Continuity and Change- Focus Study

gender roles and the status of both men and women

"Gender roles are defined by culture, more than physical differences between men and women" (Kincaid, 2014) "Gender has no bearing on a person's capabilities. Men are not inherently smarter than women. Women are not inherently smarter than women. Women are not inherently better at raising children than men. Most of the difference we place on gender is cultural rather than biological" (Kincaid, 2014)

How has access to technologies impacted on the rate and direction of change?

Japanese leaders of the late 19th century to date have encouraged industrial and technological innovation. These technologies have significantly impacted Japan. They have borrowed Western technology and combined them with their own innovations. After World War Two, they could focus more specifically on technologies to benefit their society. In most instances, they took American tech and improved it. Technology has led to changes in Urban planning. Japanese people have limited space to live and to work, they have developed stronger and lighter materials to build skyscrapers and make the most of limited spaces. Railway and subway networks are so efficient in larger cities like Tokyo that many people find that they never need to own a car. Companies such as Panasonic (established 1918) and Sony (established 1946) are world leaders in electronics. However, Apple and Samsung are now providing high proportions of mobile phones in Japan and the country loses dominance in the electronics industry with the influence of new player in Korea and China. Access to technology has also influenced social attitudes. Japanese are becoming more aware of environmental issues and so the Toyota Prius combines comfort and performance with environmental friendliness. Many companies, such as Sony, are dedicating resources to energy-saving products.

Confucianism - Origins of Japanese gender roles and status of men and women

Confucianism views men as aggressive, independent, dominant, competitive and confident; qualities needed to head a household and manage family affairs. It also holds that women are dependent on men. They were expected to marry, produce heirs, and oversee the household. "During the Tokugawa period (1602-1868), women didn't legally exist. Women could not own property and were subordinate to men in every way" (Friedman, 1992)

Meso Level

Evident in Japanese schools. The education system is extremely competitive. Yochien preschools for younger children continue to increase in number as mothers are accepted into the workforce, and although they are primarily nurseries, more exclusive preschools boost academic skill and discipline for children to enter elementary school. There are also social incentives to have extra tutoring, and evidence that appear to have a higher status in their social groups when children attend prestigious schools. There are also thousands of juku (cram schools) aiding all ages. An estimated 70% of children attend one. Juku specialise in different examinations, with teachers who specialise in increasing one's marks. Therefore, an attractive asset for individuals looking to increase their marks. Many go simply because it is socially accepted and it is also a platform for socialising. Now there is an element of change appearing in Japanese education. Many students are enrolling after returning from overseas, and require different teaching methods and resources. Western values, communication styles, and expectations are changing social interaction. These students better English and friendliness with Western teachers begins to alienate them from others in some cases. A small, but increasing number of students are questioning teachers and disrupting lessons. More students wish to speak English rather than read it. Individuals are becoming more interested in courses on cultural awareness and creative writing. - Japans cramming schools 50,000 juku across Japan. Seen as a brutal facet of Japans high-speed post-war growth, crammers are powerful. 1 in 5 students in first year primary school attends after-class instruction. Fees are 260,000 Yen ($3300) annually. Test scores rise after attendance all the way to university level. Focuses on rote learning over ingenuity. Japans education ministry refuses to recognise Juku, dismissing them as service businesses.

