CONS BIOL Exam 4 Study Guide
Provide an example of "conservation in the matrix" and why this matters in conservation planning.
"Land share" versus "land spare" with respect to agriculture Land sharing - use methods to benefit wildlife, Reduce pesticide use, leave patches of native habitat (field borders) create incentive (payment, tax benefit) to allow farmers to reduce yield Land sparing - intensive, localized agriculture, increase chemical use, cultivate all land in farming areas, develop genetically-modified crops Important because we must work with farmers to maintain an intact matrix for species to colonize, migrate, and breed in order to conserve them.
What does the finding 'warranted but precluded' mean, provide an example of a species that received this listing in the recent past.
'Warranted but precluded' means that there is evidence to show that species should be listed but there needs to be additional research conducted. Sage Grouse
When a petition to list a species under ESA is received, list the 3-4 main step of what happens next. Describe this in words or with a simple schematic.
1. 90 days to come up with whether the petition is substantial or not; if further evaluation is needed 2. If ruled as substantial goes into 12 month finding; gathering new data 3. Either decided that case is not warranted (not enough evidence) if warranted going through system to determine final rule 4. Goes into candidate conservation status when there are higher priorities addressed when workload allows
The Red List category in which a species is placed is based on what four types of population/species information.
1. A population size reduction >or= to 90% over the last 10 years or 3 gens, where reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased 2. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 100 km2 or extent of occupancy less than 10 km2 and estimated indicating at least two of a-c: Continuing to decline Experiencing extreme fluctuations in: extent of occurrence; area of occupancy; extent and/or quality of habitat; number of locations or subpopulations; number of mature individuals 3. Population size estimated to be fewer than 250 mature individuals and either: An estimated or continuing decline of at least 25% within 3 years or one generation OR A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals and at least one of the following: a) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 50 individuals b) at least 90% of matured individuals in one subpopulation 4. Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within 10 years to 3 generations, whichever is longer
Describe two ways that wind facilities may have impacts on birds or bats that are distinct from those of other renewable sources of energy.
1. Air pressure shifts - Piles on dead bats in front of wind turbine; lungs torn apart due to major drop in pressure 2. Collision deaths of birds and turbines
Name 4 characteristics of a restored community.
1. Contains a characteristic mix of species that occur in a reference ecosystem 2. Species are present in appropriate amounts 3. Consists of native species to the greatest practicable extent 4. The environment is capable of sustaining reproducing populations
What are the two primary goals of the IUCN Red List?
1. Identify and document the species which need the most conservation attention if global extinction rates are to be reduced 2. Provide a global index of the state of change of biodiversity
Appleton (2002) notes two critical lessons learned from the New York City Watershed Protection Program that can be applied to other situations, what are they?
1. Identify and target a high level of ecosystem services, real or potential = higher economic benefit 2. Monetize services so that value can be captured, change policies and regulations to allow it
List and describe 3 ways in which conservationists can begin to plan in a "climate aware" way. Provide an example of each.
1. Minimize non-climate stressors to impart greater resistance and resilience 2. Restoration to past states may not be feasible; assess value of "novel" states; maximize the "matrix" 3. Target ecosystems, not just individual species, focus on a range of systems and function
Describe the three major elements of the "RAD Framework" and what this framework encourages/allows managers to do in how they approach management.
1. Resist -Working to maintain or restore ecosystem composition, function, structure, or processes on the basis of historical or acceptable current conditions 2. Accept - to allow ecosystem composition, structure, processes, or function to change autonomously 3, Direct - Actively shape change in ecosystem composition, structure, processes, or function toward preferred new conditions
List three reasons why a restorationist should care about local adaptation.
1. Seeds won't be successful when planted in conditions they are not adapted to 2. Altering the traits of communities through sourcing seeds with different adaptations possibly lowering fitness of population 3, Maintain historic genotypes
Provide three reasons why restoration ecologists need to identify their reference community for any given project.
1. To define the preferred condition of a degraded system, set goals 2. To define what needs to be done to restore the ecosystem 3. To help develop criteria for measuring the success of restoration treatments
Lovich and Ennen (2011) suggest there are 4 primary areas or questions in need of research concerning the potential impact of utility-scale facilities on wildlife, describe each of these.
