Comps Review

Internal Validity

Whether an experimental treatment was the only cause of changes in a dependent variable. Properly controling for confounding variables can increase internal validity as well as using a randomized and representative sample.

Collectivism

a philosophic, political, economic or social outlook that emphasizes the interdependence of every human in some collective group. Value is placed on the group over the individual's priorities. Prominent in Eastern cultures. In contrast to the US's individualism Example: children in Asia are expected to strive to family goals, not their individual goals

Fixation

term in psychoanalysis and developed by Freud. It occurs during Psycho-sexual development when the libido is either over-indulged or frustrated (under-indulged). This helps to determines personality type, and is considered to be the root of psychopathology. Example: Oral phase that has been over-indulged will result in optimism. Oral phase that has been frustrated will result in pessimism or aggression.

Phenotype

the actual expression of the genetic material, what you can see Ex: height, the sound of your voice

Proxemics

the branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of space that people feel it necessary to set between themselves and others; optimal physical space; can be nonverbal or physical - but still perceived by the client; can affect client's comfort level; comfort levels differ by culture, gender, etc. Ex: space between therapist's chair and client's chair

Ethnicity

the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition. Refers to an individual's unique cultural heritage and social characteristics. Ethnicity may include values, language, cultural symbols, and behavior patterns. Often contributes to a person's worldview. A therapist should consider a client's ethnicity when counseling them, as they may have different cultural values and beliefs than the therapist as a result of their ethnicity.

Schema

"Cognitive structures, patterns of thinking, or "core beliefs" that organize and process information that includes routines, stereotypes, and expectations. Deepest, most ingrained level of cognition. Schemas are what is underlying an automatic thought. These cognitions differ in anxiety, depression, and OCD. For example, someone with anxiety might have the automatic though of "that was stupid" with the underlying schema as "I can't do anything right". Ex: These negative schemas can been seen in the negative cognitive triad, where someone holds negative schemas about the self, the world, and the future. For example: I'm a worthless person, everyone hates me, no one will ever love me (self, world, future)."

Internal Frame of Reference

(IFR) person's phenomenological description; with regard to psychotherapy - their subjective experience, how they see their problem; Carl Rogers emphasized this with humanistic therapy, the therapist is supposed to assume that a person can know the ""self"", and can help the ""self""; the therapist must empathetically enter the client's IFR; can also be generalized to other schema - their view of the world, beliefs, etc. With regard to behavior therapy, It's important to know what the patient thinks is the problem behavior and what the patient thinks is contributing to predicting and maintaining that behavior. Ex: client hates his mother - understand client's personal reasons rather than hypothesize why YOU believe the client hates his mother

Self-monitoring

A behavioral observation that involves monitoring one's own behavior in order to become more aware of one's actions or to aid in making changes. Examples would be diaries, record keeping chartsHelpful in the case of low frequency or private events (thoughts). Advantages: It can be done anywhere, it promotes insight, and be an intervention itself, client is in the environment where the behavior occurs. Disadv: Noncompliance, reactivity, inaccuracy. Ex: monitor/record sleep habits; John counts the number of times that he initiates conversation w/ his new acquaintances at the Charleston Social Club weekly meeting. After a club meeting, he records each specific episode including: members of the sub-group, the topic of conversation, exactly what he says, and the general responses of others. In the first week during approximately 30min, he recorded 2 episodes in which he initiated conversation and a pleasant interchange followed. He plans to increase his initiation and also follow-up conversations with the group.

Describe systematic desensitization

A behavioral technique developed by Wolpe commonly used to treat fear, anxiety disorders and phobias. Uses reciprocal inhibition where an undesired response is gradually replaced by a desirable and incompatible response. Using this method, the person is engaged in some type of relaxation exercise and gradually exposed to an anxiety producing stimulus, like an object or place. Relaxation is the reciprocal of anxiety and is thought to inhibit it in the pairing process. Has three components: Relaxation training, Anxiety hierarchy (brief/graduated), Paired presentation of relaxation and anxiety hierarchy. Over time, the anxiety causing stimulus becomes paired with relaxation instead of a fear response.

Shaping

A behavioral theraputic technique used to to establish a novel behavior not in currently in someone's repertoire by reinforcing approximations of the desired behavior.-ABA for autism. Differential reinforcement is also used.-Some behaviors are reinforced and others are not (please vs. I WANT)-Selective ignoring. Successive approximation-The delivery of reinforcement only for those behaviors that become more similar to the desired response-Reinforce a nice please with no pouty lip and not reinforce a please with a pouty lip

Token Economy

A bx modification system for motivating client to perform desirable bx and refrain from undesired bx. Earn tokens for performing desired bx and lose tokens for performing undesired bx. Exchange tokens for meaningful objects, privileges, or activities (backup reinforcers)Flexible delivery - individual or group, multiple settings such as home or school. Adv: More powerful rewards than mere social praise and attention, Retain their value and effectiveness throughout the day; Organized, systematic, and fair apporach. Disadv: Presence of authority figure required in order to dispense tokens and rewards, Bx engaged in for the reward. Bx may not continue after token economy is removed -Fading process, Financial cost of rewards

Cognitive Restructuring

A component of Beck's cognitive therapy where the therapist and the client collaborate in order to monitor, identify, and categorize dysfunctional automatic thoughts, which are viewed as hypotheses in need of empirical evaluation. The therapist and client will work together to identify the evidence for or against the thought, alternative interpretations of the thought, and the implications if the thought is correct. .Common treatment strategies include Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy. For example, having all-or-nothing thinking such as someone getting a B on a test, and thinking "well, I didn't get an A so I'm going to fail this class."