Analyse the nature of power and authority

Hierarchy is significant in Japanese culture. Reflected at home, school, community, organisations, traditional institutions such as martial arts, flower arrangements or tea ceremonies. This is formed mainly on seniority, social roles and gender. In Japan, older siblings have power over younger siblings. This tradition remains to some extent as older siblings have more power in deciding family matters in many cases. Gender interrupts this however, females do not gain power if their younger sibling is male, the opposite occurs. In schools, older pupils are told to look after younger pupils, this hierarchy is less prominent as children do not necessarily listen. Younger pupils still must respect older pupils in turn, even if the difference is 1 year. Sempai (older person) and Kohai (younger person) are the terms used in this hierarchy. If Kohai do not follow their Sempai's order, they are punished and bullied often. Sempai are represented as strong, Kohai as weak. Japanese conventional way of life consists of people's promotion through their backgrounds of age, sex, or status of university. Now this structure has changed and promotion is through ability and performance yet people in lower positions who are loyal and obedient to authority are recognised more and receive better treatment. People in respected careers such as doctors, lawyers or teachers have incredible authority. At the doctors, patients tell the doctor their symptoms, then the doctor will prescribe medicine and illness. The patient must listen without question. Now, more doctors will explain the details of the illness, but traditional dynamics remain. In some cases, doctors will not tell the patient their illness, only the prescription. It is not easy for persons in low positions to present their opinion to authority figures. They do place high expectations onto these authority figures however, and very high standards of behaviour. An authority figure must always display this standard of behaviour for the less powerful to continue obeying them. In Japan, a far different sense of self exists, and one's social role is more important than the individual. Many people do not develop a strong individual identity. Power and authority is also evident in prisons. In 1996, a 32-year-old American, Kevin Mara, was serving 4 and a half years for smuggling marijuana into Japan. When he sat down for a meal, the guard called out his name, he looked up, breaking a rule that before eating each inmate should close their eyes and look down. He was punished with ten days in solitary confinement. "There is an obsession with rules and with absolute, strict obedience to rules. When they believe, rules have not been followed, then there is arbitrary punishment" (Joanna Mariner, Human Rights Watch)

Is all change necessarily progress? Which groups benefit and which don't?

Progress implies an improvement in the well-being of human beings. Improvement in human welfare constitute progress. This is achieved through: longer lives, reduced infant mortality, equality, freedoms or a reduction of fear to those in authority. It is important to understand that change doesn't produce benefits for everybody. Changes introduced to aboriginal societies were not regarded as progress by the people in said society. The Ainu people of Japan, which was in its height in 13th-14th centuries, for example, is close to extinction. Oppression, racism, forced assimilation have all contributed to the annihilation of Ainu culture. They face alcoholism, violence, and homelessness in modern society. A group which has benefitted is women. Women have received better equality and freedom to determine their lives and careers.

Determine current trends and suggest possible future directions for gender roles and the status of men and women in Japanese society:

The assumption that the happiness of a woman lies in marriage and that the role of women is to be good wives and mothers is expected to continue to be a feature of society for the near future. Some married women will continue to manage the household finances and guide their children through the education system, following traditional gender roles for the near future. A likely change will be the increase of women who find marriage unattractive. This will be due to women choosing employment for economic security. As the employment system has high expectations, marriage will become something beyond the reach of the working women for her career to continue. Employment even continues after marriage; women will leave jobs to have children but return to part-time work after the children. Men's attitudes towards female housewifery roles have dropped as well, 1987 saw 38% of men believe that women should be full-time housemakers, but in 2010 it had dropped to 11%. The 34% of women who wished to be housewives in 1987 also dropped to 20% in 2010. An increasing number of men are now unable to marry due to low incomes, and both men and women will marry later in life or not at all in modern society. The likelihood of childbirth in families is also decreasing and this has led to a declining overall population in Japan. The population in 2010 was 128,057,000 but in 2015 had dropped to 126,573,000, in 2016 it was 126,124,766. The ministry of health, labour and welfare predicts a population of 122,176,000 in 2020. The traditional roles of men to act as breadwinners will continue to be a strong influence in the next few years. Women will likely continue to be expected to take on the bulk of responsibility for housework and raising children, making it difficult to establish a career path. "Women's lowly status in the Japanese workplace has barely improved in decades..." (Economist, 2014) Japanese women are educated to a higher level than anywhere in the world. Once leaving university however, their potential is squandered. Gender roles will continue to be an obstacle in the workforce. Of the most senior level managers in Japan, 1% are women. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe is working towards advocating more positions for women in supervisory positions to reduce the inequality with a target of 30% by 2020. However, male dominance is likely to continue for the near future. For example, in the 2016 elections for Upper House only 96/389 members were women. The breaking down of gender roles will likely result in males performing more domestic roles in the future. "He recalls with amusement a letter from his son's nursery school that said the children had enjoyed the lunches prepared by their mother's when, in Horikomi's case, he was the one who made the meals" (Aoki, 2016).