1. What design and density maximizes energy while minimizing land and wildlife impacts? -Look at similar sights and compare the results -Control and impact site 2. Consistent design across studies -Huge # of projects being planned 3. Assessment of cumulative effects 4. Can these impacts be mitigated? How?
According to Maxwell et al. (2020) how much of the earth's land and marine areas are currently within protected areas? Describe one way that these protected areas could receive better funding for proper management.
15.3% land 7.5% marine. These areas could receive better funding for proper management through having proper cost benefit analysis could help reallocate funds, as well as creativity and proper socioeconomic models.
In 2010, the Greater sage grouse was found to be "warranted" for listing under the endangered species act. What two reasons did the US Fish and Wildlife Service give for this listing?
2 reasons the Greater sage grouse warranted 1) Warranted because of loss and fragmentation of habitat 2) Lack adequate regulatory mechanisms to stop habitat loss
Describe the idea of "novel ecosystems". Do you think this is a helpful or harmful idea in conservation and restoration? Why?
A new species combination that arises spontaneously and irreversibly in response to anthropogenic land-use changes, species introductions, and climate change, without correspondence to any historic ecosystem This idea is harmful in conservation and restoration because it is allowing major ecosystem alterations and homogenization of the biome.
What is a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances? In general, what does the public get out of such agreements and what does the landowner get?
A public-private partnership that aims to engage landowners to keep the habitat at a high level and restore and manage it. Desired future conditions (what public gets): Improved habitat Habitat largely intact with minimal future roads or human alteration Connected patches Secure habitat with minimal physical impacts on grouse What landowner gets: Permission for a specified level of incidental take during 'cover and activities': may include crop cultivation and harvesting, livestock grazing and production, farm equipment
What is adaptive management? Why is such an approach critical when implementing "climate-aware" conservation practices?
Adaptive management - The incorporation of a formal learning process into conservation action specifically, it is the system integration of project design, management and monitoring, to provide a framework to systematically test assumptions, promote learning, and supplying timely information for management decisions It is critical because due to scientific experimentation involved. It can be replicated and reassessed as conditions continue to change.
What categories can species fall into under CITES? Provide a brief description of each.
Appendix 1 - species threatened with extinction Appendix II - not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival Appendix III- protected in at least 1 country
Agha et al. (2020) and Lovich and Ennen (2011) call for a consistent research design across studies to maximize what we can learn about the impact of utility-scale facilities on wildlife. What is the acronym that we discussed in class for the most robust approach to such studies? Describe the approach and provide the rationale for each component of the design.
BACI Before - Do habitat surveys before impact After - How did the factors change Control - Site that isnt being impacted Impact - Site that has been impacted
Linking reserves with corridors has been controversial at various points in the history of Conservation Biology. Describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of linking reserves with corridors.
Benefits 1. Increased species richness 2. Decreased extinction rate Drawbacks 1. Increased disease (allows disease to pass through reserves) 2. Increased disturbance (disturbance can pass through corridors to each reserve)
What is CITES and what is it intended to do?
CITES - "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora" CITES is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of international trade
California and Nevada have set renewable energy goals within their Renewable Standards Portfolios, what are those goals for each state?
California -Goal: 60% by 2030 -100% by 2045 Nevada -Goal: 50% by 2030 -100% by 2050
List and describe two examples of incentive based market approaches.
Charge systems - set tax for exceeding low level of pollution Cap and trade - cap on level of pollution but there are quotas given to each firm; can use quotas or trade quotas
What are two common approaches to dealing with externalities? Provide an example of each.
Command and control - emission standards Incentive-based markets - conservation credits
The National Marine Fisheries Services and the US Fish and Wildlife Service have identified two criteria for recognizing distinct population segments (or ESU's). What are the two criteria and what type of data/evidence would stand alone or in combination to satisfy each?
