Conservation Biology Final

Important Aspects of Management

- Local "Buy-in" - monitoring - novel technology may be used - identifying and managing threats - managing keystone and rare species - managing interactiosn with local communities

Criteria for Identifying Areas that Need to be Protected

I. Distinctiveness or Irreplaceability (of ecosystem, species or population) II. Endangerment or Vulnerability - species in danger of extinction or ecosystems in danger of imminent destruction III. Utility to people - species or ecosystems with potential value or cultural significance "Distinct, Endangered, and Useful" Komodo dragon met all three

Steps in Establishing New Protected Areas

I. Establish priorities for conservation. II. Identify high priority areas for protection. III. Select new areas to fill gaps and develop conservation networks. established new protected areas near Concord, Massachusetts

Four R's of designing Protected Areas

I. Representation: Should contain as many features of biodiversity as possible. II. Resiliency: Must be sufficiently large to maintain all aspects of biodiversity for foreseeable future. III. Redundancy: Must include enough examples of each aspect of biodiversity to ensure long-term survival. IV. Reality: Must be sufficient funds and political will to not only acquire and protect lands, but also to regulate and manage the protected areas.

Practical Considerations of Establishing Protected Areas

I. Select sites that are not already protected. II. Maximize linkages between protected areas so as to create networks. III. Select protected area projects that are practical and cost-effective. IV. Spread efforts adequately - don't concentrate all efforts on just a small number of areas.

Approaches to Identifying Areas

I. Species Approach II. Hotspot Approach III. Ecosystem Approach IV. Wilderness Approach

Captive Breeding

IUCN's Species Survival Commission's Conservation Breeding Specialist Group coordinates with zoo associations; the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) maintains a central database. For each endangered species, a Species Survival Plan (SSP) is established to maintain as diverse as possible a gene pool in the captive population.

What Makes Protected Areas Effective?

If they are well-located and regulations are enforced. 88% of plant species in UK protected areas 15% of total area, but 81% of vegetation types in China an estimated 1/3 of Brazilian and West African forests are being affected by "intense human pressure"

Community-based Wildlife Management in Namibia and Kenya

In Namibia, 79 conservancies (formed by traditional communal groups) have been established, covering 19% of Namibia's area. (In Namibia, 14% of land is national parks, 45% is private land, and 41% is communal land.) Funds come from International agencies (such as U.S. A.I.D.), NGOs, ecotourism, trophy hunting. Wildlife populations are showing strong increasing trends.

Multiple Use Habitat

Large areas of government land designated for a variety of goods & services. Areas of current controversy

Economic Development

"Improvements in efficiency, organization, and distribution of resource use or other economic activity, but not necessarily increases in resource consumption"

Ecosystem Management Approach

"Large scale management involving multiple stakeholders, the primary goal of which is preserving ecosystem components and processes for the long term while still satisfying the current needs of society."

Economic Growth?

"Material increases in the amount of resources used".

Ex situ Conservation

"Off-site" conservation (aka not in the wild)

What Can I do?

- Get invovled via "citizen science projects" - strive for a sustainable lifestyle - be an informed and active citizen - lobby government officials and private businesses to support conservation legislation, regulation, and practices - join with others - grassroots and NGO - support sustainable development with a people-centered focus on poverty reduction and education - be a low impact eco-tourist - support nature conservaiton in all areas from local to international - if a scientist, work with public, conservaiton organizations, and government agencies. Conservation Biology is Normative

Clonal repositories

- for species whose seeds cannot be kept viable for long periods, especially trees.

Zoo Conservation Efforts

- over 200 zoos and aquariums worldwide -over 600 milion visitors house over 600,000 vertebrates of over 7000 species and subspecies (5-7% captured in wild)

Agricultural Seed Banks

- to preserve varieties and "landraces" of crop species, especially traditional "heritage" varieties. -agricultural species often show high genetic variation in their area of origin, which needs to be preserved in case of future need.

Conservation at the international Level is necessary because:

1) Species migrate across international borders. 2) International trade in biological products is commonplace. 3) Biodiversity provides internationally important benefits. 4) Many environmental pollution problems that threaten ecosystems are international in scope.

Steps of Gap Analysis

1. Compile Data. 2. Identify Conservation & Social Goals. 3. Review Existing Conservation Areas. 4. Identify Potential Areas to Fill Gaps. 5. Protect Additional Areas. 6. Monitor to Ensure Goals are Met.

