps ARs co-opt them

allow for patronage distribution, recruit and reward local elites, local authoritarian elites seek patronage, create opportunities for patronage to give back to their districts, give the good local elites through cooptation

o "legislatures help ARs by fostering a) co-optation or b) 'compromise' and c) easing the dictator's dilemma" (EXP)

allow for policy compromize, people can voice demands so they aren't resistance, use to control dissent and make consesions, help ease the DD legislators give voice to grievances, gives regime information

o why some say social media make it easier than before for social movements to a) spread ideas and b) mobilize

allows expressing greivances to larger audiences and form networks, makes media and a public space, can form and act

o a) what multipartism entails in dominant party dictatorships and b) how it facilitates dominant party rule

allows people characterized by different political attitudes to sort themselves out entailing different degrees of identification, maximizes support for dominant regime because the party does not pose any threat for the dominant party, allows for the visible isolation

· "elections in multiparty systems have multiple 'winners' given the kind of governments that result" (EXP

almost always require a coalition gov because they are so big

· a) who qualifies as head of government of a military regime and b) why guerrilla leaders do not count

counts if leaders can count on the support of the military, guerrila dont count because they game themselves military titles and are the opponent if the military

o how education/media impact a) traditional party/voter links and b) the value of formal members, causing dealignment

as voters become more educated and media outlets increase, need less political parties, parties campaign more via national media more education, parties campagin via national media, get more educated on all of the parties,causes dealignment, no longer socialized, able to switch more, formal members aren't as necessary

o a) how clientelism is a form of political participation that can b) benefit patrons and c) benefit clients

attaching to patron, patron has a regionally based faction, leaders gain support by directing gov resources towards their home state, clients gain benefits and jobs, patrons are usually elites with access to resources

o a) dictator's dilemma and pros/cons of dealing with it by b) co-opting the military and c) ethnic groups

authoritarian rulers repression causes fear breeds uncertainity about how much support has ruler spends more on resources than is rational to cooptation the opposition, coopt military so rivals within the military dont overthrow (may make their own security forces), may spend more money on own ethnic group to maintain support, creating formal institutions with legislatures and parties, give positions to opponents to coopt them

· how a compensatory mixed system a) has SMDs but b) ensures each party's seat share is proportional to its vote

awards seats to district reps, after party lists used to add members until each party get seats = vote, guarantees each district has own rep, compensatory votes first for SMD and then fill the rest of leftover seats with PR, overall its proportional though,

· a) probable reason for declining party loyalty and b) continent where the decline is greatest

because of decrease of traditional social divisions of class and religion in wealthy demos, mainly in europe with the PR system

· "a) judicial independence (des) is greater in b) 'fragmented' system or c) with low initial public faith in courts" (EXP)

belief and ability of judges to decide cases as they think appropriate, regardless of what other people and political officials desire, fragmented system allows for more space for an independent judiciary, public trust --> court would be less ambition in a new democracy, less faith because still establishing legit

· why non-violence may be a more effective strategy for social movements [except secessionist ones]

better at mobilizing widespread support

· political appointees a) can't affect bureaucrats' careers but b) may hold them to account via law or oversight (des)

cant affect bureacrats careers, limited by legal means bc of hired and paid, legis can write laws that limit bureacrats' discretion, bureaucrats must answer to legislators within these legal means, legis has oversight

o cartel party thesis—impact of a) economic constraints and b) media campaigning on major party competition/messaging

catch all parties have become cartel parties, econ = parties attracted voters via market-oriented econ theories for limited gov services (allows them to stay in power), not about offering social benefits, change in media --> needed lots of money to run media campaigns, maintain support by forming a cartel and colluding

· "a) India began and still is a centralized federation, b) though power is becoming a bit more decentralized" (EXP)

centralized but getting more decentralized, national gov can create, eliminate, and change state boundaries, declares pres rule in states, recent econ changes have strengthened state govs, national gov has coalitions with state level parties

· "contentious politics' effect can be a) direct (beyond policy change), b) indirect and c) in the future" (EXP)

change attitudes and policies on minorities, collaose author regimes, affect political ystem, agenda, policy output, resources for and implementation of policy, indirect = changing social and cultural attitudes and opinions, change the practices of large institutions

· why the nature/impact of revolution on a) the state/society and b) ideology usually leads to strong/undemocratic regimes

change the entire social order or regimes, social revolutions create authoritarianism and stronger states, political revolution to democracy, gov takes form based on the ideo beliefs of revo leaders, revo overthrowing restructured, state has to restablish monopoly on use of force, gained sovereignty, new regime gained, seem ideologically unified, no other opposition can be voiced

· the two crucial roles that proponents of judicial review say it plays in a liberal democracy

check on the executive and legislative power (horizontal accountability), supports minority rights (like property owners)

· a) succession in institutionalized ARs vs. b) the two ways personalist rulers leave office

choose leaders from key contenders in politburo (high inst, single dominant party) top party leaders choose from own, personalist leaders rule for life or are forced out

· of monarchy, military or civilian regimes, a) which have been most common and b) which most stable

civilian is the most common, monarchies are the most stable

o how clientelism may b) be a problem for individual clients and b) ease pressure on regimes to change policy

clients have no other means of recourse and way to voice demands if patron is unavailable, clientelism = gives little incentive for people to organize collectively, patron is best change at getting policy, little incentive to change gov or its policies