Criterion I: Reproductive isolation Not absolute but strong enough to allow evolutionary divergence Inferred from tagged animals; efficacy of natural barriers; genetic differentiation Criterion 2: unique component of evolutionary legacy Substantial unit of ecological/genetic diversity Genetic distinction, unique habitat, adaptation
Describe how direct or indirect effects of a utility-scale solar facility may negatively impact plant or animal populations. Choose a particular plant or animal and describe three ways that a utility-scale solar facility might have negative individual or population-level impacts on this species
Desert Tortoise 1. Habitat Degradation - plow over native habitat to clear it for solar panel installation 2. Block Migratory paths - solar facilities built in the way of migratory pathways for these species can decrease gene flow and make them more vulnerable to extinction 3. Increased deaths - relocation to neighboring valleys may cause higher competition in those areas with resident species, animals may attempt to travel back to burrow not surviving the journey.
What are the two general 'models' of energy capture/production and in what critical way do they differ in terms of land use/conversion?
Distributed model Solar,wind Make it where you use it Rooftops to small utilities Solar photovoltaic (few- >500 kilowatt) Small wind turbines (<50 kW) Utility-scale generation Solar,wind, geothermal Lots of power captured far from use, and transmitted
What experimental design did Damschen et al. (2006) use to test the impact of corridors on species richness? What did they find in the original study that spanned 2001-2005? In 2019, they analyzed many additional years of data, what were the two main conclusions of the new study?
Each experimental unit 100 m on each size and various shapes and some are connected In the original study from 2001-2005 they found increased species richness in connected patches over time. 2 main conclusions from 2019 data: Connected sites had 5% greater colonization Connected sites had 2% lower extinction
Provide a general definition of 'restoration'.
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed
Provide a brief definition of the following under the ESA: endangered, threatened, critical habitat.
Endangered species - species that are likely to become extinct throughout all or a larger portion of their range Threatened species- species that are likely to become endangered in the near future Critical habitat- vital to the survival of endangered or threatened species
Kareiva and Marvier (2003) argue that using simple metrics like richness and endemism to identify biodiversity hotspots may leave important elements of biodiversity "out in the cold". List and briefly describe three such elements/features that might be important to consider in designating hotspots.
Evolutionary distinction (captures depth that wouldn't be available by only mapping richness), geographic balance (some places will have more biodiversity than others so we have to pay attention to places that may not have high diversity like the tropics), ecosystem function/service (some places provide unique services even though they're not species rich).
Provide an example of 'command and control' regulation. Describe one benefit and one drawback of such approaches.
Ex: Emission standards - a level of emissions is set and every factory cannot exceed a particular level of emissions Drawback - Pollution is permitted to a certain level Benefit - lower emissions
What is local adaptation? How might you design an experiment to test for local adaptation?
Existence of genotypes that are well suited to local biotic & abiotic conditions. Common garden experiment - source seeds from different localities and grow them all under the same conditions in the same place
What are "externalities"? Provide an example.
Externalities - when all costs and benefits are not accounted for Ex: common property
Briefly describe the New York City Watershed Protection Program and how this case provides an important example of valuation of ecosystem services.
Farmers were engaged in whole farm planning. It was a voluntary stewardship program with 95% success in 5 years. Farmers received help/funding to move sources of pollution like manure off the land. This provides an important example of valuation of ecosystem because instead of using the money to build a water filtration plant, there was recognition of the role watershed play in filtration and through involving the farmers this allowed less watershed pollution.
Describe the idea of "states and transitions" within a particular ecosystem or site. Use a simple graphic to explain your answer. What is the overall message of this in terms of setting restoration goals?
For a given site, there is more than one state possible. These states can be relatively stable and it often takes extreme disturbance to push vegetation out of its current state though once that threshold is crossed it is difficult to return back to its previous state. An example of this can be seen with the cheatgrass fire-cycle. As fire provokes disturbance which allows cheatgrass to establish itself and dominate sagebrush ecosystems.
The Dixie Valley Toad was listed as Endangered under the ESA in 2022. What are three major threats this species faces?
Geothermal development Groundwater pumping Climate change
What is the goal of the Half Earth Project? What is the main conclusion reached by Pimm et al. (2018) concerning which areas we should protect?
Goal: Protecting half of the earth surface would protect 85% of species What half? -Will be satisfied with wild places with minimal human use but may not be as rich in biodiversity? -Or will we push for places that do have more biodiversity?