Framework for Landscape Design to Promote Biodiversity

1. Distinguish and delineate different patches of land covers in the selected landscape 2. Categorize patches as unaltered verus altered land covers 3. Identify the constraints on land-use planning 4. Given these constraints, create a landscape paln that maximizes the total amount of diversity of unaltered land cover, especially near water 5. minimize human disturbance within altered land cover, especially near water 6. and aggregate altered land covers associated with high-intensity land uses, especially away from water

Policy Recommendations of the Convention on Biological Diversity

1.) Countries have a right to control access and should be paid. 2.) Countries have a responsibility to inventory and protect their biological diversity. 3.) Collectors must have permits from all relevant parties. 4.) As much as possible, associated activities should take place in the source country. 5.) Financial benefits resulting should be shared fairly with the source country (for example, pay royalties).

Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

1973; 183 member countries; Appendix I lists 800 plant and animal species for which commercial trade is prohibited; Appendix II lists 4,400 animals and 28,000 plants for which international trade is regulated; Appendix III lists 170 additional species that are protected in a single country.

Identifying and Managing Threats

Make sure to manage threats to maintain a diversity of successional stages (review!!!) The Heath Fritillary in England relies on early-succession habitats (recently disturbed)and exists as a dynamic metapopulation; creating new clearings is necessary.

Protected Area:

A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated,and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-termconservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.

Landscape Ecology

A discipline that investigates patterns of the physical environment, ecological communities, ecosystem processes, and human-ecosystem interactions at local and regional scales.

Landscape

A repeating pattern of landforms of ecosystems, with each type of ecosystem in the landscape having its own distinctive vegetation structure and species composition.

LTER Program Phenomena and timescales

Anywhere from century to months. Focuses on physical events like forest fires and climate warming as well as el nino, prarire fires, lake turnover, etc. As well as biological phenomina like eutrophication and annual plans and seasonal migration.

Conservation outside Protected Areas for Flagship Species

Bighorn Sheep Florida Panther - 31% of range is private aisland, and all of them spend time together outside of protected areas

Successful Reintroductions in Nebraska

Bighorn Sheep (I think lmao) and Turkey

Top 5 Recipients of International Conservation Funding

Brazil, India, China, Mexico, Indonesia

Tools for Gap Analysis

Global Information Systems (GIS) Conservation Planning Software (examples include Marxan, Zonation, and Miradi)

Conservation Funding v. Perverse Subsidies

Global Investment in Conservation is much lower than that in things like Fossil Fuels, water use and treatmeent, agricultural production, fisheries

Managing Water Resources

Caribbean NationalForest in Puerto Rico -70% of water is removedby various intakes. Glacier Creek Preserve - Goal is to Include an Entire Watershed

Seed Banks

Collections of seeds for long-term storage and later germination. • Now expanding to include as many as possible of the Earth's wild species. Kew Gardens has a goal of maintaining seeds of 25% of the world's plants (about 70,000 species). (At present, ~10% of all plants, 70% of European species.) • The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway stores 400,000 frozen samples (below permafrost, so no risk of power cut-off).• The Center for Plant Conservation coordinates 39 U.S. and Canadian facilities. • USDA National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation - Ft. Collins • Worldwide efforts are coordinated by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.

Gap Analysis

Comparing the distribution of endangered species and biological communities with existing and proposed areas to determine gaps in protection

Seven Biodiversity-Related international Agreements

Conventionon Biological Diversity - Promotes conservation o fbiological diversity, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits CITES - ensures that trade in animals and plants does not threaten their survival Conventional on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals - provides guidelines for the conservaiton and sustainable use of migrating animals through their ranges Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (RCoW) - promotes the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources that contribute to both biodiversity and human well-being international treaty on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture - promotes the conservation of plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from them world heritage convention (WHC) - mandates the identification and conservation of the world's cultural and natural heritage by protecting a specific list of sites

Conservation Translocations:

Deliberate placement of organisms to achieve "measurable conservation benefit at the level of a population, species, or ecosystem".• Three approaches: A.) Reintroduction - (re-establishment, restoration) - releasing captive-bred or wild-caught individuals within their historical range. B.) Reinforcement - (Restocking or Augmentation) - releasing individuals into an existing population to increase its size. C.) Introduction - (Assisted colonization) - moving captive-bred or wild-caught individuals into areas outside the historical range.

Debt-for-Nature Swaps

Developing world countries' debt is purchased (usually by a BINGO), which forgives the debt in return for conservation activity.

