Comprehension Questions

What did the United States later achieve that seemed to surpass the earlier Soviet achievements?

Landed on the moon in 1969

Why did the USSR develop an atomic bomb so soon after the USA?

Klaus Fuchs, a German physicist who worked on developing the original American atomic weaponry, was exposed as a Soviet spy who had been passing information to Moscow for several years.

What measures did Churchill take in order to aid the Soviet war effort after the USSR joined the Second World War?

- agreed to send 2250 tanks and 1800 fighter aircraft - Arctic Convoys - 3 million pairs of army boots for the Soviet soldiers

What was agreed at the Tehran Conference, and what tensions remained unresolved?

- an Anglo-American force would invade France in May 1944 - Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated - the USSR would gain territory from eastern Poland but the Poles would be compensated by pushing the Polish-German border west to the River Oder - the three leaders agreed that they would accept only an unconditional surrender by Nazi Germany - approach of second front: Churchill was still keen to pursue his Mediterranean option and invade Germany through the 'soft underbelly' of Europe, whilst Roosevelt and Stalin wanted to invade through France - the future of post-war Europe

What was the 'percentages agreement', and what consequences did it have for superpower relations in the Balkans?

- carved Europe up into spheres of influence - Balkans were dominated by Russia: 90% of Romania and 75% of Bulgaria

What role did Lenin play in causing the relationship between the USSR and the West to deteriorate?

- communist ideology - withdrawal from WWI - desire for a worldwide revolution - no multi-party elections

What major questions were left unresolved at Potsdam?

- long-term future of Europe, particularly Germany - economic fate of Germany

What role did Stalin play in causing the relationship between the USSR and the West to deteriorate?

- show trials - purging Soviet leadership

What action did Stalin take in 1939 that alarmed the West, and why was it so surprising he did this? In what ways did this move benefit Stalin?

- signed a non-aggression pact with Germany 'Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact' also known as 'Nazi-Soviet Pact' - prevented attack from Germany - divided Poland between themselves - prevented the West from joining with Germany - Stalin was buying time to industrialise

Why were so many of the agreements favourable to Stalin, and is it fair to consider that the Western powers gave away too much at Yalta?

- the Red Army now occupied most of Eastern Europe - required manpower It's unfair: - the USSR did not get all of Berlin: it was split up between the four powers - Stalin agreed to hold free elections (BUT he didn't stick to this) - Stalin agreed to the formation of Europe - it could be argued that their trust in Stalin to agree to these concessions, were naive, but Stalin was stubborn to agree to most of these demands (we can see this in the second front tensions)

Why did Stalin fear that the British and Americans might sign a separate peace with Germany?

- the foreign policies of the capitalist West had convinced Stalin that the main objective of the USA and Britain was the destruction of communism

In what ways did the USSR 'get its way' at the Yalta Conference?

- the meeting took place inside the Soviet Union - the USSR would annex the Polish territory that they had occupied in 1939 - the London Poles would form a joint government with the Lublin Poles - the Soviet Union would receive reparation payments from Germany of $20 billion to be paid in goods and services over a period of 5 years - Soviet Union and Yugoslavia citizens who became prisoners of war, would be returned to their respective countries

Why did Stalin want the British and the Americans to open a 'second front'?

- to take pressure off the Red Army

How did William Bullitt and George Kennan influence official American views of the USSR?

- witnessed Stalin's purges - major threat to the Western way of life - spread of communism should be resisted by the western democracies - Bullitt letter to Roosevelt in 1935 "The aim of the Soviet Government is, and will remain, to produce world revolution"

How did the development of ICBMs lead to escalation in the Cold War?

1957 - Soviets developed a weapon capable of being fired from thousands of kilometres A worried president Eisenhower quickly ordered the US military to develop their own ICBMs, resulting in the Polaris System, which could be launched from submarines. Over the next twenty years, these systems were improved until any nuclear war would end in both sides being destroyed (MAD)

What reforms did Dubček attempt to launch in Czechoslovakia in 1968?

A series of reforms dubbed 'socialism with a human face', promising freedom of speech and the press and moves towards a multi-party democracy. His Action Programme included the right of travel to the West and that the economy would be based on consumer demand rather tha government-impsoed targets. Dubcek promised to stay in the Warsaw Pact and the Communist Party would retain its 'leading role'

How did Communist hardliners attempt to prevent further change in 1991?