Penrod et al (2012) proposed a protected area linkage network for the California deserts. What were at least three of their overall goals for the linkage network?
Goals: Provide live-in and move-through habitat for multiple species Support metapopulation of smaller species Buffer against edge effects
In simulating future climate conditions in 2100 in Bay Area parks/reserves, what do Ackerly et al. (2010) find in terms of current versus future temperature distributions in these areas?
Greater difference between current conditions and modeled future conditions for 500 locations in Bay Area & current mean summer temp does not overlap at all with projected mean in less than 100 years. Ultimately only 8 localities that overlapped with current and future temp so majority of parks/reserves that are protected will have moved into a new temperature envelope in less than 100 years and species occupying these areas will have a shift in range.
List at least three questions/requirements that must characterize a species, subspecies or DPS if it is to be considered for listing under ESA.
Has a large percentage of the species vital habitat been degraded or destroyed? Is the species threatened by disease or predation? Do current regulations or legislations in-adequately protect the species?
In their 'climate aware' approach to reserve design, what do Pearson and Dawson (2005) suggest in terms of general reserve shape/layout and with regards to corridors? What is the rationale behind these designs?
If we have reserve and species change their range to move in response to climate change and then reserve might not be effective anymore, this design is creating corridors of reserves to account for shifts in species range due to CC.
Loarie et al. (2009) introduce the idea of "climate velocity". How does this concept apply to a landscape like California or the Great Basin and what does it mean in terms of how species may be able to respond to climate warming?
In a landscape like CA or the Great Basin in more mountain regions species will not have to move as far/as quickly to continue to occupy their niches since they will be traveling elevationally. Versus in a flat/valley like the Central Valley in CA species will have to travel farther/faster to maintain the same niche in the same temperature envelope.
What goal has been set for the amount of land and water that should be set aside in protected areas according to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (Target 3) from the Convention on Biological Diversity? How does this compare to the Biden-Harris administration's goal-setting for the U.S.?
Kunming-Montreal - By 2030 at least 30% of terrestrial, inland, and coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative. Biden-Harris -Pursuing a collaborative and inclusive approach to conservation; -Conserving America's lands and waters for the benefit of all ppl -Supporting locally led and locally designed conservation efforts -Honoring Tribal sovereignty and supporting the priorities of Tribal Nations -Pursuing conservation and restoration approaches -Honoring private property rights -Use science as a guide -Building on existing tools and strategies Difference_ Kunming-Montreal focuses on areas of biodiversity while Biden administration focuses on conservation for benefit of people
The Bureau of Land Management is mandated to manage their lands for specific uses, list at least two of these. How would the pending Public Lands Rule modify this mandate?
Mandated to use land for: Energy development, recreation, livestock grazing Public Lands Rule would modify this mandate through making conservation a designated formal 'use' for land; and put it in equal standing with the other land uses.
Name 5 potential sources of information that a restoration ecologist might use to identify their reference community or historic ecosystem.
Maps are important in aiding in this Historic photos Repeat photography Dendrochronology and Fire Packrat middens
Describe two general methods of assigning a value to an environmental good or service, describe one example of each.
Market valuation: - can be conventional market or implicit market - Example: new york water supply dealing with the expense of an alternate supply or current valuation of watershed Nonmarket valuation - contigent valuation methods - intrinsic value, wildlife and nature - example: New york protection of watershed
Describe how a wildlife or conservation credit/banking system works.
Market-based mechanisms; quantifies conservation outcomes (credits) and negative impacts from human activities (debits) as market transactions Credits earned can be used or sold Conservation easement; value
In very large scale reseeding efforts in western landscapes, there is typically a 1% rate of successful establishment. What might underlie this poor success?
Most seeds are from further North than in NV and are adapted wetter cooler ecosystems than in NV. Local adaptation makes seeds not well suited to hot dry climate of NV
According to Conservation International's gap analysis, how much of their 'biodiversity hotspots' do current protected areas capture?
Only ~10%
What are the two main forms of technology used to capture energy from the sun? Name at least one threat to wildlife that may occur with each of these technologies.