Sustainable Development:

Economic Development that provides for current and future needs of human society while at the same time protecting species, ecosystems, and other resources that people depend on.

Approach to Identify Areas for Protection: Species Approach

Focal Species a.) Keystone Species b.) Indicator Species - indicative of general health of that ecosystem; example - Northern Spotted Owl for Pacific old-growth forests c.) Flagship Species - charismatic species that can represent a number of species; examples - bees and butterflies d.) Umbrella species - protecting them extends protection to many other species - pandas

Programs for Conservation

National Environmental Funds with boards of trustees allocating income Debt-for-Nature swaps Sometimes these can be combined Green products certification such as that of the Forest Stewardship Council

International Agreements to Protect Species

Organizations: United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), U.N. Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO), IUCN and other NGO's such as the World Wildlife Fund Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

Creating New Protected Areas

Over 80% have been established in the last 55 years. • The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity set goals of 17% of terrestrial and inland waters and 10% of coastal and marine areas, by 2020 • Most often established by government action, land purchases & easements by private individuals and NGO's, actions of indigenous peoples and development of biological field stations.

Approach to Identify Areas for Protection: Hotspot Approach

Protect areas with high levels of species richness. Some groups (such as flowering plants) can be used as "biodiversity indicators"; high levels of endemism may also be a criterion. 35 Hotspots globally which are 2.3% of the Earth's surface. Many are tropical rain forests, Mediterranean areas, island groups, and mountain ranges.

Approach to Identify Areas for Protection: Ecosystem Approach

Protect intact, functioning ecosystems, selecting Representative Sites of all the major Biomes. (Representative = includes the species and environmental conditions characteristic of the ecosystem)

Approach to Identify Areas for Protection: Wilderness Approach

Protect large tracts that have a long history of human occupation & use, but with minimal effects. Normal ecosystem processes still occur, many endangered species may remain (sometimes only in these - yaks, European bison) (Special Case - "No-man's lands" -> Korean Demilitarized Zone, Chernobyl Exclusion Zone) Some Wilderness Areas under threat from increasing human population growth and impacts: 1.) South America 2.) Congo River basin 3.) New Guinea/Borneo 4.) Boreal forests

Category II: National Parks

There are 63 U.S. National Parks,but a total of 423 areas administered by the National Park Service, falling into 20 categories, totaling 84 million acres, with sites in every state plus 4 commonwealths or territories.

Habitat Corridors

Strips of connected land running between preserves. drawbacks: may facilitate spread of disease or invasives, increase predation, expensive to create, effectiveness depends on behavior of species Examples: Masai MAra/Serengeti; Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem; Banff National Park

Types and Classification of Protected Areas

Types V. & VI. => Multi-management areas - a.) Often much larger b.) May contain many or most of their original species. c.) They often adjoin or surround other protected areas. d.) Are likely to benefit local people more than strictly protected areas, and therefore are more likely to earn local support. (But all types were shown to benefit local people overall.)

Examples of Successful Reintroduction

Wolf Reintroduction in the northern rocky mountains and yellowstone. • Golden Lion Tamarins in Brazil • Arabian Oryx in the Middle East • Iberian Lynx • Black-footed Ferrets in the U.S. • California Condors

Metapopulations

a "population of populations" often species, esspecially in ephemeral habitats, exist in an area in a mosaic of populations, connected by some degree of migration. Individual populations may die out and reappear; smoem peopulations may be "sources" and others may be "sinks". Persistence of the species depends on the complex dynamics of this "metapopulation matrix". finish ecologist Illka hanski was a pioneer in developing this.

Long-term Monitoring

because of variability of populations, and the lag between initial causes and overt environmental effects, long-term monitoring is very important - to detect the "signal" within all the "noise" some studies are ongoing, more are being developed. In the US, the Long-Term Ecological Research Program (LTER), funded by the national science foundation, focuses on such studies

Metapopulation examples

bighorn sheep metapopulation in southern California. There is a metapopulation of a butterfly, Melitaea cinxia in a fragmented landscape and migration happens between them.

Mediterranean Action Plan protected areas;

coordinated effort of the European Union and 21 countries.