A state of emergency was declared and Gorbachev was placed under house arrest. The coup d'etat was led by the KGB chairman Vladimir Kryuchov, Defence Minister Dmitry Yazov and several other ministers and generals. A delegation was sent to persuade Gorbachev to agree to the state of emergency, which he refused to do. The coup leaders carried on without him and tried to gain control of key buildings in Moscow.

What reforms did Imre Nagy announce after he was made Prime Minister of Hungary in response to the protests?

A withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. The abolition of the AVO Moves towards multi-party elections

What was the impact of Jaruzelski's imposition of martial law in Poland in December 1981?

All gatherings were banned Curfews imposed The leaders of Solidarity were arrested The union itself was later banned This was ineffective as the union survive and Walesa was elected as Polish presiden in 1990

What problems did the sudden migration of so many East Germans into West Germany create for both countries?

Although most East Germans chose to stay in the country after the border was opened in late 1989, there was a steady stream of economic migrants westwards. Attracted by better prospects, some 600,000 had left by the end of 1990. East Germany's economy could not sustain such losses of the economically active and West Germany was struggling to meet the welfare, housing and employment needs of the newcomers.

What interpretation of the global situation did Churchill offer in his 'Iron Curtain' speech?

An 'iron curtain' was descending across Europe - the countries of Eastern Europe had been placed under totalitarian rule and were controlled from Moscow

How did Ulbricht respond to the 1953 East German uprising?

Asked the Soviet Union to intervene to restore order. Two hundred thousand Russian troops and 600 tanks quickly crushed the uprising, the first time the Red Army was used to suppress a popular revolt in one of the satellite states. Fifty people were killed and repressive measures, including executions and long prison sentences. Of the 6000 people arrested, at least 20 were executed and 500 received life sentences in prison.

Why did Truman announce the Truman Doctrine in March 1947, and what was the first action the US took under the new policy?

Britain had retained troops in Europe and was fighting in the Greek Civil War, backing nationalists against Yugoslav-supported communists. This commitment was ruinously expensive and, by February 1947, the British were facing bankruptcy, Attlee informed Truman that British aid to Greece and Turkey would have to stop and the 40,000 troops in Greece be pulled out. The USA was concerned that without aid Greece would fall to communism and that other neighbouring countries, in particular Italy and Turkey, would follow suit. The US government sent a large amount of money and military advice to the Greek government.

Why were Churchill and Roosevelt unwilling or unable to open a second front? What role did the Dieppe raid play in these decisions?

Churchill - the British army was still recovering from 1940 defeats - lacked tanks and heavy artillery - worldwide commitments because of Empire Roosevelt - it would take months to train and equip the huge numbers of troops necessary for a successful attack on Europe - objective: seize Dieppe for a short period of time to prove that a seaborne force could successfully capture a Channel port - result: 5000 sent - 2000 imprisoned and 1000 killed - impact: confirmed the Allied view that overwhelming force would be needed to successfully launch an invasion in Western europe, and this buildup of men and material would take time

What were the beliefs and goals of the Bolsheviks when they seized power in Russia in October 1917?

Communism - worldwide revolution - land seized by peasants was legitimised - private trade forbidden - industry nationalised - Cheka formed - withdraw from the war

How did central planning and production quotas prevent the Soviet economy from growing?

Concentration on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods Around 1/4 of the Soviet GDP was spent on the military The need to prop up communist regimes around the world - both Cuba and Vietnam were receiving $1 billion of aid per year by 1980 The state monopoly on business ensured that there was almost no innovation and very little foreign investment The state decided what would be produced rather than consumer demand Wages did not keep pace with inflation which led to worker discontent and a lack of productivity; there was no real incentive for the workforce to do more than the basic minimum Alcoholism was a common feature of Soviet life and also led to low productivity and absenteeism

How did the other Warsaw Pact nations respond to Dubček's initiatives?

Conducted military exercises inside Czechoslovakia in June 1968 Issued the Warsaw Letter: accepted the Czechoslovak right to self-determination but also argued that challenges to socialism in one country were a threat to the entire socialist movement and would not be tolerated Invaded Czechoslovakia on 20 August 1968

What foreign policy did George Kennan argue for in his 'Long Telegram'?