Photovoltaic (PV) Risk to wildlife - road/access/transmission disturbance Concentrated solar power (CSP) Solar troughs- heat transfer fluids Solar power tower - mirrors surround and reflect sunlight onto tower Risk to wildlife PV -Actual footprint - clearing of native habitat CSP -Mirrors beaming sunlight can create huge thermal shifts and can catches birds & insects on fire
Penrod et al (2012) proposed a protected area linkage network for the California deserts. What process or series of steps did they go through to establish the linkage network?
Process: Start with largest landscape blocks Choose focal species Generate habitat sustainability maps Quantify least-cost paths Compile across species and targeted landscape features
Provide a simple graphic that shows the various restoration-related endpoints that might characterize a particular project. Describe each of these potential endpoints in terms of their achievement of species composition/complexity and ecosystem function/processes.
Reclamation/Remediation- Stabilization of terrain assurance of public safety, aesthetic improvement, and return land to useful purpose Revegetation - May entail the establishment of only one or few species Rehabilitation - Emphasizes the reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity and services
What are the 3 R's that are typically considered and planned for in a species recovery plan; provide a brief description of each.
Representation - capturing some of everything Resiliency - ability to persist through severe hardship Redundancy - several of one type to buffer against loss
Chornesky et al. (2015) propose Suisun Bay as an example of "managing for change". What two main points do they make with this case study?
Salinity is increasing as sea levels rise so the saltwater intrusion is higher than historically seen In this location we will go to a marsh habitat → one dominated by sea water So in this paper suggesting active management and investment in: Fortress marsh with different barriers & structures allowing for longer term persistence of marsh type ecosystem
What was/is the SLOSS debate? Name three points that proponents of each side of this debate might highlight as the benefit of their approach.
Single large or several small Single large minimizes 1. edge 2. Fragmentation 3. larger populations Several small 1. more gene flow to occur 2. prevent disease spread 3. Less prone to disturbance
What units, in addition to species, are covered under the Endangered Species Act?
Species Subspecies Distinct population segments (DPS)
Name four criticisms of CITES. Suggest approaches or new perspectives that would alleviate these criticisms.
Species focus Does not identify critical habitat or recovery 'Negative list' Not provision to promote sustainable use Suggest - focus on ecosystem as a whole
According to the IPCC, what is climate adaptation?
The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects.
The Devil's Hole pupfish was part of a landmark decision concerning the maintenance of its habitat. What was the source of the conflict between this species and other uses of natural resources from Ash Meadows? And what did the Supreme Court decide concerning this issue in 1976?
The source of conflict is the farmers wanted to exploit the land of Ash Meadows for agricultural development but this was lowering the water level in Devil's Hole. The Supreme Court decided that pupfish had prior water rights and ordered a cease in pumping of local groundwater.
Hakalau Forest is the site of intensive restoration efforts. Describe this system (what was the source of degradation, what is their reference community, and what has their tree planting strategy been?). Given the seed rain data presented in Yelenik et al., are the interactions with the bird community helping the restoration efforts? Why or why not?
The source of degradation is cattle grazing which allows invasive annual grasses to dominate the vegetation. The reference community was native forest which was cleared for cattle grazing. Their strategy was to plant a fast growing native tree and introduce bird species to disperse seeds. The restoration area has a large proportion of invasive blackberry being dispersed. The restoration efforts are successful for the most part considering native plants are still being dispersed and the forest is recovering although it is allowing the major dispersal of an invasive plant blackberry
What parts of an economy do most people generally consider? What roles does nature play in this? Are these roles typically considered? Use a simple diagram to support your answer.
The supply and demand of goods & services are generally considered by people. Role of nature: All of the goods we are using come ultimately from nature and once we are done using our goods the residuals are absorbed by nature These roles are typically not considered
Provide a schematic, perhaps similar to that in Breckheimer et al. 2014, that shows how restoration for one taxon may or may be of benefit to another species. Which of these would support the idea of an "umbrella species" and why?
The synergy one supports the idea of umbrella species because by protecting the bird you are also protecting the butterfly.