Global Information Systems

for storing, displaying & manipulating many types of spatial data, such as vegetation types, climate, soils, topography, geology, hydrology, species distributions, human settlements, and resource use.

managing interacitons with local communities

zoning, mixed management, buffer areas, ecotourism bisphere reserve. Mont St. Hilaire, Quebec is one with a rare orchid found there

IUCN Reports on Success

• 57% of animal reintroductions were successful, 39% were partially successful, only 4% failed. • Success was greater for wildlife managed for hunting. • There is bias in the literature - successes are reported, failures often are not.

biosphere reserve

the general model is different zones with allowed activities

Botanical Gardens & Arboretums

• 1,775 Worldwide• Contain about 4 million plants, of 105,000 species (about 27% of all plants) • 450 of the U.S.'s 3000 endangered plants are being cultivated in captivity. • Kew Gardens (Royal Botanic Garden) is the world's largest, with 30,000 species, 2700 of which are IUCN listed. • The Eden Project maintains >5,000 species in giant domes .• In the U.S., the Missouri Botanical Garden coordinates efforts of 39 botanical gardens. • Internationally, Botanical Gardens Conservation International coordinates efforts of >800 botanical gardens

Factors Affecting Success of Reintroduction

• A survey of programs establishing populations for hunting: A.)Success greater in high-quality habitat than low-quality habitat (84% vs. 38%) B.)Success greater in core of historical range than periphery or outside (78% vs. 48%) C.)Success greater with wild-caught than captive-reared animals (75% vs. 38%) D.)Success greater for herbivores than carnivores (77% vs. 48%) E.) Success increased with numbers released, up to 100.

Examples of Areas for Conservation outside Protected Place

• Agricultural land • Forests • Non-cultivatable land• Roadsides • Power lines & other right-of-ways • Remnant prairies (cemeteries!) • Watersheds • Military land (25 million ha in U.S. - 1/2 area of national parks!) • Private hunting preserves

Specialized Ex Situ Techniques

• Artificial Insemination • Maintenance of genome resource bank (stored gametes or embryos), such as Frozen Ark • Cloning • Embryo Transfer (to a close relative) • Artificial Incubation • Cross-Fostering • Preservation of Domestic Species Varieties • Bringing Back Extinct Species? No successes so far, but the technology is advancing. But should we?

SLOSS Debate - Small Preserves

• As size increases, addition of new species may level off. • Different parks may add different ecosystem features. • May be only practical approach for small, isolated populations in specialized habitats. • In densely human populated areas, only scattered small natural areas may remain (Europe, for example). • Decreases risk from major catastrophes. Protected ares in great Britain have an average size of 3 km^2

Aquariums

• But many freshwater species, and some marine species, have gone extinct or are highly endangered. • Currently, approximately 600,000 fish are maintained in public aquariums. Also cetaceans, sea turtles, many invertebrates .• Source of specimens? • Increasing need because of habitat loss, increase in aquaculture, effects of climate change

Role of Behavior in Successful Programs

• Captive-bred animals may require extensive training in order to develop necessary survival skills. • Habituation to humans must be avoided! • Wild-caught individuals may be used as "tutors". • Decoys may help in attraction.

Key Treaties for Conservation

• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) • Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources • International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling • International Convention for the Protection of Birds • Convention for the Conservation & Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks • US/Canada/Mexico Trilateral Committee for Wildlife and Ecosystem Conservation & Management • Additional agreements for protection of specific groups

Limitations of Ex Situ Conservation

• Cost (Preservation of wild populations is usually cheaper. But zoos, etc., can also generate funds for In Situ projects.) • Small population size issues - inbreeding, drift. Is it possible to maintain a MVP in captivity? • Adaptation to captivity - loss of adaptation to the wild. • Some species cannot be successfully maintained in captivity. • Lack of opportunity to learn survival skills. • Only part of the natural species' genetic variability may be preserved (only some subspecies, for example). • Long-term commitment is required. • Concentration of individuals sets up potential for catastrophe .• What to do with surplus animals?

Funding by World Bank and Others of Large Development Projects

• Dams, Irrigation Systems, Roads, River Channelization, etc. • Examples: Mekong River Basin, Brazilian Amazon, China's Three Gorges Dam, Hidrovia Project of Paraguay-Parana River systems in South America

Mitigation or Biodiversity Offsets

• Developers may propose or be required to create new habitat or populations, or to enhance remaining habitat, to compensate for habitat destruction or population extirpation resulting from the project. • Wetlands and Mined lands are common examples. • These artificially created habitats are rarely equal to natural habitats, and long-term follow-up is often not performed.