Containment - the Soviet Union was inherently expansionist, saw the West as the enemy and could not be trusted. The West should now move to containing Stalin rather than trying to ensure Eastern Europe became democratic.

What event created the climate of fear in the West that led to the creation of NATO?

Czech Crisis in 1948 Czechoslovakia's genuine coalition had envisaged friendly relations with both East and West. After pressure from the Soviets saw the Czechoslovak Government pull out of participation in the Marshall Aid programme. After this rejection, Washington viewed Prague as very much in the Soviet sphere of influence. Czechoslovakia was seen as a country that had not fallen into the Soviet orbit and had successfully resisted communism. President Truman now became convinced that the USSR was determined to control the whole of Europe. This showed that without American help, Western Europe would be unable to resist Soviet expansion.

When the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia to restore control, why was there much less bloodshed than when they had done the same in Hungary?

Dubcek ordered a policy of passive resistance and the Czechoslovak armed forces were immediately surrounded by their Warsaw Pact allies

How did President Carter respond to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan?

Ended the shipments of grain from the USA, arms discussions between the superpowers broke down and the USA boycotted 1980 Moscow Olympic Games

How did Poland end up with two separate governments-in-exile by 1945?

Following the defeat of Poland in 1939, the Polish Government escaped the country and established itself in Paris and then London in 1940s. This government was recognised by the Western Allies, and became known as the London Poles. Polish communists who arrived with the advancing Red Army became known as the Lublin Poles.

How was the Hungarian Uprising ultimately crushed?

Khrushchev ordered 15 divisions and 4000 tanks into Hungary Up to 3000 Hungarians were killed an 200,000 fled across the border into Austria and the leaders of the revolt, including Imre Nagy, were later executed

In what ways did the Berlin Blockade backfire on Stalin, both practically and politically?

For Bevin, Berlin had become an important symbol of resistance to communism and Soviet control of Eastern Europe. The Airlift gained huge popular support in the USA, particularly after US pilots, such as the 'Candy Bomber' started dropping sweets to hungry Berlin children. The counter blockade was damaging East Germany's economy as trade between the Western sectors of Germany and the Soviet Union was halted. Practically, it failed as in May 1949, the Soviets lifted their blockade of Berlin. Politically, it made the Soviet Union look like an aggressor in the eyes of most Berliners and was also detrimental to the economy of the Eastern zone.

Why could the construction of the Berlin Wall be seen as an ideological victory for the West?

For the West, the Wall was a propaganda gift - the only way the workers' paradise could keep its citizens was to build lethal barriers to imprison them in their own country.

How did the Soviet Union benefit from Comecon?

Gained supply of manufactured goods from the more-developed economies of Eastern Europe

What solution did Gorbachev propose in 1991 to the increasing fragmentation of the USSR?

Gorbachev proposed a new Union Treaty in April 1991 that would create a voluntary federation of independent states to replace the Soviet Union. The treaty would transfer powers from the Central Committee in Moscow to the fifteen different Soviet republics.

What were Ronald Reagan's reasons for massively increasing American military spending?

He described the Soviet Union as an 'evil empire' and crucially felt that the USA could 'win' the Cold War by exerting more military, economic and political pressure on the Soviet Union. Reagan felt that increased defence spending and the development of new weapons would allow the USA to regain supremacy in the nuclear arms race, thereby holding more clout on the international stage. In short, he would use American wealth and technology to out-produce the Soviet Union

Why did Willy Brandt pursue the policy of Ostpolitik?

He recognised that Germany would be on the frontline of any confrontation between East and West in Europe and was keen to improve relations with the Soviet bloc in order to reduce tension and avoid armed conflict

Why did Alexander Dubček's background seem to make him an ideal candidate to liberalise Czechoslovakia?

He was involved in resistance activities against the Nazis

What effects did the policy of collectivisation have in the GDR?

Heavy industry prioritised at the expense of consumer goods. Living standards in the East failed to improve and the scarcity of consumer goods, in particular housing, caused resentment among the East German population. Many farmers reacted to collectivisation by simply abandoning their land and moving to the West. Up to 15,000 left during the 1950s, which contributed to the shortage of food and further alienated people.

Why did the war in Vietnam push the United States into pursuing a policy of détente?