Pre-World War Two - Traditional gender roles and status of men and women

The traditional extended Japanese family featured a patriarchal head and a hierarchy by birth. "all of the property, all of the social standing, the financial assets, all of the rights and obligations are expected to go from father to son, father to son..." (Bestor &Hardacre) "The patriarchal system enshrined gender roles as a sacred duty. People in power were morally superior and deserved their higher status because of it" (Slote & De Vas, 1998) Family relationships were hierarchical. Men were leaders and women and children were the followers. Men were breadwinners and women cared for children and early relatives, also doing housework. The father's high status made him somewhat unapproachable to the rest of the family. Men were expected to put their loyalty to the company first. Women were expected to be the full-time parent. "Women are entitled to not much more beyond motherhood; men are not entitled to much beyond work" (Bae, 2010) Women tended to marry between 22-27 years of age, becoming outcast if they hadn't married by 27. Their status was low, daughters married into other families and the status of the bride of the eldest son was the lowest in the household. She produced heirs and learned the ways of the household under the mother in-law's instruction. Her only support came from her children. If a family had only daughters, one would remain in the household and her husband became an adopted son. If there were no children, a daughter would be adopted and found a husband who was adopted in also to carry the family business. Unsatisfied parent-in-laws could send back the bride to her family. The children of the couple in this instance would go to the father's household. When parents retired, the son became the family head and the bride moved to housewife status. "Perhaps the most vivid symbol of this central role of the wife and mother in the household is a rice paddle- in Japanese called the shamoji- a kind of ping-pong-shaped-bamboo implement that women would use to stir rice as it is cooking in the pot, and then would use to scoop cooked rice out into bowls and feed the family with. And at the point when a young wife, a daughter-in-law, had reached maturity, had proven herself to be a loyal and productive member of the household, and her mother-in-law was at a point of being willing to fully welcome her into the household, in traditional times they would have a ceremony in which the mother-in-law would ritually pass the rice paddle on to the daughter-in-law, signifying that she was relinquishing control of the household from one generation to the next" (Bestor & Hardacre) In 1942, all Japanese men earned the right to vote, not women however. Women were still subservient to their husbands.

Predict the importance of technologies to Japan

There is a broad consensus in Japanese society to apply their technological capabilities to the global communities' betterment, it is likely that their technology will continue to allow Japanese people to lead a secure, rewarding and culturally rich life. Japans willingness to branch their knowledge to the rest of the world shows the change from a closed society to a member of the global community. Japans superiority in technology is slowly diminishing over time. However, it still holds a superiority over the rest of the world. "The 2020 Tokyo Olympics is poised to be the most futuristic one yet" (Business Insider, 2016) Japan is aiming to use driverless taxis at the Olympics through a company called Robot Taxis. There will also be e-passes for the stadiums entrance. The access to Westernisation will continue to be influential to Japan also as Japanese move form flip-phones to tablets and smart phones. Japanese internet users will also have access to overseas-based services. These changes may have a negative impact however; many employees believe they will make their job more stressful. It may threaten face-to-face interaction. Experienced workers may not be needed for their experience anymore. They may fail to master the new technologies and disrupt harmony and let down the group.

Micro

This is evident in Japanese families. There is continuity in the 6-day week of work for many fathers. They take Sundays off for leisure and time with the family. Thus, he is often treated as a guest in the home, his dinner is prepared, clothes laid out, and everything is taken care of by the wife. Motherhood and nurturing is still highly valued. Babysitters or day cares are seldom used by mothers as they devote their life to the children and believe that their care is best. If the mother cannot be there, the grandmother is the next option. However, there has been significant change in these roles for women. Although the father has authority over major purchases and decisions, it is not used often. The salary is turned over to the wife to do the budgeting and allocating for the family. She has the final say over children's education and well-being and attends to those needs. The traditional family has experienced change through Westernisation, and although there remains the mother and father, mothers have more freedom to decide their own futures. Another element of Japanese society which has continued is the peer group. Japanese society is group orientated and there is importance in interaction in a group and with other people. Also, the importance of academic superiority. Parents are often concerned for children to achieve the best grades possible. This value for education causes change in the peer groups. A child often adapts a competitive attitude towards peers which may disrupt peer groups as the children is forced to focus on their success over the groups. Continuity still exists in peer groups however, as a strong sense of group life is desirable for Japanese teens to become part of a friendship group.