Zoo Efforts

• Education • Research • Captive Breeding

Issues with Establishing Protected Areas

• Effects of Climate Change on Preserve locations? • Lack of sufficient data? Response is to carry out Rapid Biodiversity Assessments (RBA's), otherwise known as Rapid Assessment Programs, or BioBlitzes".Another is to try to make judgments based on general ecological/geographical principles (such as including diverse habits or elevation zones).

Ineffective Management Practices

• Elimination of Top Predators • Removal of dead wood • Fire suppression • Removal of grazing

Conservation at the National Level

• Establishment of National Parks • Legislation & Regulations to limit pollution, conserve species and ecosystems, and encourage sustainable activities (Such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act). • Creation of adequate, effective agencies • Regulation of commerce, especially at borders • Cultural biases and political/economic opposition are challenges.

Considerations of Establishing Preserves for establishing the best preserve possible

• Generally, new parks should be as large as possible. Ideally, a park should be big enough for an MVP of the most wide-ranging species. • A balance may be needed between the needs of individual species and preservation of maximal species diversity. • Buffer zones around the parks should be established. • Small parks may be effective for many plants, invertebrates, & small vertebrates. • Many small parks can be managed as a metapopulation (to promote gene flow & increase Ne). • Small preserves near urban areas can have especially effective educational effects. (Fontenelle Forest, Hitchcock Nature Center, Glacier Creek Preserve) • Pending effects of climate change, invasive species, and other threats may affect the situation.

Regulated Activities Inside Protected Areas

• Harvesting of Game & Fish • Harvesting of Natural Plant Products • Farming • Logging • Managed Use of Fire • Recreational/Tourist Activities

Questions of Establishing Protected Areas

• How large? • Single large or several small? (SLOSS) • How many individuals of endangered species? • Best shape of the reserve? • If a network how close should areas be to each other? Isolated or connected by corridors? • What is the most cost-effective design? • If a particular amount of money is allocated, how best to use it? MacArthur & Wilson's (1967) Theory of Island Biogeography has been an influential starting point.

Conservation at the Local Level

• Local legislation, such as zoning laws, weed ordinances • Local NGO's, or local chapters of national/international NGO's • Renewable/sustainable energy initiatives • Community partnerships • "Urban ecology" initiatives • Land trusts, conservation easements, conservation development, conservation leasing, conservation banking, payments for ecosystem services, conservation concessions • Perception Issues: Elitist? Unproductive? Reduction in Tax Receipts? Unsightly? Reduce Property Values?

Importance of Conservation outside of Protected Areas

• Most protected areas are too small. • Many species are attracted to resources available outside protected areas. • Many species will move in and out of protected areas. • Even in best case, >80% of land surface will be outside protected areas. • In U.S., 60% of species that are globally rare or listed under the E.S.A. occur on private forest land. • 75% of orangutans live outside protect areas.

Challenges to Management from Humans

• Poaching • Trophy Hunting • Human-Animal Conflict (elephant deterring beehives) • Degradation • Climate Change • Funding and Personnel

How Ex Situ Facilities Address Conservation Challenges

• Provide opportunities for research. • Address threats through education. • Offset impacts of stochastic demographic or environmental impacts. • "Buy time" for populations facing significant decline. • Restoring populations after threats have been mitigated.

Conservation in Urban Areas

• Public parks • Streams & ponds • Golf courses • School yards • Private yards • Business sites • Buildings • But increased human-wildlife contact can raise issues.

International Agreements to Protect Habitat

• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: 1971, 168 countries, 2,170 sites, 207 million acres • World Heritage Convention (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage) • UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves (Biosphere Reserves Program)

Conservation Status of New Populations

• Relevant constituencies should be educated on the benefits and limitations, and their concerns addressed. Some opposition may be difficult to overcome? • Legislation constraints may need to be overcome (endangered species legislation, zoning issues, etc.). • Special status categories may be established: A.) "Experimental, Essential" - as rigidly protected as naturally occurring populations B.) "Experimental, Nonessential" - not provided with full extent of E.S.A. protection; wolves in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem are an example.

Shape Considerations of New Preserve Areas

• Round shape minimizes edge. • Squares are better than rectangles of same area. • Some are linear because they follow streams. • Internal fragmentation should be limited (roads, right-of-ways, etc.)

Challenges to Protected Area Management

• Setting Achievable Goals • Adequate Funding • Adequate Infrastructure • Adequate Equipment • Adequate Number of Well-trained, Well-Paid Staff • More generally, Disparity in Resources between More-developed and Less-developed Countries (San Diego Zoo has a larger budget than all the sub-Saharan African nations' wildlife agencies!) • Unstable Political Situations • Coping with a Changing World - Increased Human Population & Associated Needs, Climate Change (70% of Buffer Zones have lost forest cover in last 40 years; Poaching and Bushmeat Trade Increasing.)