· criticism of PR's impact on the a) number/nature of parties in parliaments and b) thus on forming governments

coalitions are hard to form with fragmented partiies, small parities have little voice unless in coaliitons, inefficiency

· a) consultative authoritarianism (des), b) its two benefits for ARs, and c) why/how regimes must keep it in bounds

combines liberal autonomy and state corporatism, provides servies directly, maintains some civil society within bounds to maintain regime control

"authoritarian capitalism's success (des) allows regimes to interfere in liberal democracy via forms of soft power" (EXP)

combines strong state with relatively free markets, secure property rights, can meddles with west demos such as interference in elections, soften the hold demos had on spreading the news

o how judicial review can be a) centralized or decentralized and b) concrete or abstract

common law = decentralised (any court can look at a const issue), concrete (someone victimized by law opens case), code law = centralized (special court handles constitutional questions), abstract (public officials/major question law before it goes into effect

· cartel party thesis—how a) change in major party strategies/messages created b) opportunities for minor parties

competition about managerial experience (party / cartel that is best run will survive), preserve the status quo of major parities, policy alternatives from small parties, share of votes increases in most countries, Cartel party thesis increase opportunities for minor parties because major party views shifted to "maintain status quo" which led to a decreased sense of voter efficacy; innovative policy alternatives were only coming from minor parties

· why majoritarian electoral rules are popular with a) ARs, b) especially dominant party regimes, c) if not monarchies

easier to manipulate maj rules, some say MERs are more likely with dominant party and proportional with monarchies, monarchies = pol arbiters, legit from royal family and tradition, not popular support, not in best interest of monarch to have single contender to fight for power in legis

· how economic success helped spread liberal democracy through its effect on a) foreign policy and b) military power

econ power converted into miltiary might, other countries cant topple democratic regimes by force, defend other countries via foreign policy to maintain other demos

o why and how a) AR elites factionalize and b) civil society mobilizes yet also factionalizes in transition paradigm theory

economic downturn crisis, elites split to hard and softliners, hardlines represses opposition, civil society mobilizes radicals and moderates factionalize

· "a) many assume ethnic diversity harms democracy b) yet it seems to do so only under certain conditions [Houle]" (EXP)

economic inequality between ethnic groups harms demo consolidation, assumption is that ethnic fragmentation hurts democracy (weaker not unified) more competition threatens institutions

· two PR ways of a) choosing representatives [not in SMDs] and b) allocating legislative seats [proportional to what?]

electoral system in which the seats in a legis are appointed on a proportional basis to their share of the vote, choose representatives nationally, large electoral districts with multiple representatives, seats allocated proportionally according to the vote in each district,

· a) features of SMD and PR that mixed systems combine and b) what voters choose on their ballots

electoral system that combines single member district representation with overall proportionality in allocation of legis seats to parties as a whole, voters cast 2 ballots: one fore representative from their district, second for party list, voters decide who gets a majority

· a) what occurs to civil society under totalitarianism, b) how it is justified and c) the form any interest groups take

elimates civil society, ruling party represents all interests necessary, interest group becomes mass orgs under the party

· a) the cultural values that some claim foster democracy and b) why they claim this happens [Ingelhart/Welzel]

emancipative values sustains demo, values emphasizing freedom of expression/ equal of opportunity sustains demo, empancipative values increases and is critical of govs without liberal rights, more pressure on gov to be a demo

o a) clientelism (def) as a basis for joining/supporting parties, b) US examples, c) traits of countries where it's still common

exchange of material resources for political support, US offered better treatment to party members when allocating jobs and business contracts, authoritarian regimes (loyalty to political leader) more common in poor societies, loyalty to patron not the party

o how a) postmaterialism and/or b) postindustrialism/globalization may affect voter interests, causing party realignment

explains realignment, traditional econ divisions on which parties were based are no longer important to voters, postindustrialism = globalization, interests no longer fall on the left/right divide

· a) type of democracy and b) features of any regime that enhance political opportunity for social movements to mobilize

extent to which a regime is open to influence from social movements and other extra-institutional groups, scholars think resources aren't enough, consensual demo are more than majoritarian demos at getting influenced from SMs, traits = multiple independent centers of power, openness to new actors, instability in political alignments

· far right parties/causes—source of a) economic and b) cultural grievances

extreme form of cultural nationalism, sees nation as a culutrally threatened by outsiders, demands return to cultural purity, use strong anti-immigrant campaigns, seeing economic decline

· a) type of elections never held and b) type of elections that have been held in China/Saudi Arabia

failed to hold national level elections, china = no elections at the regional, provincial, national levels, can vote in township and country elections, saudi = elections at the municipal leel

· why/how centralization occurs in some federal states

fed govs have more of total rev and ovrride state perogatives on civil rights, edu, drinking, central gov has more control

· a) how elections can inform ARs about their opponents and b) various steps/responses the AR may take based on it

find bases of support with multiparty election, find opportunity strongholds, target and punish them with less