Spontaneous Recovery

A conditioning phase in respondent conditioning. After extinction and time interval, CS is again able to elicit CR. A common aspect of the extinction process. For example, the treatment of a phobia. A person may have spontaneous recovery of a fearful stimuli. This can occur without the CS, for example a person who just happens to think about a spider and gets freaked out.

Standard deviation

A descriptive statistic that tells you how far out or close together the data in your data set is to the mean. The square root of the variance.

Case Study

A highly detailed description of a single individual, usually used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions. Can also be used to document and describe a new treatment procedure. These can yield useful information regarding "normal" psychological phenomenon. However, it is often difficult to determine causality and very difficult to generalize to others.

Chaining

A procedure used in behavior therapy to teach a person to engage in a complex behavior that has multiple components. A task analysis breaks down the behavior intostimulus-response components. Each response cues the next component in the chain. Each component is taught one at a time, with reinforcement following each newly learned link in the chain until the entire behavior can be reproduced. Chaining can be done both forwards and backwards. In forward chaining, the therapist starts with the first behavior taking it one step at a time. Reinforcement is given after the first step is mastered, then after steps one and two are mastered, and so on. In backward chaining, the whole sequence is taught at the beginning of therapy with coaching for each step along the way. Coaching is taken away so each step is learned from last to first. Reinforcement is only given after the last step as been performed. Ex: Backward chaining of teaching a child to wash their hands.

Mindfulness

A technique used in 3rd generation cognitive therapies. The technique involves paying attention to what is happening in the moment without judgement. Teaches not to judge your thoughts. Ex: Used in Mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) to help prevent ruminative patterns of thinking that can lead to major depressive episodes through the process of decentering (accepting thoughts as just thoughts),

Premack Principle

A technique used to increase the frequency of a behavior by arranging the performance of a more frequently occurring behavior to be contingent upon it. Useful in natural environments when identification or manipulation of reinforcers is difficult. Often times, this involves pairing a behavior they enjoy when something they don't enjoy Ex: Dr. Macdonald always flosses when she brushes her teeth

Transference

A term from Freud's psychoanalysis, this refers to a projection of feelings of significant others (family, friends, spouses, etc) onto the therapist. Encouraged due to "blank screen" provided by therapist in classic couch setting. Can be positive or negative. Need to happen and to be worked through. therapists identify transference feelings and their origin Example: Love/hate feelings represent oedipal conflicts"

Primary Processes and the Pleasure Principle

A term from psychoanalysis and developed by Freud. First processes of controlling behavior that is developed in the life span. The pleasure principle refers to the immediate gratification of basic sexual/aggressive instincts. This functions from the Id and is the most fundamental Human motive driven by libido. The primary processes are directed to satisfy the Id and the pleasure principle. They are directed to immediate gratification and include obtaining an object or fantasizing about the object by day/night dreaming. These ignore reality and logic and the immediate gratification is only temporary or causes frustration.

Insight/Catharsis

A term from psychodynamic theory and developed by Freud and Breuer. A main goal of psychoanalytic theory is to gain insight, which is to understand intra-psychic conflicts and interpersonal relationships, understand historical roots of current problems, then integrate them into current life and increase ego strength. the therapist and client work through feelings of resistance and transference by repeated elaborating and interpreting. Acheiving insight allows the client to free their emotions, the experience of catharsis. The examination and discussion of feelings in psychoanalytic theory provide catharsis and intellectual /emotional insight which is essential for change within psychoanalytic theory.

Interpretation

A term used in psychodynamic theory and developed by Freud, this is the clarification of hidden meaning behind what the client says. this is considered the specific intervention of the analyst and the driving force of therapeutic change. Timing is important in interpretation. The client can regard interpretations as threatening, especially when the therapist tells the client their interpretations too early in the course of therapy, and resistance should be expected and leads to further interpretation. the therapist may apply this technique to dreams, resistance, transference, or the working through process. Example: "Have you considered that maybe his strong parenting style is an attempt to avoid making the same mistakes his father made with him?"

Behavioral Activation

A treatment for depression that focuses on increasing the rate of positively reinforced behavior. The therapist will establish a therapeutic relationship using WEG, and then develop a list of activities the patient values and finds rewarding including past hobbies. The therapist and client will schedule these activities and the relationship between activity and mood will be monitored.For example, an older man who is depressed starts doing BA and schedules three bike rides a week, something he used to enjoy doing.