Hugely increased military investment meant that much-needed social reform in the USA was abandoned in order to pay for the war in Vietnam.

Why was the world's attention preoccupied with events in Egypt during the Hungarian rising?

In 1956, the president of Egypt (Abdul Nasser) nationalised the Suez Canal (a vital trading root) to raise money to build a dam on the River Nile. The British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, colluded with Israel to oust the Egyptians. Israel would launch an invasion and then, days later, an Anglo-French 'peacekeeping' force would occupy the Suez Canal. Eden neither informed the House of Commons or the USA of this secret deal. The Soviet Union threatened to intervene on the side of Egypt. US president, Eisenhower, fearing an escalation of the Cold War, forced the British to withdraw/

What major successes did the USSR achieve in espionage against the British and the Americans during the Cold War?

Klaus Fuchs - stole atom bomb plans from the Amercians Cambridge Five - penetrated the British Secret Service Aldrich Ames - head of the CIA's Soviet division

How did Khrushchev challenge President Kennedy at the Vienna Summit in 1961?

In 1961, Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, declared at a meeting in Vienna with US President Kennedy that all of Berlin was East German territory. He went as far as threatening military action to remove Allied troops from the Western sectors. Kennedy responded by guaranteeing a Western presence in Berlin.

How did Gorbachev introduce democratic elections to the USSR at the end of the 1980s?

In 1987, voters were given a choice of candidates in local elections and in March 1989, the first genuinely free elections were held in the Soviet Union. Although the Communist party won the majority of seats, enough independent candidates were elected to push the USSR further down the road of democracy.

What was the purpose of Stalin's Berlin Blockade?

In protest to the Western powers introducing the new Deutschmark, he aimed to force the Western powers out of Berlin completely.

What issues did the Soviet press begin covering once they were given the freedom provided by glasnost?

Inadequate housing, food shortages, environmental pollution and widespread alcoholism. The press were also able to inform their audience for the first time of the positive aspects of Western life, rather than just the negative ones that Soviet propaganda had limited itself to.

What advantages did the creation of NATO give to the USA?

It tied the strongest country in Western Europe, Great Britain, to a still-recovering continent. The treaty also reassured anxious governments that Soviet expansion would be resisted but this was now a join responsibility rather than solely an American one. Finally, the US military would now be able to base itself in the middle of Europe and respond quickly to any threat from the East.

Why was the introduction of the Deutschmark in the Western zones of Germany such a provocative move?

It was done without consulting the Soviet Union, in order to allow Germany to grow economically, as trade cannot prosper if the currency is not trusted.

How did the superpower confrontation in Berlin become briefly more intense in the months following the building of the wall?

Kennedy ordered an increase in defence spending of $3 billion, largely on conventional weapons. He ordered the numbers being conscripted to the US army to be tripled and for reserves to be called up.

What Western initiative was Stalin attempting to counter by forming Cominform?

Marshall Plan and containment as a whole

Why was it hoped that détente would bring economic relief to both superpowers?

Massive investment was needed to build nuclear weaponry and maintain the huge Soviet military Investment in consumer goods by the USSR was sacrificed in order to keep its industry focused on producing armaments and other military technology

Why did West Berlin continue to function as an exit route even after the border with West Germany was closed in 1952

Movement between the four zones was difficult to stop, particularly as both the underground and overground train lines ran across all the sectors. Those wishing to leave East Germany could simply get off a train in one of the three Western zones. Between 1949 and 1961, 2.8 million people left East Germany, around one-sixth of the total population.

In what ways did the USSR enjoy more success in the early stages of the space race?

October 1957 - Sputnik, the first satellite to orbit the Earth November 1947 - Laika, the first living thing in space April 1961 - Yuri Gagarin, first human in space

When and how did the Soviet Union officially cease to exist?

On 24 August 1991, Gorbachev resigned as leader of the Communist Party and disbanded the Central Committee. By the end of the year, eleven of the fifteen Soviet republics had declared their independence. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 25 December 1991.

What made the Afghan war such a debilitating problem for the Soviet Union in the 1980s?