· "a) electoral systems (def) reflect b) one of two different assumptions about how best to represent voters" (EXP)

formal, legal mechnisms that translate votes into control over political offices and shares of political power, 1) represent voters geographically as territority is divided into units, vs elect legislatures nationally were there are large districts, or special representation for ethnic minorities, 2) represented by candidates

o the impact of a) political revolution vs. b) social revolution and c) who brings both about

fundamental transformation of an existing regime, instigated and carried out by a SM or an armed group, social = transform regime and social structure, both carried out by a armed group or SM

· "coups may occur because military organizations seek to a) advance their interests or b) defend their status" (EXP)

get larger budgets, more pay, more equipment, civilian leaders aren't considering military needs enough, defend status, professor status among civilian leaders, unjustified intervention in military affairs`

· "a) networks help mobilize contentious political activity, b) especially where identity groups are involved" (EXP)

give members personal connections to group, direct info on the group's goals and activisites, direct channels to recruit from, related o identity and identify with eth/racial group have personal network within the group

o case for federalism a) in large countries, b) to limit majority power and c) to protect regional/ethnic minorities

gives a level of goc thats closer to the pop than the national gov in larger countries, limits power of the majority in decentralizing and dividing the gov power, more veto players, protects religious and ethnic minorities, and in some cases the minority becomes the majority

· a) why SMD is said to ensure good representation b) based on voter needs/interests and b) evidence for that claim

gives constituents a strong ID with representative , rep is still expected to work for you,

o why a) personalist rulers fear naming successors (who many thus do pick) yet b) not doing so endangers the regime

grooms successor, makes sure successor is not a threat, many picks sons, not picking leader endangers the regime, demo could rise, elites fight for power

· how transnational activism affects/expands a) political opportunity structures and b) repertoires of action

grown with the internet, new political structures, groups can target international orgs, not just nat gov, share new repetories across borders for a collective purpose

· a) overall election data and b) changes within regimes show electoral authoritarianism is not a separate regime type

hard to distinguish hegemonic and competitive ARs, subjective coding rules (challenging), no single authortatitive dataset of EARs

· main distinguishing features/two areas of personalistic dictatorships (def)

have military and party support, but are mostly personally controlled

· a) the three groups involved in Egypt/Tunisia's upheaval in/since 2011 and b) why democracy resulted only in Tunisia

hd negotiations to create a pact critical, secular and islamist oppostion trusted each other negtiated good pact with military, egypt = military leaders took control after dictator registered, secular and islamist forces didn't trust each other, muslim brotherhood took over, less willingness of military to negotiate with opposition

o hegemonic vs. competitive electoral [civilian] AR—a) what they have in common and b) what sets them apart

hege = leaders' party routinely wins with overwhelming majority, grants some legal standaring to opp parties, no contestation for power (Egypt), competitive = opp parties win substantial minorities in pres or legis elections,

· a) how scholars explained the purpose/role of hegemonic and b) competitive AR elections vs c) the recent consensus

hegmonic = elections are an institutional window with few political consequences, competitive =shifts towards democratization

· "even limited elections in new democracies can help the opposition/strengthen democracy" [Lindberg, van der Walle] (EXP)

help with opposition and strengthen the demo, shifts power between the ruling part and opposition, limited elections give opp some power and dissentdents get option/alternative, if opposition gets enough support = tipping point

o how a) organization of and b) advancement within professional bureaucracy enhances its political independence

hierarchical for career advancements, career advancement based on performance not connections, hold power because of their ability

o a) nature, b) target, c) examples and d) measures (integrity/empowerment rights) of high vs. low intensity repression

high = overt acts of violence (mass killings) easily observable, measure by looking at personal integrity violations, gov activites that target individuals integrity, low = broader target, surveillence, less attention to small incidents, gov may outsource, measure via empowerment rights restrictions = limiting expression, assembly, beliefs

· "judicial autonomy may help ARs with a) legitimacy, b) information, c) economic growth and d) control" (EXP)

in nonpolitical cases, helps regime with legitamacy, provides personal securtiy to people, gains info on how well the state functions on the ground, enforce property rights which encourages domestic and foreign investment, improves econ growth, gov revenue

· how PR fosters emergence of multiparty systems in part by how they affect the thinking of politicians (Duverger's law)

incentivize small focused parties, need to pass the threshold, makes more ideo distinct parities

· how/why a) cooperative transition process that b) involves active social movements affects the durability of democracy

include pacts and give opp power, includes all important actors and support demo system, transitions with SM and make demos with more civil rights and constrains elites to make a stronger demo

o "a) despite the collective action problem (des), b) people find reasons to participate, and c) institutions help" (EXP)

individual being unwilling to engage in a particular activity because of their rational belief that their individual actions will have little or no effect, yet collectively suffering adverse consequences when all fail to act, people participate to: directly influence gov, gain satisfaction in expressing political beliefs, be apart of a community of like minded people

o "a) in one way a supreme leader's power has few limits but b) he rarely makes decisions solely on his own" (EXP)

individual who wields executive power with few formal limits in an authoritarian regime, few formal limits on power, but consults other top leaders, SL must make sure decisions have support from other leaders

· a) support coalition/s (def) and b) why they are a logical basis for classifying ARs

inner sanctums of fellow members of the regime to the dictator, dictators always deposed by SCs, wat to dististinguish dictatorships