Ex Situ Conservation's Role

• Some species went extinct in the wild, but survived in captivity: Pere David's Deer, Przewalski's Horse, the Franklin Tree. • Can be a precursor to establishment of new wild populations. • An intermediate course is management of populations in small, protected areas.

Networks of Preserved Areas

• Somewhat combine the best of both approaches, incorporating metapopulation thinking. • Do require inter-agency coordination/cooperation .• Natura 2000 covers 18% of Europe's land area/6% of marine area. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) - stresses cooperative interaction between private parties

Reintroduction of Non-game species

• Success rates are typically lower. One survey of 400 releases of fish species showed a success rate of 26%. • Helps make the point that protecting existing populations is still the highest priority. • For South African Wild Dogs, reintroduction of 9 self-sustaining packs was achieved in half of the target time of 10 years; but it cost 20 times more than preserving existing packs.

Caveats to IUCN Guidelines for Reintroduction

• Such attempts are likely to fail if suitable environmental conditions are not present: habitat preservation or restoration may be necessary first. • These efforts are likely to be expensive & difficult, and a long-term commitment is usually required. • One needs to consider whether the individuals are genetically suited to the new location. • One needs to be cautious when introducing species into new areas outside their historical range - there may be unanticipated effects on native species! • Interactions with humans need to be taken into account.

IUCN Guidelines

• Threats must be understood and addressed. • The ecology of the species must be sufficiently understood. • Genetics of the species and the released individuals must be sufficiently understood. • There must be enough suitable habitat available. • Ecological risks must be assessed and accounted for. • Human concerns must be addressed. • In the event of failure, it must be possible to remove or destroy offspring of the released individuals.

Conservation in Agricultural Areas

• Traditional landscapes: hedgerows, woodlots, etc. • Pollinator Strips or other conservation buffers • Organic farming • Government set-aside programs (in U.S., Conservation Reserve Program - CRP) • "Payment for Ecosystem Services" (PES) programs • Land sharing (such as shade coffee plantations)

United Nations "Earth Summits"

• United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992, 178 countries. • Produced Four Major Documents: 1. The Rio Declaration, 2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,(Kyoto Protocol 1997, Climate Change Conferences now held annually, 2021 in Glasgow), 3. Convention on Biological Diversity, 4. Agenda 21. • World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002• UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio +20), 2012

Themes of Conservation outside Protected Areas

• Use best science available. • Develop a coordinated consensus plan. • Include populations of all species, examples of all communities, successional stages, & ecosystem functions .• Understand the connectivity. • Monitor and adapt as necessary. • Can be extended into Bioregional Management. • Examples: Malpai Borderlands Group; Mediterranean Action Plan. In southern Arizona and involves cooperation between many people

Plant Reintroduction

• Usually done by re-seeding. • Sometimes seedlings are grown, then planted. • Occasionally, transplants are moved.• Environment must be suitable (plants can't move!). • Disturbance may be necessary (fire, treefalls).• Annual weeds or invasives may have to be dealt with. • Success rates are often low, so persistence may be necessary. One study showed only 33% were successful, and some never produced later generations. Examples: Blowout Penstemon, Western Prairie Fringed Orchid

Ethical Issues & Ex Situ Activities

• Will these efforts actually benefit wild populations? • Would it be better to let the last few survivors live out their lives in the wild?• Will captive-reared animals be able to survive in the wild? • Are we keeping animals in captivity only for human purposes? (amusement or economic benefit) • Are the organisms receiving appropriate care/treatment? Are they thriving and breeding? Does the net gain outweigh the animals' discomfort? • Are the public education & research functions being successfully carried out, with benefits to wild populations?

Massive-Scale Landscape Proposals

• Yellowstone to Yukon (Y2Y) Ecoregion Plan • Rewilding North America • Buffalo Commons Pleistocene Re-Wilding?? Buffalo Commons - bring back the bison to the midwest, but people wouldn't like that!

Ex Situ Conservation Facilities

• Zoos • Aquariums • Botanic Gardens/Arboretums Seed Banks

SLOSS Debate - Large Preserve

• can maintain a sufficient number of large, wide-ranging, low-density species (such as top carnivores). •minimize the amount of edge. • encompass more species. • usually have more habitat diversity.