One million Soviet soldiers, mostly conscripts, served in the war. The veterans 'Afghantsty' became a growing political force. Many conscripts were from non-Russian Soviet republics and the war became a symbol of their opposition to Soviet rule. In 1989, men refused to be conscripted in the Baltic Republics and Georgia. Prior to Afghanistan, pro-secession leaders in non-Russian Soviet republics worried that the Soviet army would easily crush any attempt to break away. The failure in Afghanistan changed this perception. The legitimacy of the invasion was questioned, particularly after glasnost. The Soviet army was viewed as an undefeated defender of communism and the glue that held the diverse Soviet Union together. Its performance in the war shattered the illusion of its invincibility. Increased defence spending on the war diverted money away from basic consumer goods. In 1986, Gorbachev described the war as a 'bleeding wound'. For Soviet citizens, this admission of failure from the leadership was a revelation and illustrated the reforms Gorbachev was trying to make.

What did the Hungarian rising demonstrate about Western policy towards the Soviet satellite states?

Only wanted to stop the spread Showed to the Soviet Union that they could use force to control their satellites and the West would not intervene

Why was Gorbachev so unpopular in the USSR by 1990?

Perestroika had brought economic reforms but also problems. A market economy led to higher prices and shortages as the state cut back on subsidising both industry and food prices. For most ordinary citizens, conditions largely worsened, Particularly unpopular was Gorbachev's attempt to tackle rampant alcoholism, which saw vodka production slashed. The Soviet treasury also lost millions of roubles in lost tax revenue from alcohol sales. With the new spirit of glasnost, these difficulties, which would have remained hidden under the old system, could be freely aired by both citizens and the media. Opponents of Gorbachev, led by the ex-mayor of Moscow, Boris Yeltsin, called for further reforms and a full market economy.

What did the SALT I treaty specify?

Placed limits on the number of missiles and types of weaponry each superpower could possess- the first limit on nuclear arsenals ever

What were the main elements of the policy of perestroika?

Policy of reconstructing hoped to bring the benefits of a market economy while retaining state ownership: - foreign companies would be allowed to invest in Soviet enterprises and could legally own up to 49% of a Soviet business. This was implemented with the hope of bringing in badly needed investment. - Factory managers were given freedom from centralised control and an opportunity to make a profit. - Soviet citizens were allowed to set up their own business, employ people, sell their own products at prices they set and keep any profits.

What was the purpose of President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in the 1980s?

President Reagan wanted to end the concept of MAD with his SDI programme - a system designed to destroy missiles in space before they reached the USA. This encouraged the Soviet Union down the road of detente in the knowledge that they were no longer economically capable of matching American ambition

How did Stalin respond to the Marshall Plan?

Refused to allow his satellite states to apply for assistance as it was a form of 'dollar imperialism'

What were the main achievements of Ostpolitik?

Several treaties were signed by West Germany and Eastern bloc countries A non-aggression pact was signed with the Soviet Union The western border of Poland was recognised as the post-war Oder-Neisse Line 1972- the two germanys signed the Basic Treaty, normalising relations between them Both countries joined the UN in 1973 East Germany was recognised by the West

How did the Western and Soviet plans for the future of Germany differ?

Stalin envisaged a weakened, united and neutral Germany, but the West was fearful that such a new Germany would go the way of Poland and be dominated by the Soviet Union.

What did Reagan do to 're-start' the Cold War arms race?

Star Wars programme Deployed more advanced weaponry in Europe, notably the Pershing II and Cruise missiles, to counter the new Soviet SS-20s. These were smaller and more mobile than ICBMs

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine and how did it change attitudes to the USSR in Eastern Europe?

Stated that the USSR could intervene in the affairs of socialist countries in Eastern Europe if communism was threatened.

Why did the Soviet army find it so difficult to make gains in Afghanistan?

Tanks were of little use in a rural, mountainous country with few roads The anti-Soviet opposition, the mujahideen, embarked on a guerrilla war, ambushing Soviet convoys before withdrawing into the mountains The Red Army, trained to fight large-scale tank battles on the northern plains of Europe, was unable to defeat the rebels, and Soviet control was restricted to the major towns and cities.

What agreements were reached in the Helsinki Accords of 1975?

The Accords finalised the post-war borders of Europe, which had been disputed by both sides Agreed economic and technological co-operation between the superpowers Agreements were reached about humanitarian aid and cultural issues

What did the Communist authorities do on the night of 12-13 August 1961?

The Berlin Wall sealed the gap for East Germany

How did the USA seek to exacerbate the USSR's problems in Afghanistan?