· features of coups most likely to produce a) institutionalized regimes, 2) economic problems and c) personalist regimes

insitutionalised: made by military with strong hierarchy and order, econ problems = coup address the military's interests shfits resources towards military spending, personalist = personal coup

o a) how SMDs foster a two party system by their impact on a) competition, b) voters and c) politicians (Duverger's law)

institutionalist argument by french pol scientist that SMDs will produce 2 major parties, eliminating smaller parties, plurality is hard to get a seat, successful parties need broad appeal, politicians electoral victory is through establishment parties

o why incentives for institutionalization (des) are reduced a) by mineral wealth and b) in military/monarchical ARs

institutions are less likely, dictator uses mineal wealth to coopt segments of the opposition and buy their support, military/monarchies are institutions that are less likely, have independent power bases, give them more power than oppositon has

· a) the number/scope of groups and b) government's role (including what doesn't occur) under interest group pluralism

interest group pluralism = interest group system where many groups represent particular interests and the gov remains officially neutral among them (USA), all want to gain infuence, no preferential access to one group

· what civilian dictatorships lack at the outset (in contrast to other AR types)

no institutional base of support, create regimes parties or personality cults to penetrate and control society, difference between of how inner sanctum gets power, dont have immediate institutional base of support

o a) internal vs. external candidate selection (exp) and how each affects b) party strength vs. the independence of legislators

internal candidate selection = registered members pick candidates, loyal to party interests and demands, more likely to vote in block of official party positions, external selection = raise campaign funds and gain party nominations, via election open to all votes in party (not just formal members) via election to all voters in the party (like a US primary), more independent of party leader demands, less unified and weaker parties

· institutional limit that may most affect a new democracy's success [Kapstein/Converse, Fish]

its more important the limits of executive, rather than type of exec, strong legis is the most important in maintaining a demo

two reasons judicial review proponents see judges as no less democratically legitimate than legislators

judges, 2) legis never perfectly representative or accountable, so the difference between them is less 1) holds offices horizontally accountable can be seen as democratic accountability, appointed officials have similar ideals

· why political leaders must rely on professionalized bureaucracy/source of its independence

keeps the courts safe from political whims of leaders, relied on to make technical advancements, hierarchical for career advancements for career advancements

· main distinguishing features/two areas of personalistic dictatorships (def)

leader often supported by a party or military, retains control of policy decisions and the selection of regime personnel, weak nonexistent press, strong secret policy, state violence to create fear, military parties aren't developed enough to take control, leader undermines them so institutions can act as power base for potential rivals

· "code/civil law (des) is a) more widespread globally than common law and b) restricts judges' rulings more" (EXP)

legal system in which judges may only follow the law as written and must ignore past decisions, interprets little, widespread during colonialism, judges aren't allowed to look at past cases

a) the two possible bases for common law (des) judges' rulings and b) when and how they shape future law

legal system originating in Britain which judges base decisions not only on their understanding of past court cases, contrasting code law, based on understanding written law and past court cases, must use precedent, write rulings to clarify ambigious laws

o why coups a) led by higher rank officers or b) in countries that have previously had coups are more likely to succeed

less factions obstacles within the military, more coordination, leaders must believe coup will be successful, not rebelling against institutions and entire military hierarchy, past coup attempts in the country (successful ones) will garner more support, will help believe another coup will be successful

· a) neocoporatist peak associations' structure/role limit participation, b) making their own internal democracy vital" (EXP)

less participatory --> hard to create new orgs, give recognition power to elite leadership of PAs, own demo internally more vital, open elections for leadership, constituent participation in organizational poliices can legit claim members views

o "the web's a) two transformative effects can overcome b) barriers to mobilization and c) infrastructure costs" (EXP)

lower cost of creating + organizing movements, aggregating indivudals actions into collective actions without being in the same place and time, help with barriers to mobilize sees group of people less fear to join, may shave activism based on similar grievances read online, help with infrastructure costs, dont need offices or paid staff, done need to be in the same time or place

· how declining party loyalty impacts a) turnout, b) "volatility" (exp), c) issue voting (exp), d) new parties and e) focus (exp)

lower voter turnout, increased electoral volatility = voters switch parties more frequently from one election to the next, more single issue voting = on postmaterialist issues, new parties enter the political arena, focus on more on the personality of the individual candidates than on parties

· a) standard explanation of personality cult in personalistic dictatorship and b) the problem with it

maintain loyalty with SC and citizenry, gradually alter beliefs of citizenry through steady state indoctrination, issue = personality cults are unbelievable, better = how dictators can harness signaling to do social control

how judicial review makes courts a veto player but c) also raises a fundamental question

makes courts a veto player because it limits majority rule, fundamental q = why should unelected officials have so much power?

o "why ARs may want to rely a) less on repression than b) co-optation (des) and c) legitimacy (des)" (EXP)

material inducements and positions, secure support, repression expensive, most regimes aim for legimatacy, if citizens believe in regime, will obet without costs of repression or cooptation

· how parties have responded to declining formal memberships in terms of a) candidate selection and b) policy adoption

members are given a greater role in picking candidates and setting policies, using media more wisely, shift funding to state subsidaries