Potentially Harmful Treatments

A treatment where harm lies in the nature of the intervention, or where harm lies in the improper application of the intervention.PHTs are treatments that have: Demonstrated harmful psychological or physical effects in clients or others (relatives); The harmful effects are enduring and do not merely reflect an exacerbation of symptoms during treatment; Harmful effects have been replicated by independent investigative teams Ex: Critical Incident Stress Debriefing - goal is to reduce symptoms later on, but doesn't allow for natural process - too intrusive

Norm-referenced test

A type of criteron-referenced test. Compares each person with a norm, against other people to see how you compare. Some say that this type of test makes people feel pressure to perform better than the average. ex: cognitive test, the GRE

Variance

A type of descriptive statistic that describes the amount of spread between numbers in a dataset. Variance describes how how much each number in the set is from the mean. The average squared deviation around the mean.

Dismantling Study

A type of process research that breaks down treatments into components and tests each component for effectivess. The aim is to determine if each part of the treatment is necessary for the best outcome for the patient, or if some parts can be left out and still be effective. Example: EMDR - Eye movement was found to not be an essential component to the therapy - just the cognitive processing was the effective part.

Schedules of Reinforcement -Interval

A type of reinforcement schedule where the reinforcer is delivered after a response occurs after a set amount of time. Can be fixed (reinforcer is delivered after a specific amount of time) or interval (reinforcer delivered after an average amount of time). Example: on an average of every 30 seconds or every 30 seconds

Schedules of Reinforcement - Ratio

A type of reinforcement schedule where the reinforcer is delivered after a set number of responses. Can can be continuous (CRF, reinforcer applied after behavior every time), Fixed (FR/20, reinforcer applied after a specific number of iterations of the behavior), or Variable (VR, reinforcer applied after an approximate number of iterations).

Clinical Significance

A type of significance that looks at symptom levels, remissions, client functioning, and quality of life. Is the change significant or meaning to the patient's quality of life? A high clinical significance suggests the treatment decreases pre-post symptom scores as well as lessening actual symptoms impacting the client's life. Example: A drop of 5 points may be statistically significant in a RCT, however a drop of 5 points for an individual patient in the RCT may not translate as a significant drop in symptoms to where they are able to function at a desirable level in their day to day lives.

Acheivement Test

A type of test that measures what you know or what you've learned. Refers to previous learning. For example, a spelling test or a final exam. Achievement tests can be used to make sure that someone possess the knowledge they need to in order to work in a particular field. For example, future clinicians need to be able to pass their comps exam to illustrate they have mastered the knowledge necessary to be a good counselor.

Race

Describes populations or groups of people distinguished by different sets of characteristics and beliefs about common ancestry. Most widely used human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color) and self-identification. Members of different races all belong to the same species, homo sapiens, with no race being inherently superior to another race. Counselors should be aware that race is a factor when counseling someone of a different race, and not try to ignore it or brush it off

Genotype

Describes the actual genetic material in a person or animal.

Type I error

Decision that one variable has an effect on or a relationship with another variable when in reality it does not. Rejecting the null hypothesis (saying that there is a relationship) even though it is true (there is no relationship). Example: when you aren't pregnant, but the pregnancy test says you are (false positive)

Heterozygous

Describes a pair of alleles and determines which trait is expressed. Each gene is different in the pair (one recessive, one dominant) - the trait expressed is due to the dominant traitImportant becuase could be a carrier of a recessive disease. Disease would not be expressed in the heterozygous person.

Homozygous

Describes a pair of alleles and determines which trait is expressed.Each gene is the same in the pair (two recessive)- recessive can be expressed Ex: BB = brown eyes; bb = blue eyes

Institutional Racism

Describes a pattern of social institutions, such as government, schools and courts of law, giving negative or unequal treatment to a group of people based on their race. Prejudice, discrimination, and other negative treatment by an institution based on a person or group's race; a system of inequality based on race. It can occur in institutions such as public gov't bodies, schools, banks, and courts of law. This term was introduced by Carmichael and Hamilton. Institutional racism amounts to the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their color, culture, or ethnic origin

Reciprocal determinism

According to Bandura, reciprocal determinism refers to the three-way interaction between the person, the behavior, and the environment that effects how personality is developed and maintained. Person variables such as your expectancies shape your environment, which in turn shape your behavior. Your behavior also shapes your environment, which can impact the person. For example, a shy student enters a classroom late. Instead of taking a seat at the back of the room to avoid attention like the usually does, she is greeted by a friendly student who asks her to sit next to her. Thus, the shy student behaved differently than usual due to a novel stimulus in the environment. This impacted her usual shy behavor, and may influence her to sit in the front instead of in the back.

Automatic Thoughts - Beck's Cognitive Theory

According to Beck's cognitive theory, an automatic thought describes spontaneous thoughts that are triggered by something in the environment that appear plausible. These thoughts can be positive or negative, and impact the person's emotions. Negative automatic thoughts are maladaptive and can negatively impact mood. For this reason automatic thoughts are a huge focus of CBT. For example, someone with anxiety sees someone frown at them and they have the thought "that person hates me"" which leads to feelings sadness.