The CIA funded a programme called Operation Cyclone from 1979 to arm and train mujahideen fighters in Afghanistan following the Soviet invasion. Advisers were sent to train Afghan rebels to fight the Soviet regime themselves. The rebels were trained in Pakistan, which received millions of dollars of aid and defence equipment in return. The decision to supply Stinger missiles in 1986 was crucial, as it meant that the Soviets no longer had air superiority over the rebels. Over 100,000 mujahideen fighters were trained over the course of the war and the USA spent approximately $20 billion in supporting the anti-Soviet resistance.

Why did Khrushchev allow Władysław Gomułka to exercise a limited degree of independence as leader of Poland?

The Communist Party would remain the government and Poland would continue to be a loyal member of the Warsaw Government. Didn't want to risk war with Poland.

How did the Korean War strengthen the case for West German rearmament?

The East German leader, not only supported North Korean aggression but suggested attempting to reunify Germany in the same way.

Why did the West choose to ignore Stalin's 'note' in 1952?

The NATO countries feared this new Germany would go the way of Poland and the rest of Eastern Europe and become a communist or Soviet satellite state, giving Russia a further westward move.

How did the Soviets respond to West Germany joining NATO and beginning to re-arm in 1955?

The Soviet Union also began to expand the fledgling East German army - the NVA, with Soviet equipment, although conscription was not introduced until 1962.

Why did the Soviet Union produce so much less grain than the USA, despite having 75% more arable land?

The Soviet Union produced about two-thirds of the US crop of major grains. The main problem were a lack of modernisation, low fertilisation, poor transport, and a labour-intensive farming system.

How was the Cuban Missile resolved?

The Soviet Union withdrew missiles from Cuba and the USA secretly agreed to withdraw missiles from Turkey

Why were the governments of France, Britain, and the USSR initially hesitant about the prospect of a reunited Germany?

The Soviet Union worried that East Germany would become part of NATO and both France and Britain had concerns about a more powerful Germany dominating Europe.

Why were nationalist movements challenging the authority of the Soviet Union in many of its republics?

The Soviet regime also faced opposition from nationalist groups - those in Georgia and the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia being the most prominent. Nationalism had largely been kept in check by the authoritarian rule of the Communist Party but it now began to grow as the shackles were loosened. Inspired by the events of 1989 in the other Warsaw Pact countries, the three Baltic States were keen to end what they saw as 50 years of Soviet occupation.

How did the building of the wall lead to improved economic performance in the GDR?

The Wall increased stability in East Germany by halting the exodus of the young and productive. The impact is perhaps best illustrated by the numbers leaving the East. In 1961, before the Wall was erected, 207,000 people left and settled in the West; in 1962, this number had dropped to just 21,000. Many now simply accepted that there was no way out and worked to create a successful socialist society. The SED referred to the Wall as the 'anti-fascist protective barrier' and the propaganda message was that it was built to protect East Germans

Why was the exodus of refugees from East Germany causing such problems for the GDR before 1961?

The West German government admitted 675,000 refugees from the East between 1949 and 1952. The people who were leaving were mainly skilled, educated and young, and their departure put further pressure on the already strained East German economy.

Why did the British, French, and Americans stop sending reparation payments to the Soviet Union from their zones of Germany?

The West was increasingly burdened by the costs of occupation and, by 1947, felt that their zones should be allowed to recover economically.

What prompted Khrushchev to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955?

The admittance of West Germany into NATO.

Why did the USA begin a large military commitment to Vietnam in 1965?

The country itself was split in two, with the North becoming communist and the South a non-communist regime, supported by the USA. This was to avoid South Vietnam becoming communist too.

What major successes were achieved by Lech Wałęsa and Solidarity in 1980-81?

The membership grew to 8 million The Polish government agreed to wage and increases Solidarity became a significant political force Supported by the new Pope John Paul II

What message did many of the Eastern European satellite states take from Khrushchev's 'Secret Speech' of February 1956?

The path of socialist development differs in various countries.

Why was there less need for the great powers to co-operate at Potsdam than at Yalta?

The war against Germany was now over, so there was less pressure to appease the Soviet Union

What agreements did Reagan and Gorbachev make at their meetings during the later 1980s?