Assess Evolutionary Theories appropriateness in explaining continuity and change for Japan

This theory appropriately addresses the changes in Japanese society. It doesn't explain clearly why these changes have taken place however. These changes have been a complex process but Evolutionary theory believes that all societies follow a similar path or progression. This is not generally the case as evolutionary theory doesn't attempt to explain the impact of Japan's defeat in World War Two on changes to Japans society and culture. It also ignores the continuity in Japanese culture. Per the theory, Japan has not evolved into a 'modernised' (Westernised) society. Comte argued that modern society does not accept polytheism and adopts monotheism. Shinto, a polytheistic religion, is the national religion of Japan. Japan also hasn't fully accepted Westernisation. 98.5% of Japanese population is Japanese, and 125,000,000 people speak Japanese out of a total population of 126,124,766.

Evolutionary Theory in Japan

This theory views social change as a linear process that moves towards increasing complexity. As society attempts to adapt to social and physical conditions in their environment, they push forward in development. This development is evident in Japan. The Ainu traditionally lived through hunting and fishing and farming. They have an animistic spirituality which means they believe that all living things, as well as inanimate objects possess life and spirit. This culture is viewed as 'primitive' by early theorists. Japanese society evolved through Confucianism. An ideology of obedience and authority that led to class structure based on loyalty and duty. Citizens were subservient to the Emperor and the individual was subservient to the patriarchal head of the family. In the Meiji Era (1868-1912) the transition to the highest stage of development began. Japan was moving from an agricultural society to an industrial and modernised society. By 1872, 4 years of education was compulsory. Thousands of different levels of schooling were built across Japan. The industry flourished during the Meiji Era through the iron and steel industry. Labour forces were industrious, skilful and majorly literate. It was the only Asian nation that had workers who could read and write as well as understand technological processes. Their technology became advanced at a rapid rate. Japan has continued to develop their technological capabilities to date. Such as in their transportation system. The Shinkansen, or Bullet Train, are express trains that travel over 300km/hr. The average annual delay is 0.9 minutes a train. Although it is fast, it is also one of the safest trains in existence. Globalisation has led to the rest of the world demanding products from Japan. Some Japanese people still hold the values of Confucianism, reflected in loyalties and practises. Therefore, Japanese society, although Westernised, maintains many original traditions. Japanese culture continues to develop holding its key values while advancing through modernisation. Therefore, still evolving.

Traditional Japanese society and culture- Religion

Tradition refers to cultural practises and beliefs are passed down from generation to generation, often by word of mouth and behavioural modelling, that are integral to the socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society and culture. Only 1% of Japans population is constructed of non-indigenous people, as Japan is extremely homogenous. The group is more important than the individual in Japanese society. These traditions can be traced back to Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, as well as Confucianism. The Emperors claim to descent from gods and goddesses mentioned in creation myths, (the sun goddess, Amaterasu is believed to be the ancestor of the Imperial family). This religious aura around the Emperors have created the longest running monarchy in history and the current Emperor, Akihito, is the 125th in the line. In tradition, Japanese years are counted according to the years of the current Emperors reign, 2016 was Heisei 28 after Akihito's reigns name. This is evident on Japanese coins. Shinto grew out of an animism that attributed powers deserving of respect to certain natural objects and phenomena, ancestral spirits or living mortals "kami". Love of nature continues in Japanese gardens which create a sense of harmony in their design. Religion also continues but rituals and customs are practised on special occasions and religious holidays.

Traditional Japanese society and culture- Events, Confucianism, National Pride

Traditional events are still held in Japan, such as hanami (cherry blossom viewing) which is held when cherry blossoms are at their peak. It consists of lively drinking parties under the trees day or night. Sumo is also a traditional event that ties strongly to Shinto, matches are held at shrines and formalities such as salt tossing were once far more time consuming in following the tradition. Confucianism played an extensive role in the development of Japanese society, it is an ideology that requires obedience to authority. Everyone was subservient to the Emperor and individuals were also subservient to the family patriarch, this is still evident across Japan. It is an essentially authority-orientated, hierarchical society. National pride is also a tradition in Japan. It is not uncommon for Japanese to refer to their country as superior. Foreigners are even termed "gaijin" no matter their nationality. The national flag, Hinomaru no hata has remained since 1870, a sign of the continuous national pride.