Rationalization

According to Freud, a type of defense mechanism. It is the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening; providing excuses until making excuses comes so easy that a person is never are truly aware of it; person starts to believe their own lies, never admitting their wrongdoing. Ex: In psychoanalysis the therapist will allow the client to become aware of rationalization and discover unconscious motives.

Person Variables

According to Mischel, person variables are social learning or cognitive processes that develop via learning within a socio-cultural context; account for uniqueness, stability and consistency, and change. They affect how we encode our surroundings, what we believe we can do, plan to do, want to do, or should do, as well as how we feel. This includes encodings, competencies and self regulation plans, affect and emotions, expectancies, goals and values, and evaluative standards. All interact dynamically to create personality. For example, what we believe we can do affects our self-efficacy. If we have high SE, then we will remain calm when faced with a difficult task.

Control Group

An essential component of an experiemental design. In an experiment, an independent variable is manipulated and change is observed in the dependent variable. A control or comparision group is requred to observe change between the experimental group and the control group. The control group is not manipulated, thus allowing for a causal relationship between the IV and the DV. Examples: No treatment, wait-list, attention, placebo, alternate tx

Culture Bound

Certain syndromes and disorders may be culture bound, as well as certain treatments. A counselor must be careful not to diagnose something that is considered normal in a culture as a disorder, and also must be sure to be aware of disorders that occur only in specific cultures. Values can be culture bound as well, such as emotional expressiveness, insight, and self-disclosure. Example: Psychology is Culture bound to European culture. It values individualism over collectivism and does not other take cultures into consideration for diagnosis.

Bicultural

Comfort and proficiency in both one's heritage culture and the culture of the country of region where one has settled. Can be difficult to maintain due to pressure from majority culture to assimilate Ex:children of immigrants - although they are born and raised in majority culture - are likely deeply embedded in the heritage culture at home with their families

Etic

Culturally Universal element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all cultures. Types of approaches of understanding behavior and personality fall under the study of cultural anthropology and cross cultural psychology. Etic knowledge refers to generalizations about human behavior that are considered culturally universal, and commonly links cultural practices to factors of interest to the researcher. This approach is used to analyze how cultures are similar to one another in psychological or social phenomenon in cross-cultural psychology. Example: Morals, Ethics, Food, belief systems etc

Emic

Culturally specific expression within a culture; element, pattern, trait, or institution that is unique to a culture. An 'emic' account is a description of behavior or a belief in terms meaningful (consciously or unconsciously) to the individual; that is, an emic account comes from a person within the culture. Almost anything from within a culture can provide an emic account. This approach is used to analyze how cultures differ from one another in psychological or social phenomenon in cross-cultural psychology

Cross's Model of Racial Identity

Developed by W.E. Cross, this is a four stage Black Identity Development model. The first stage is the Pre encounter stage, where the individual is focused on assimilating to the white culture and devalue their own culture or "blackness." The second stage is the Encounter stage, which is when some significant event occurs which challenges their beliefs, and the individual has a paradigm shift away from acculturation/ assimilation. The third stage, the Immersion-Emersion stage, is when the individual pulls away from the white culture and immerses themselves into the black culture. The individual feels intense pride in black culture and is outwardly angry and rejecting towards white culture. The final stage is the internalization-commitment stage, where the individual becomes accepting of both white and black cultures, transcends and reconcile, and become flexible and tolerant. They are more focused on social change, like civil rights

Cultural Relativism

Emic; The principle that an individual's beliefs and activities should be interpreted in terms of his or her own culture. cultural values and worldviews influence the expression and determination of deviant behavior, which makes paying attention to relativism so important. Some psychologists focus on an individual's culture and how the disorder they have is manifested and treated within it. In some cultures, it is more acceptable to express psychological complaints in physical terms. In other cultures, it is not considered abnormal to experience hallucinations. Ex: communication style, dress, individualism/collectivism, religon

WEG

Encouraged the most in Rogerian therapies, but can be applied to most techniques. Refers to the 3 therapist characteristics that are necessary and sufficient conditions for change; warmth, empathy and genuineness. Warmth refers to showing unconditional positive regard, and non judgmental caring and acceptance of client's emotions. Empathy refers to accurate/sensitive entries into client's IFR, thinking WITH and not FOR the client. Genuineness refers to being transparent, with no superior attitude or professional jargon, and being congruent. When all three are presented by the therapist and perceived by the client, it turns into trust. It is important to note that its the client's perception of the therapist's WEG that is important.

Cultural Universality

Etic; An element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the planet such as gender, religion, and art. concepts of normality and abnormality can universally be applied, regardless of culture. Proponents of this view believe that culturally diverse individuals do not need treatments to be adjusted for them, but can be treated just the same as an individual from a Western culture. Most of the standards of practice currently in use assume cultural universality.