· why "third wave" democratization initially seemed to invalidate modernization theories

military dictatorships became democratic, commie countries became demos, and countries too poor, weak states and national identities became democratic

o a) ways all institutionalized regimes and specifically b) communist ruling parties ensure civilian control of the military

military doesn't cross limits set by civilian leadership, coup de tat (when the military forcibly removes an existing regime and establishes a new one), civilian = bounds on military loyalty, makes military apolitical, politically socializes military to ensure respect for the institution, commie = mandatory party membership, political socialization in society

o a) how military regimes justify taking power/coup but how b) class or c) corporate interests may matter

military is justified as "guardians of national interest" and preventing corruption, motivated by class conflict and corporate interests, redistributing wealth to poor (protect own econ fortunes)

· a) a military regime's (def) the support coalition and b) how it may vary with lower/higher rank officers

military leaders rule as part of a juna or committee, relies on armed forced for power, high ranking officers take power on behalf of military, 3 or 4 head of military lead, lower rank officers --> use military coup and larger juntas to hold power

o a) limited role of parties/militaries b) and why/how a leader may undermine them in personalistic dictatorships

military/parties aren't developed enough to take control, leader undermines them so institutions can't act as a power base for potential rivals

· "weakly institutionalized ARs a) may allow competition by default b) but not consolidated democracy [Way, Bratton/deWalle]

minimal competition by default, author regime isn't strong enough to hold power on its own, Bratton: Africa's neopatrimonial regimes transitions that don't lead to demos, political competition for gov resources, lacks pacts and elections are semi-fair (EARs)

o "interest group pluralism entails more a) autonomy and grassroots control but b) less policy influence" (EXP)

more control and participation any person is free to start a new org, national orgs are limited in control over local affiliates, decentralized = less institutional strength and overall power in national organizations

o why a) institutionalization (des) might be greater in b) military, c) communist or d) previously democratic ARs

more in military regimes because the miltary has high institutionalized norms, commie parties highly structures, more institutionalized, past with demo, may adopt, recreate limited formal institutions

· how/why SMD plurality/majoritarian electoral systems generally sustain a majoritarian form of government

more likely to have a single party goc, each voter has a specific representative

· in open-list PR a) what voters see and choose; b) what decides a party's seat share and which candidates get them

multiple candidates run in each district, voters vote for individual candidate of choice, candidate with most voters in the party get the seat the party wins, voters =seats, seats awarded to top individual vote getters in the party, vote on multiple candidates, candidates that get the most votes get the seats

· why some say PR might incentivize voters to vote for a party more ideologically extreme than they are

multiple parties makes policy based on compromise, so the voters compensate by voting for more ideologically extreme parties

· typical a) national vs. b) state/province policy areas and c) two other key powers affecting each level's real power

national level = military, foreign, monetary policy, esential to sovereignty and econ, states/ provinces = power over education, transport, social services, real poweer of gov come from resources and bargaining units, how much the def can collect in taxes and how much each can spend

· how the a) beliefs, b) internal structure and c) reasons for joining some groups raise doubt that they are part of civil society

not based on self interest, not controlled by the goc, not violating the core tenets of demo, internal structure = membership citizens choose to come together based on a shared concern, raise doubt = civil society confused with interest groups, but interest groups are more regulated by the gov and must follow rules/rpocedures if they want to be more legitamate, interest groups don't seek formal political power, Beliefs: certain beliefs violate basic tenets of liberal democracy, but they're a large group with that belief; belief systems are designed to undermine civil society Internal Structure: groups propagating ethnic/religious

o "a) how supreme leaders take power and b) a power balance at the top incentivize some institutional limits" (EXP)

not singlehandedly, coup rebellion, win election, need group of supporters, makes committments to limit power with top supporters to avoid overthrow, use institutions to limit power, power baalnce with allies and dictator institutions rise and prevents usurping power , convinces SC that he wont usurp their power

o bureaucracy in ARs and a) how/why rulers (Mobutu) may benefit from weak institutionalization but b) at a cost

not very strong and independent, depends on the leaders, less institutionalized, allows patronage opportunities, maintain loyalty, more institutionalized more loyal to bureaucracy to rise to higher positions, bureacracy is still needed in ARs, still need the bureacracy to run the institutions, high rates of patronage, not directly serving the people's interests, weakens the state, stronger institutions lengthen the life of the AR

· a) political appointees (des) as an answer to principal-agent problems and b) the country with the most such appointees

officials who serve at the pleasure of the pres or PM and are assigned the task of overseeing their respective segments of bureacracy, answer to the principal agent, holds them accountable and their priorities align

· a) why ideology does not really explain why revolution occurs b) but is relevant to what happens afterward

only leadership understands ideology, followers have different motivations to jin, explains outcomes of revolutions

o a) what opposition groups seek from competing in local/legislative elections and b) how it helps ARs co-opt them

opp groups seek advancement into political office, AR coopt opposition groups by giving them positions in office, creates division within the opposition

· a) what peak associations represent, b) their makeup/structure and c) their relations with local groups under neocorporatism

organizations that represent the major interests in society by bringing together numerous local groups, gov works closely with peak associ. to develop policy, bring together all interest groups to influence agreements with the state, under individual labor unins etc.m under neocorporatism = PAs maintain unity, local organizations abide by decisions from nat body, official reps of their sectors implement welfare policies for gov

· the a) organization, b) aims, c) participants and d) tactics in/of social movements (def/des)

organizations with losely defined organizational structure and represent people who perceive themselves as outside the bounds of formal institutions, seek major sociecon and political changes, use non institutional forms of collective action, participants are people challening the status quo, tactics = non institutional forms of collective action for progressive agenda