Macro Level

Urbanisation is a factor of change. The new city environment provides freedoms for men and women. Women are free from traditional gender roles as society demands a flexible workforce. In 1945, when the Emperor denounced his status as a God, democratic government accelerated Japans modernisation. Some companies still follow traditions of power and authority, such as by choosing holiday destinations for the workforce. Students will explore continuity and change in Japan through a detailed study of gender roles and the status of both

Post-World War Two- Continuity and change in gender roles and the status of men and women

With millions of men removed from industry, women found themselves working in coal, steel mills, and munitions factories during World War Two. Wives were in complete control of the home. The Occupation after the war dismantled all inequalities. High schools became co-educational, 26 universities for women were opened, and 2000 female police officers were in Japan. Discrimination based on gender was forbidden by the Japanese constitution (1946). The Civil code of 1947 gave women important legal rights to own property, inherit family estates, marry and divorce freely, gain parental rights, and vote. The Labour Standards Law was also introduced in 1947 and regulated equal pay, work hours, maternity leave, and holiday leave. As the Japanese family evolved, men's status declined, and in the 1950's and 60's the 'salaryman' family developed. It consisted of a wage-earning husband working outside the home, away from the family. The mother would then become the housewife upon marriage without the mother-in-law's guidance. The number in the family was reduced to nuclear. The father was still the head of the family, but his absence made him a shadow figure to his children. Children could not see their father at work and he was rarely home due to the company demands. Eventually, the father became more of a disruption to the family schedules. This meant the mother had more responsibility in the function of the family. The father still became the centre of attention on weekends, and sometimes got in everyone's way. One father noted that in long years of absence, he didn't know his daughter very well. One mother said that she has been responsible for the child since its birth and her husband should not mess with her role. The husband and wife's social networks didn't overlap and so they lived essentially different lives until retirement. This gave the wife increased freedoms and responsibility. She could assume household dominance because of the husband's absence. This increased the outlet for the educated Japanese woman. The cycle was that women would be educated and have a career until she was married and has a child, she would then focus on household life. In this 'new family' one could observe young husbands assisting wives to the supermarket, carrying the baby and enjoying outings with the family. As the children reached school, this would be impossible however. Greater expectancies were placed on the father to engage with the family. The belief began to form that a woman who could support herself did not need to marry, which contrasted the traditional patriarchal values of Japanese society. Traditional patterns in the family require women to put their husbands before their jobs. This has resulted in tension between the status and economic security of marriage and the freedom of remaining single, as many women find marriage restricting of their freedoms. Since the 1960's feminist movement, men have experienced a changed role in society. Dual income households are increasing from necessity. Thus, men are performing household duties, many men don't want to be the sole head of the household and spend their days only working. An increasing number of married women are entering the workforce, due to recent economic recessions, mothers must work to maintain the families' income. Many women will stay in work and return to work after childbirth. Changing gender roles are also reflected in divorces. Although the majority comes from people in their thirties, recent times have seen an increase of older generations divorcing. This usually occurs around the husband's retirement. Various factors contribute to this such as: the couple's children are settled and the divorce will not affect the children's lives, the wife also feels obligated to retire after raising the children, and the wife has developed a lifestyle outside of dependence to her husband. The traditions of the Japanese family are in transition but their remains a strong connection to gender-based division. The major burden is still on the wife in the household and the husbands work cannot be interfered by family life. Women have felt an increasing sense of emptiness when their children move out. They enter the workforce for a sense of satisfaction, and can now work late and take on jobs once reserved for men. Women are also treated better in the workforce. They are now looking towards jobs as their main avenue of expression. "The wife of former Prime Minister Miki publicly said that her husband' hardly knows how to wash his face properly'. Fifty years ago, this statement would have gone unspoken. The fact that women speak about their husbands in this manner shows that they no longer consider themselves subservient. Women's feelings of equality, if not superiority, are starting to come into the public view" (Friedman, 1992) The patterns of gender inequality are still deeply embedded in Japanese society. However, women are making progress, yet many are content in traditional roles. "Part of the equality is the option to continue traditional ways if she chooses" (Kincaid, 2014) Some men also suffer from their gender roles, feeling pressured to conform to the traditional gender roles. They may feel they must have sole authority even though they wish to share it. He may want to spend more time with family, but cannot. There is also a strong belief that men should not be encouraged to be nurturing.