Outcome Research

Evaluates the effectiveness of treatment or success of a treatment for a specific client. Individual client research design: case studies, multiple base line studies, etc. Large scale research design: experimental design (RCTs)

Microagressions

Everyday occurrences that send negative messages to people based on their identity. Usually unintentional but out of a bias that is unexamined. Subtle or indirect; Verbal, nonverbal, behavioral; Toleration of oppression by others the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and behavioral slights, snubs, or insults, which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to target persons based solely upon their marginalized group membership. Can be intentional or unintentional. Can also be seen in tolerating oppression from others. Can be split into three categories; microinsult, microassault, and microinvalidation. Catcalling - "You would look so much better if you would smile; You don't seem black; You act white;What are you? Touching a black woman's hair without her permission"

Exposure Therapy

Exposure interventions primarily target fears and phobias. Fear or anxiety is elicited by exposure to the feared stimuli in order to reduce fear by the extinction processes, cognitive restructuring, and increasing self-efficacy. Exposures are done in a safe environment where no actual harm will come to the patient. The patient is exposed to the fearful stimulus or event and the patient must allow the psychological reactions to abate while the therapist prevents escape or avoidance of the response. For example, a girl who is afraid of snakes does exposure therapy by having a snake placed on her arm. The therapist does not allow the snake to be removed or the girl to run away until the girl's anxiety has decreased.

Reliability definition

Extent to which a test or measure yields consistent results across administrations. When the same or similar score is obtained across items or administrations, it is considered a reliable measure. Extent to which obtained scores are free from measurement error. If a test is not reliable, it cannot demonstrate that it has any meaning

Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). When conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors are experienced, a feeling of discomfort is produced, leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance. In MI cognitive dissonance is increased by encouraging the client to highlight the discrepancy between current behavior (such as drug abuse) and person goals or values (like a healthy lifestyle). The discrepancy leads to cognitive dissonance which leads to motivation for change. Smoking example.

Secondary Processes and the Reality Principle

From psychoanalysis and developed by Freud, this is one of the principles and processes of controlling behavior. The reality principle is developed to delay gratification in order to satisfy the id's instinct in a realistic and socially appropriate way. This functions from the ego. The secondary processes are the thinking and problem solving involved in order to satisfy instinctual needs. Success of Ego depends upon its secondary processes of thinking and problem solving in order to satisfy instinctual needs

Culture

Generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance this is a set of shared customs, beliefs, values, goals and practices that are common to or characterize a specific group. Denotes the whole product of the individual, group, or society of intelligent beings. Includes technology, art, science, morals, and characteristic habits and behaviors. significant influence on one's sense of identity, and to understand the client's internal frame of reference the counselor must understand their culture. Example: buying and decorating a Christmas tree

Interval Measurement

Has magnitude and equal intervals, but not absolute 0. Most psychological measures fall under this category. Example: Temperature, IQ, SAT scores, GRE scores

Ordinal Measurement

Has magnitude, no equal intervals, no absolute 0. Allows you to rank individuals or objects, but the ranking doesn't say anything about the difference between ranks. For example, Sally is the tallest and Susan is the shortest, ranks 1 and 7, but that doesn't tell you about how many inches separate them Example: High school class ranking, socioeconomic status, the likert scale, level of agreement, time of day (dawn, morning, noon, afternoon...)

Statistical Significance

How likely are results obtained by chance. Requires sufficient samples and effects experimental standpoint, data driven; usually based on p < .05 or .01; null hypothesis can be rejected; can be used to determine which tests and treatments are valid

Self-concept

In Social Learning and Cognitive theory, the self-concept describes perceptual and cognitive processes of perceiving, evaluating, regulating and knowing about yourself and the environment. In the humanistic perspective, the self describes a set of perceptions you hold about yourself. We try to behave consistently with these beliefs. It is not considered a psychic agent that controls action as with traditional theories. For example, when children realize they are separate beings from others, and that they are an object in the world.

Punishment

In operant conditioning, an immediate aversive consequence of a behavior that results in the decrease/lessening of the behavior. Can be positive or negative. Positive punishment - Presentation of an aversive stimulus that causes target behavior to decrease in frequency Ex: painful stimuli, reprimands Negative punishment -Withholding a desirable stimulus Ex: Not letting a kid play video games or have dessert

Reinforcer

In operant conditioning, an immediate consequence of behavior that results in the strengthening of that behavior, thus increasing that behavior's frequency or intensity. Ex: Attention, food. Can be positive or negative. Positive - give something good. Negative - avoid something aversive

Psychosexual Stages

In psychodynamic theory, these stages are considered to be how personality is developed. Developed by Freud, this is a sequence of stages which is controlled by libidinal energy concentrated in erogenous zones. Erogenous zones includes: 1) Oral: gratification or frustration; 2) Anal: retention/elimination functions inactive/active and aggressive; 3) Phallic: Oedipal and Electra complexes; boys and girls, castration anxiety and penis envy: identification w/ father/mother; 4) Latency: period of repression; 5) Genital: onset of puberty, catharsis: mature libidinal attachments. It is inborn and universal. Psychopathology is thought to come from a fixation in one of these stages.