· a) civil society (def/Ch. 3) and b) what it provides citizens in modern democracy

organized civil activity between state and family or firm, essential to lib democracy, provides space for citizens/ groups to organize and influence goc, not formal participation, represent values of groups of people and interact

· how both a) judges themselves and b) lawmakers contribute to the growing "judicialization" (des) of politics

other political lawmakers use judges to conduct their policy battles, judges want to act as a veto player

· a) two benefits/incentives for interest groups to cooperate with ARs and b) what they in turn accept

overcomes the DD, provides services directly, uses positive and negative incentives, mixes and autonomy and corporatism STATUS and REWARDS patronage for the regime

· "a) devolution (def) in unitary states including b) "asymmetrical" versions (des) c) do not make them federations" (EXP)

partial decentralization of power from the central gov to subunits such as states/provinces, with subunits power being dependent on the central gov and reversible, UK has asymmetrical devolution each region has its own responsibilities, central gov can revoke that power (doesn't make them a federation)

· how a) "rising expectations" (des) and b) relative deprivation may cause revolution....

people revolt when things start to get better nad they want more to catch up, grievances and mobilization elites shift allegiance to the opposition, anger over regime injustice, mobilize organization, situation is not as a good as it can be

o Asian/African parties' a) origin/early ideology b) masked divisions that c) undermined them/democracy in two ways (EXP)

parties opposed colonial rule, started as weak mass parities, ethnic divides within, against colonialism, weakened by military intervention fragmenting demo, one faction would gain control and create a one party state and eliminate party competition, lead to undermining of parties originating, patronage to the party

o a) when/where cadre parties emerged, b) two reasons they became mass parties, and c) the scope/role of members in each

parties/associations that seek to formally control gov, began in Europe in the 19th century, collections of political elites who choose candidates and mobilized voters, small membership that elected politicians and closest elite supporters, became mass parties because of universal franchise, full-industrialization (drew people to cities)

· how PR results in more a) women/minorities being elected, b) information for voters, and c) overall well-being

party leaders feel compelled and required to include women/minorities on a list, more parties leads them to more info to voters results in faster changes to policies, more tolerant of diversity, support policies reducing inequalities and more competition, more parties means more issues that can be brought up to address wellbeing

· in closed list PR a) what voters see and choose, and c) which candidates in a party get the seats it's entitled to

party presents a ranked list of candidates voters vote for the party rather than the individual, each party awards its seats to candidates on a list in rank order, voters see list, choose party,

· a) a dominant party system's chief features (des) and b) what separates it from an authoritarian regime with elections

party system in which multiple partiies exist but the same one wins every election and governs continuously, one party is popular enough to win elections, different because there is a free and fair election, different from authoritarian regimes bc authoritarian maintains power via manipulation of the electoral sustem and control of gov resources and party intimidation

· "the term two party system accurately describes a country's a) election outcomes if not its b) electoral competition" (EXP)

party system in which only 2 parties garner enough votes to win an election though more may compete, electoral outcome = 2 parties win enough votes, competition between 2 even though more may compete

· how sociological divisions a) gave rise to European parties and b) determined where two vs. multiparty systems resulted

party systems reflects society it arises from, divisions between econ a nd capital vs. labor as industrialization increases, religious divisions, multiparty systems emerged where there was econ and religious divisions that were politically salient, just econ --> two party system

· what social movements' strategies/repertoires aim to achieve and b) in what sense they often draw on history

peaceful protest, civil disobedience, violence, choice of repertoire is based on past examples

· a) basis of appointment to premodern bureaucracy (China aside) and b) what changes with a professionalized one

political patronage pre-modern, suits leaders' interests, professionalization, recruits based on merit and less political patronage, bureaucratic officials, held technical expertise (no favors)

· how terrorism's a) target(s) and b) objectives differ from those of other forms of violence/warfare

political violence or threat of violence by groups or individuals who deliberately target civilians or noncombatants to influence behavior and actions of targeted oublics and governments, different from political violence based on who is targeted, (civilians targeted are not responsibile for policies), aim to increase fear with random acts

· four possible features/traits of a group/individual often assumed to explain terrorism

poverty, lack of edu, emotions (fear and humiliation motivate terrorism), ideology acts based on religion

· why some claim that parliamentary/coalitions are better for new democracies than presidentialism [Linz]

preserves new demos, new demos are deeply divided with distrusting elites, power sharing helpes in parliament than presidencies

· how a) consensual or b) authoritarian political opportunity structures affect a social movement's repertoire choice

produce many major candidates, more likely to champion social movemenets demands, author = groups engage in repressive repetoires, underground actions, overt action when opportunity rises

· three reasons/incentives any type of major political elites may see democracy as in their own self-interest

provides all major political actors with participation, protection from repression, possibiliy for power

beyond absolute wealth, three other economic attributes once stabilized liberal democracy, but all are eroding" (EXP)

relative equality, rapidly growing incomes for most citizens, the fact that authoritarian rivals to demo are much less wealthy, eroding due to income inequality and inflation, and less GDP in demos compared to some economically performing autocracies

· a) what is almost always true of one dictator who replaces another and b) what it show about regime lifespan

relies on SCs to hold power, usually replaced by a member of the SC, not just about dictator leaders, more about the regimes