Taking the example of the USFWS decision support system for the desert tortoise, apply this approach to the threat posed by development of a utility-scale solar facility on a different species (pick your favorite desert plant or animal!). Use a schematic of boxes and links from the solar development threat, through 2-3 other direct or indirect threats that might be pertinent for this taxon, the stresses on the population, and how this would lead to population change.
Threat: energy development Indirect threats: roads, surface disturbance, utility lines and corridors, small-scale/dispersed development. Stresses to the population: Habitat loss, drowning, burial, crushing, nutritional compromise, habitat degradation, population fragmentation. Demographic change factors: Increase in death rates, decrease in birth rates, change in immigration/emigration. Population change: decrease
Heller et al. (2015) provide an example of how we might prioritize acquisition of particular land parcels based on certain criteria. What do they advocate in terms of criteria we should consider and what case study do they present to support this?
To create a landscape that will optimize the adaptive capacity, benefits, and options for desires transitions. Suggested places that should next be protected to augment species movement To capture broader climatic gradient to create to greatest range of condition that might support the great range of biodiversity Use the case study of ground squirrel in the bay area: In southern range projected climatic conditions won't be able to support species (local extirpation) although at the top of range there will be opening of new suitable habitat The Ground squirrel won't be able to move quickly enough to keep up with leading edge of distribution so we would have to physically move squirrels to prevent extinction There are others species that could potentially move north into Owens valley; so if we conserve those areas likely we are serving multiple taxa
Conservation banks targeted at ESA-listed or candidate species are a relatively new and potentially powerful conservation tool. Describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of such approaches. How could at least one of the drawbacks you list be overcome?
Two potential benefits Land-owners have incentive to maintain high quality habitat Credits can be bought and sold for $$ Two potential drawbacks Hard to maintain long-term Trajectories have so far not been maintained
What agency (or agencies) oversee the Endangered Species Act?
US fish & wildlife terrestrial and freshwater species National Marine Fisheries Service
What is an umbrella species? Name two benefits and two drawbacks of using such a tactic in reserve design?
Umbrella species - one whose conservation confers protection to other species that occur along with it. Two benefits 1. Understand ecosystem complexity 2. Don't have to source funding for help conserve other species Two drawbacks 1. Simplify the community 2. Too much focus on umbrella species in conservation
In its petition to the US Fish and Wildlife service to list the Dixie Valley Toad under the ESA in 2017, what imminent threat did the Center for Biological Diversity highlight, and what data did they use to support the significance of this threat.
Used data from nearby (Jersey Valley Hot Spring): Show water level from before vs after Ormat geothermal facility went online Caused decrease in water-level Extremely strong correlation BLM acknowledged the reduced flow in hot springs due to Ormat geothermal pumping
List 5 possible direct or indirect effects of a utility-scale solar facility on plant or animal populations.
Water use/impact on surface -Water use on washing mirrors -Invasive species & control through herbicides Direct impact/thermal shifts -Mirrors look like water and migratory species and when species land they may be injured on impact or not able to take flight again (run on water to take off) Dust and dust suppressants Increased predation -Birds perch on transmission towers and predate on species
Holsinger has suggested 5 basic steps or principles to reserve design, describe two of these and how you would go about identifying them for a particular area.
What features of the preserve must be protected/managed to allow the elements to persist in the area? -What resources are most important to the wildlife in the area? How large a buffer zone is required to prevent/reverse degradation of the primary habitat? -What degrading activities are occurring relative to the reserve and how far away does the core need to be from that to prevent further degradation?
What is a 'reference community'?
gives you the goal of what you are going to establish as your end point. provides you a sense of species composition and dynamics that characterize a particular community
Name three ways that 'irreplaceability' might be defined. Plot irreplaceability against threat level and which areas might be your highest priority? What rationale are you using to identify your priority area?
irreplaceability" can be defined as the degree of richness, endemism, or presence of threatened/endangered species. The highest priority should be for areas with the greatest threat
Provide a definition for the fields of environmental and natural resource economics.
the application of the principles of economics to the study of how environmental and natural resources are developed and managed
Describe what is meant by 'the tragedy of the commons'.
the tragedy of the commons - Situation is which individual users have access to a resource and act in their own interest eventually depleting said resource