Metacognition

Knowledge about cognition and self-management of thoughts. Knowing about your limits and abilities of thinkingPlanning and self regulation. Knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning or solving problems. Younger kids tend to overestimate their abilities Ex: Whether or not a student can recognize that they studied enough for a test or they need to study more.

Learning-performance distinction

Learning/acquisition is primarily an internal cognitive process (attention and retention). Performance is primarily an external process (reproduction and motivation). Just because you might know how to do something doesn't mean that you're going to engage in that behavior. You can learn how to do something but never engage in that behavior. Motivation, like reinforcement, is needed for the behavior to be performed. Example: Changing a tire. Someone may have been taught how to change a tire but until there is motivation to use those skills, they will not engage in the bx. Hopefully they will remember how to do it when the time comes.

Gestalt Therapy

Major influence on Humanistic Theory as a reaction to Behaviorism. Developed by Fritz Pearls. Believes humans are complete and not irreducible to their sensations, perceptions, motivations or learning histories. Refers to how persons perceive and respond to patterns or a ""gestalt"" and not isolated stimuli. Patterns are organized into figure-ground or prominent-secondary relationships. Figure-ground relationships can change, and Figures are more influential on behavior.Persons are viewed within the context of social patterns and their corresponding figure-ground relationships. Individuals respond as whole persons in an organized manner -rather than as parts, like the ebb and flow of conversation in a group. Awareness of the interaction (of the whole body interacting): Body, environment, and self. Therapist moves toward awareness - role-play, self discovery exercises. Personal distress is equivalent to a withdrawal from awareness.

Nominal Measurement

Number has no specific meaning - their purpose is to name objects. Categorical/dichotomous. Used when info is qualitative rather than quantitative. For example, labeling each category of race/ethnicity with a number. Other Examples: Gender, hair color, eye color, type of living arrangement

Assets

One element of an ABPCA assessments that focuses on a person's strengths. This could include what the person does well or values about themeslves. Assets can be used systematically to overcome barriers of behavior change. Asset identification is ignored in traditional DSM assessment. Ex: social support

Cognitive fusion

One type of physchological inflexability that is targeted by mindfulness-based cognitive therapies like ACT. A tendancy for a person to take thoughts literally so they believe them to be facts. The inability for a person to see thoughts as just thoughts and to use recognize illogical thoughts. For example, a person makes the mistake and thinks "I'm stupid", thus believing they made a mistake because they're stupid. Contrary to the fact that human error is natural. Everyone makes mistakes sometimes. It does not mean a person is stupid.

Big Five Personality Model/Traits

Openess vs. Closed mindedness; Conscientiousness vs. Carelessness; Extroversion vs. Introversion; Agreeableness vs. Antagonism; Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability. A trait theory that describes facets that make up a person's personality. Traits are considered enduring dispositions to respond in a particular manner, and exert very generalized effects on behavior. Tend to be dimensional rather than categorical. Traits define differences between individuals, and are thought to explain situational consistency and stability over time. There are five traits that consistently stand out, conceptualized into the Big 5 personality model by Goldman and extended by McCrae and Costa. These traits are evident in diverse cultures yet many cultures do not value personal traits as important as family, etc. Genders are similar, but differ in more progressive cultures. Traits change throughout life in response to like events, such as the death of a family member.

Cohort

People who are the same age. A weakness to a longitudinal design because you are only looking at one age group through time. Could differ from another group of the same age at a different point in time, like the next generation.

Positive Reinforcement

Presenting a rewarding stimulus after a responseIncreases responding Example: Doing your chores and getting your allowance

Defense Mechanisms

Psychological processes that people use to protect themselves from unwanted or unpleasant thoughts and desires. Freud initially noted ego defenses in his psychodynamic theory. His daughter Anna later expanded upon these to come up with a total of 9: regression, projection, repression, displacement, sublimation, reaction formation, rationalization, and denial For example, displacement is one defense mechanism where a person may be upset and express that negative energy onto a person or object that is not related to their stress. For example, if somone is stressed about work, they may come home and snap at their partner for no reas

Minority

Refers to a group or many different groups of people who, due to their cultural or physical charactaristics, are singled out from others in society. They have less power than the majority and are treated differently or unequally and experience discrimination. Distinct from majority culture in one or more ways, including but not limited to culture, race, sexual orientation, or country of origin. Being a member of a minority in a mono-cultural society often puts on at a significant disadvantage. Therapists must recognize that they may not understand a minority group member's unique experiences and must be open to learning about it from that member.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a response Example: putting on bug spray before you go outside to avoid bug bites

Projective Hypothesis Techniques

Response to ambiguous content reveals a personality structure. The theory that when a person attempts to understand an ambiguous or vague stimulus, his or her interpretations reflects needs, feelings, experiences, prior conditioning, thought processes, and so forth onto the stimulus, revealing their personality structure. These can be revealed with tests such as the Rorschach, the TAT or the draw-a-person. Most indices (signs) from TAT and Rorschach are not reliable and not related to external criteria i.e. behavioral criteria. Psych evaluations based on projective tests yield broad, global personality profiles applicable to many persons. APA recommends not to include projective tests in training and most grad programs offer none