· how doubt about courts' institutional strength lead judges to use judicial review rarely at first in new democracies

relies on public support and acceptance, rarely use judicial review in new demos to avoid pressure, gain legit over time

· the main potential threat to the stability of military regimes

the military, coups and counter coups, factions within military threaten stability

o a) the dictator's dilemma in personalistic dictatorships and b) how a personality cult may help resolve it

relies on repression to stay in power, but this repression creates incentives for everyone to falsify their preferences so the dictator never knows his true level of societal support, if public is willing to accept his incredible clains, dictator will see the public's preferences

o a) a monarchy's (def) support coalition and b) the specific role its members play that makes them important

rely on family and kin network to come and stay in power, executive comes and stays in power because of family and kin networks, family SC success from the royal fam, new successor must have support of royal fam, royal fam may choose the monarch

· "a) contentious politics requires more than motivation; b) it also requires 'resource mobilization'" (EXP)

resources are what the group has to effect change, organizational capacity, money, leadership, help overcome collective action problem

· why/how democracy having become a global norm has affected the process/outcome of autocratization (des)

reversals to authoritarianism have grown out of fashion, abolish multiple party elections in coups, international community tends to sanction political leaders who explicitly disrespect electoral resurls, international aid given to country with multiparry election

· a) what determines the share of seats a party wins under PR, b) assuming that it crosses the threshold (des)

seats allocated proportionally according to the vote in each district, must pass the threshold, translates the share of votes into the same share of legis seats,

· a) what emerging social movements may mean for ARs and b) how accommodating local protest may benefit them

signs of demo opening, typically focus on local concerns, allow local concessions to occurr, gain citizen input and put pressure on leocal gov to improve services

· a) main features of dominant party dictatorships (def) and b) their support coalition's members

single party dominates access to political office and control over policy, though other parties may exist and compete in elections, recruit and socialize pol elites, membership is necessary, voice grievances via cooptation,

o a) how and when SMD a) underrepresents or b) over-represents certain parties depending on where their votes are

smaller partieis may win a plurality in a few districts, which only gives them a few seats, large parties get an inflated number of votes, may win a large share of the vote many times but only a plurality in one or two, underrepresents them with seats

· a) why and b) how much the ratio of population to seats in upper houses helps federalism limit majority rule

smaller states are overrepresented in the upper house, 10% of the pop can limit majority rule with legislature

· "whether a group uses political violence depends on a) political opportunity structure and b) its repertoire" (EXP)

social movements more peaceful in demos because of bigger opportunity to achieve goals, depends on repetoire if past violence in society can serve as a model as acceptable

· "as a) social capital (des) wanes and b) 'managed advocacy' (des) replaces older groups, civil society weakens" (EXP)

social networks and norms of reciprocity that are important for a strong civil society, creating social networks and norms for demo participation, trust mutual, mangaged advocacy - relies on membership for financial support for calls, emails, replaced older groups, check book participation, less active branches forms a weaker civil society groups that rely on members for financial support and for occasional phone calls, e-mails, or presence at rallies, but no longer have active local branches that bring members together on a regular basis There's no more face-to-face interactions

o "a) primordialist accounts of ethnic violence fall short; b) a state's founding narrative explains it better" (EXP)

some groups have old grievances and will attack each other when they get the chance, but that ignores historial variation of ethnic identities, fails to explain why violence breaks out at certain times and not others

o a) two ways ARs use appointments to ensure the military's loyalty and the b) role of new/other security forces

spend a lot on military security, appoint military leaders to party leadership, may make new security organizations

· political opportunity structures explain revolution, including a) the state's condition and b) a certain regime type

state in crisis and lacks resources to respond, weak neopatrimonial regimes excluding major groups from share of power, prone to regime, cant allow opposition a role, forces opposition to revolt

· the sequence/two political developments that some argue must emerge before democracy

strong state and national identity then creates a democracy

o a) regime and civil society factions that prevail and c) what they do/produce in transition paradigm theory [Huntington]

successful democratic transition, sofliners and moderates in civil society gain the upperhand on opponents, negotiate new rules of the game, forms a new demo

o economic development's impact on a) democracy vs. b) transition [Przeworski] —and c) a challenge to b [Boix/Stokes]

sustainability of demo highly correlated to econ development, said modernization has little explanatory power on becoming democratic, challenged by removing the USSR and oil wealthy countries from data, found econ development makes transitions to demo more likely

judicial review

the authority of the judiciary to decide whether a law or any other government action contradicts a country's constitution

· far right parties/variables—impact on their success of a) electoral system, b) other parties and c) their own activists

thrive in PR systems, also in 2-round majoritarian, survive if 2nd choice, established parties response, influences how successful new parties are

· a) bureaucratic socialization standards as a solution to the principal agent problem overall and b) in Japan/France

to maintain standards and combat the principal agent problem, recruits people who are neutral and legal, france and japan recruit from one high profile educational institution (high prestige and status bureacrats), all socialized in the same way

· a) how/to whom ARs use elections to send international signals and b) what they may expect to get out of it

to show moving towards more demo system, appearance of demo competition, keep goodwill and funding

o a) what party membership entails and b) what the party does/gets out of it

travel, monetary benefits, nonmonetary benefits, ew stores, access to foreign goods, retains loyalty and power