Their meeting in Geneva began the process of arms reduction that had stalled in the late 1970s. The summit in November 1985 saw the two sides agree to work towards halving their nuclear arsenals and also eventually eliminating all medium-range missiles. Reagan and Gorbachev met again in Reykjavik, Iceland, in October 1986 and again in Washington DC the following year. This summit finally saw an agreement that began to bring the Cold War to an end. The USA and the USSR signed the INF Treaty, which ended the deployment of all medium-range nuclear missiles. Superpower relations continued to improve throughout the late 1890s, helped by Gorbachev's decision to remove Soviet troops from Afghanistan by May 1989.

Why did the US government and Konrad Adenauer support the rearmament of West Germany?

They argued that West Germany needed an effective armed force to counter any Soviet threat.

Why did the Soviet administrators in their zone of Germany force the SDP to merge with the KPD?

They were keen to promote the interests of the KPD, the Communist Party, in order to have a compliant local administration. However, the KPD performed badly in local elections held in Berlin in 1946 where the SDP emerged as the most popular party. To ensure control, the Soviet military administration simply forced the SDP to merge with the Communists and form a new party, the Socialist Union Party or SED.

What was the main purpose of the policy of glasnost?

To ensure perestroika had a chance of success and was not derailed by a centralised planning system completely averse to risk taking. If the ordinary worker at shop-floor level could point out errors in the system without fear of reprisal or simply being ignored, production would improve.

Why did Eastern bloc countries have to borrow money from the West in order to keep their exports competitive?

To improve production, the Eastern bloc had to buy technically advance equipment from the West, which led to further shortages a foreign currency reserves were spent on these products rather than on food or consumer goods. E.g. East Germany By the early 1970s, it was the tenth leading industrial economy in the world. producing steel, chemicals and photographic equiptment. However, to keep these advanced industries competitive, East Germany became increasingly reliant on Western technology and, by 1981, owed Western banks $12.8 billion

Why did Brezhnev launch an invasion of Afghanistan in 1979?

To prop up a communist government that was fighting a losing battle against Islamic rebels

How did the USA respond to the development of the Soviet bomb, and why did this not result in a renewed American advantage?

Truman responded by re-evaluating the United States' position in the world and called for the USA to build up both its conventional and nuclear weapons. A huge investment was made into further nuclear research which led to the Americans producing the first hydrogen bomb in 1952.

How did the replacement of Roosevelt by Harry Truman lead to altered relations at the Potsdam Conference?

Truman was more suspicious of Soviet intention and adopted a far tougher line in his dealings with the USSR - At his first meeting with Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov, Truman stated that the Soviets would now have to stick to their agreements and relations were no longer "a one way street"

In what ways did US-Soviet co-operation increase following the signing of SALT I in 1972?

US-Soviet trade increased, with American grain helping to meet shortfalls in Soviet agriculture. US President Richard Nixon visited Moscow in 1973 and the Soviet Premier, Leonid Brezhnev, went to Washington in 1974, symbolising the improving relationships between the two superpowers

What demands did protesters make when they took to the streets of Hungary in October 1956?

Withdrawal of Soviet troops. Multi-party elections. Freedom of speech and the press.

What was the purpose of giving massive financial aid to Western Europe through the Marshall Plan?

Without massive economic assistance, Europe would take decades to recover from the destruction of the Second World War. A growing economy would also help to alleviate the crippling poverty in most of Western Europe which was becoming a breeding ground for communism. The Marshall Plan offered huge amounts of financial aid, not loans, to the whole of Europe, but insisted that countries had to act together in distributing the money to best promote growth.

Why was Hungary the only Soviet bloc country in the 1980s that did not need to import food?

Workers on collective farms were given bonuses for exceeding production goals The Hungarian government allowed private plots of land to be farmed In 1980, 12% of arable land in Hungary was

What role did Boris Yeltsin play in the defeat of the coup, and why did this leave him as the unofficial leader of the USSR?

Yeltsin, elected as Russian President in May 1990, immediately condemned the coup, called for a general strike and appeared on television, standing on a tank in front of the Russian parliament building. Hundreds of thousands of people came out into the streets in support of Yeltsin and his actions were crucial in eroding support for any return to the old ways. As the coup began to fizzle out, Yeltsin sent a plane down to the Black Sea to rescue Gorbachev and his family, who were then brought back to Moscow.