Cultural Racism

Similar to cultural encapsulation. A variation of structural racism that occurs when the culture of a society embraces the assumption that one or more races is inferior those aspects of society that overtly and covertly attribute value and normality to white people and whiteness, and devalue, stereotype, and label people of color as "other," different, less than, or render them invisible. Examples of these norms include defining white skin tones as nude or flesh colored and having future time orientation, emphasizing individualism as opposed to a more collective ideology. Includes: Belief in superiority, Belief in inferiority of others, Power to impose standards, Manifestation in institutions, The invisible Veil - not in our awareness

Social Skills Training

Social skills training is a therapeutic process that is designed to increase the frequency of the behaviors they lack in certain situations. An evaluation identifieds an invididual's social deficits. Then, behaviors are developed through modeling and role-play exercises. Poor social skills are a hallmark trait of disorders such as schizophrenia and depression, so teaching social skills is an important therapeutic action. For example, a therapist takes her client to a convenience store to watch her make small-talk with the cashier while she checks out to model how to make small-talk with a stranger.

White Privilege

Societal advantages that benefit white people beyond what is commonly experienced by non-white people under the same circumstances. Ex: Not having to worry about getting followed in stores or feeling safe in your neighborhood. White privilege is not the same as racism; frequently the people who benefit from white privilege are unaware and do not identify as racist or prejudiced. People who are White do not have to worry that their race may be a factor when they apply for a job, credit card, or a loan

Describe the Stages of Change

Stages client goes through on their way to change. At the core is ambivalence to change (addressed in MI), commonly seen in people with SI. 1) Precontemplative - client sees no problem but others disapprove. 2) Contemplative - Learner weighs the pros and cons of changing, sees behavior as problem. 3) Preparation - thinking more in-depth about change; think about the process they would have to go through (i.e. smoking last cigarette, seeking out therapist or other help). 4) Active change - actively putting the decision into practice (chewing Nicorette). 5) Maintenance - actively maintaining change, keeping up the routine. 6) Relapse - Returns to previous problem bx

(DRO)

Stands for Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior, which is a contingency for behavior change. One method to decrease problem behavior that does not use aversive control. The reinforcer is delivered after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur. Reinforcement is contingent upon the absence of the problem behavior - an alternative behavior to reinforce is not identified. Ex: Child sucks thumb during bed time routine of reading. Reinforce when child is not sucking thumb while reading. Stop reading when child sucks thumb

Factor Analysis

Statistical procedure based on correlation coefficient that identifies groupings or patterns from a correlation matrix (where tests are inter-correlated). factors are given trait labels according to which tests correlate highly with them; used by trait theorists for constructing personality tests such as the Big Five. Ex: a factor analysis was done in the discovery of the Big 5, looking at the correlations between 1700 different descriptive words describing traits of personality. The big five were the most highly correlated traits.

Type II error

The decision that one variable does not have an effect on or a relationship with another variable when it really does. The decision to accept the null hypothesis (there is no relationship) even though it is false (there is one). Example: When the pregnancy test says you're not pregnant, but you are.

Ethnocentrism

The evaluation of other cultures according to assumptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture in the context of multiculturalism, this is the belief that one's culture or ethnicity is superior to everyone else's culture or ethnicity. Ethnocentrism becomes a problem when the dominant culture is ethnocentric and attempts to assimilate all other cultures into it. The therapist must be careful not to perpetuate any ethnocentrism in their practice.

Individualism

The habit or principle of being independent and self-reliant. the philosophic, political, economic or social outlook that emphasizes the independence and worth of every human and the priority of individual goals; Is the view that the Western world embraces that focuses on the autonomy of the individual and promoting freedom of action for the individual over the collective. From this view people are considered "good" if they are strong, self-reliant, assertive and independent.Being dependent upon others is often considered embarrassing. Includes mainly the US, Western Europe and parts of South Africa

Worldview

The overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world. A collection of beliefs about life and the universe held by an individual or a group. Consists of basic assumptions and images that provide a more or less coherent, though not necessary accurate, way of thinking about the world; this refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs through which an individual interprets the world and interacts with it; a set of assumptions about reality that have powerful influences on one's thoughts and behavior. A worldview, whether religious or nonreligious, is personal insight about reality and meaning. A person uses their worldview to interpret and interact with the world around them. Worldviews encompass views on many different issues, including death, the meaning of life, and the purpose of the individual. Different cultures frequently have different worldviews, which can influence the interaction between the therapist and the client

Categorical

This considers diagnoses to be unique with non-overlapping and essential features. Prototypical diagnoses are a type of categorical, being a combination of essential features and a minimum number of common features. This is used in the DSM. The prototypical is a little looser than a true categorical approach. ex: in a prototypical categorical approach, the client must have a depressed mood and a decrease in pleasure, plus other symptoms in order to be diagnosed with depression. The patient either has depression or not.