· "a) the participants and b) aim of civil war (def) set it apart from other forms of political violence" (EXP)

two or more armed groups at least one is tied to the regime in power, fight for control of the state, different from political violence, not only tied to ethnicity, aim to fight for control of the state

o arguments why inequality may a) prevent democratization [Acemoglu/Robinson] or b) foster it [Ansell/Samuels, classical liberal thought]

unequal societies unlikely to democratize because elites fer that impoverished major gains the vote, use to redistribute income, Ansell: democratization happens when a newly wealthy demo but disenfranchised groups demands demo to protect property

o unitary vs. federal states in terms of a) sovereignty and b) the existence/power of subnational levels of government

unitary states are political systems in which the central gov has sole constitutional sov and power, (unitary can have subunits, but their power is devolved from the central gov) contrasts fed system where state's power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of gov, subunits and national gov are sharing gov

· a) why and b) how much the scope of upper house legislative power determines whether federalism limits majority rule

upper representat state and provincial gocs, lower house are more powerful are closer to popilation, but ipper can disapprove of any legislation,

· how elections can inform ARs about their own officials

use low vote support to find incompetent, poor local officials

o "ARs today have alternatives to a) using brute force themselves, b) arresting critics or c) overt censorship" (EXP)

use subtler strategies, ambigious, less attention so they can't be blamed, guard for opp to launch decisive response, helps regime maintain demo norms of behavior, tolerant of dissent not brutal or ruthless, track opponents and gather info

· "emancipative values" (des) arising from b) postmaterialism as a cultural explanation of contentious politics

values favoring greater individual freedoms and equality of opportunity, lead to participation, values increase as basic needs are satisified, SMs are strongest in wealthy countries

· how ARs restrict choices on the ballot in a) "referenda"-style elections or b) under one party rule

vote in a y/n to the incumbent, choose multiple candidates from a single party

· a) two ways citizens have of using elections to signal discontent and b) why ARs may prefer that to the alternative

voter absenstion (act of protests, ignore mandatory laws). ballot nullification form of protest

o criticism that in a) any PR system and especially b) closed list, voters do not really choose "their" representative

voter doesn't have their unique representative, closed list the party determines the rankings, see this as an indirect election

o how a) "democratic theory," b) socialization and c) social group identity would explain joining/supporting a party

voters examine alternatives and support the party that best represents them, socialization party membership, source of ID socialized into, less conscious, social group identity = join the political group based on ethnicity, religion, region, class, takes rational approach

o how ARs restrict competition by a) predetermining outcomes (three ways) and b) limiting opponents (e.g., Iran)

voters have little say in who gets elected, voter coercion, vote rigging, making up arbitrary vote totals, ensures incumbent victory, iran = all reformist candidates deemd unfit

· PR's underlying assumptions about a) what voters want and by contrast b) what matters less to them

voters want ideas and values represented, representation not based on location

· a) why postcolonial societies were seen as vulnerable to coups and b) why some scholars saw military rule as positive

vulnerable to coups, weak institutions coups are more likely, states with political cultures that don't value nonmilitary means of transferring power and civil society, coups are more likely, weak institutions and corrupt leader = violence, military intervenes to keep the peace, military rules in the national interest and reestablishing order

o how a) bureaucrats' rational self-interests (des) b) may affect its organization and c) the aims of political leaders

want more prestige, salary, work to expand their sphere of influence inefficiencies, corruption if doing political favors, distort principle purposes

o mixed systems offer the advantages of a) PR and b) SMD—but c) also make it easier to form coalitions than PR

wastes few votes, increased participation rates, personal reps helped connect back to district, SMD part reinforce dominance of large parties, coalition formation and stability

· a) reverse wave (des)/autocratization and b) the regime type most affected by the current reverse wave

waves of autocratization Defined as the time period in which the number of countries undergoing democratization declines while at the same time autocratization affects more and more countries mainly affects democracies

o why a) clientelism (def) is b) less common where formal institutions are strong yet c) more common if they are weak

way to get people to participate in politics for ARs, weaker formal institutions have more clientelism, weak institutions means weak loyalty

o a) democratic consolidation (def), b) the "two turnover test" and c) why some see a gradual process as more successful

widespread acceptance of demo as a permanent form of political activity, significant political elites and followers accept demo rules, sustainability of demo, the only game in town, if pass the two turnover test where a consolidated demo (one party wins the founding election and another party must win another election), others see gradual process as more successful because of the higher quality democracy, resolves fundamental problems over time

· a) what it takes to win a majoritarian district b) and how that result is ensured/how it affects the election schedule

winner must gain majority and may result in a run off between two candidates

· a) how and when/under what circumstances SMD is said to "waste" votes, b) and how/why this affects voter turnout

winning candidate doesn't represent the voters that didn't vote for them, lowers voter turnout a, and voters find voting a waste of time especially if they support smaller parties

· "Marx a) did a poor job predicting revolutions but b) a better job of inspiring them" (EXP)

wrong about why revolutin would occur, thought captialist to commie revolution would happen in wealthy, advanced nations, actually happened in power countries with authoritarianism

· why social movements became common in/after the 1960s and b) examples of those that had the most impact

young baby boomers though govs, partiies, interest groups didn't provide adequate representation started SM,