White Racial Identity Development

This is a stage theory developed by Helms. 1)Contact: individual lacks awareness of cultural and institutional racism and of white priv. Naive curiosity about or fear of people of color based on stereotypes from friends/fam/media. May limit their interactions w people of color. 2) Disintegration: guilt and shame at recognition of their own advantages of being white - may try to convince themselves racism doesn't exist - avoid people of color and topic of race. 3) Reintegration: Become more identified with white ideology/identity. Generally become defensive about being white and anger directed toward those of color who the individual blames as source of discomfort. 4) Pseudo-independent: usually move to this stage following an eye-opening experience; characterized by self-examination through exploration of information about other cultures, racism, etc. though these explorations are still within a white framework. Seek affiliation with people of color, though more intellectual than affective awareness. 5) Immersion/emersion: introspection on own view points on race and what it means to be white. Focus becomes changing majority beliefs/attitudes. Increased experiential/affective understanding. Can lead to the ""rebirth"" necessary to become non-racist. 6)Autonomy: Awareness of whiteness with a reduced sense of guilt; Knowledgeable about differences and committed to social change. Not afraid of encounters and seeks out/values interracial experiences.

Ratio Measurement

has magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero. Most physical measures Example: Speed in miles per hour, age, weight, height, ruler measurements, years of education, number of children

Multicultural Competencies

Understanding the various influence of culture on a person's behavior and interactions. Includes three areas: Awareness: of his or her own assumptions, values and biases; Knowledge: Understanding of the worldviews and history of culturally diverse clients; and Skills: Developing appropriate intervention strategies and techniques. Cultural competence is not something that can be learned one time, but is instead a lifelong process in which therapists must remain continually engaged.

Assimilation (561)

When a group takes on characteristics of another group's culture. Usually involves minority cultures assimilating to majority culture.The individual loses aspects of their culture of origin, such as language, customs; Individuals may feel pressure from members of the majority culture to assimilate quickly. Generally seen as a negative thing due to giving up the previous culture, and may have been forced to assimilate.

Attachment Definition

an organized pattern of infant signals and adult responses that lead to a protective, trusting relationship during the earliest stage of development; a close emotional bond between two people. Bi directional; parent giving kid cues, parent responding to kids cue. touch is most important in attachment. Can have long term effects on social relationships. Sense of self (child) develops from relationship with mother (original object). These attachment styles result in satisfying or problematic adult interpersonal relationships

Stranger Anxiety

form of distress that children experience when exposed to people unfamiliar to them. Symptoms may include: getting quiet and staring at the stranger, verbally protesting by cries or other vocalizations, and hiding behind a parentemerges gradually, not happy with strangers because attached to caregiver. Can start as a general wariness at around 6 months and increases in intensity until around 1 year of age, then begins to decrease. stranger anxiety is a typical part of the developmental sequence that most children experience; as a child gets older, stranger anxiety can be a problem as they begin to socialize; children may become hesitant to play with unfamiliar children Ex: When a new babysitter showed up at the door to watch baby Rachel, she started crying and immediately hid behind her mother.

Authentic Existence

humanistic concept used in existential theory. your existence (choices, life and how you live it) determines who you are; as long as a person chooses ""authentically,"" there are no moral standards by which his conduct can be criticized; awareness/sense of own identity; they choose experiences that align with their ideal self; live in present - make decisions they are responsible for; congruent with thoughts and behaviors. Ex: gay therapist choosing to be an advocate in his community for gay rights and counseling those struggling to identify as gay in the community

Sustain vs. Change Talk

in motivational interviewing, sustain refers to the client's stated reasons not to make a change or to maintain the status quo. Change talk refers to any time the client's use of words that evoke a desire, ability, reason or need for change. The MI counselor actively listens for change talk in its various strengths from weak to strong. the MI objective is to facilitate high levels of change talk and low levels of sustain talk. The use of the decision balance matrix is a useful tool to help create change talk in clients who are ambivalent to change. Example: Sustain talk favors the continuation of smoking while Change talk favors quitting.

Standard error of measurement

provides estimate of how much individual's score would be expected to change after re-testing with same form of test. The SEM is a standard deviation of a set of observations for the same test - in practice the standard deviation of observed score and the reliability of the test are used to estimate SEM. the larger the SEM the less certain we can be about the accuracy with which an attribute measured. creates confidence interval (range of where true score would fall). estimates how repeated measures of a person on the same instrument tend to be distributed around his or her "true" score. Error can occur systematically due to instrument in construction or the user may have made an error in use of the instrument

Acculturation

the process used by the minority culture to imitate the majority culture by adapting various aspects of the majority culture into their culture. Pressure to conform. Can occur bi-directionally. Can be seen on a group level in changes of food or clothing. Can be seen on an individual level in changes of daily living, and psychological changes. Acculturation can lead to conflicts within families, as children are more likely to acculturate faster than adults. Example: African American's straightening their hair to conform to white standards.

Clairification

to check whether your understanding is accurate, or to better understand the client.the therapist restates an unclear or ambiguous message to clarify the sender's meaning. This will help the counselor avoid any misconceptions or avoid them having to make any assumptions that could hinder their feedback Ex: "I'm not sure I understand what you mean by 'sicker than usual', what is different now?"