Cook & Polgar Chapter 2 - summary (rough)

Activity output

The action that is replaced or augmented by an assistive device, including communication, cognition, manipulation and mobility

Function allocation

The allocation of functions in any human/device system in which some functions are allocated to the human, some to the device, and some to the personal assistant services

Universal design

The design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design

In the 21st century, the world is moving from a machine-based or manufacturing economy to a knowledge-based economy

The focus of the development of the knowledge economy is to overcome traditional societal barriers, including spatial distribution of citizens, language or knowledge barriers, handicaps resulting from disabilities or environmental conditions, social status, and economic power

Control interface

The hardware (e.g., keyboard, joystick) by which the user operates an assistive technology system or controls a device

Environmental sensor

The portion of a sensory device that detects the data that the human cannot obtain through his or her own sensory system

User display

The portion of a sensory device that portrays the sensory information for the human user

Human/technology interface (HTI)

The portion of the assistive technology system with which the user interacts

Principles of Universal Design

The principles of universal design in Box 2-1 are supported by the ideas of affordances, constraints, and the classification of errors developed by Donald Norman.

In any human/device system, we can allocate some functions to the human, some to the device, and some to a personal assistant. Bailey (1996) defines several approaches to function allocation that are used in general human factors design.

The simplest approach is comparison allocation. Here each task to be carried out is assigned completely to the human or the device For example, a telephone is designed with the assumption that the user can hold the phone, press the buttons to dial, hear the other person, and speak into the telephone. These are all functions assigned to the user. However, if the user cannot perform any of these tasks, the AT must provide an alternative set of tasks. We often use comparison allocation when matching characteristics of technology to a consumer's skills.

Future requirements depend on personality as well as disability of users, and they must be accommodated as the demographics change and more users are older than 65 years of age and eventually older than 80 years of age.

The varying responses of seniors to technology advances are illustrated in Figure 2-1.

Product development time and cost can also be affected by the inclusion of universal design principles.

UD may take longer and cost more and may not be as flexibl

A major distinguishing feature between ATs and universal design is the focus. ATs are developed and applied to maximize societal participation by individuals with disabilities in carrying out the functional tasks of daily living.

Universal design has a focus on the functionality of design for as wide a segment of the population as possible without concern for individual needs (Sanford, 2012). Much of universal design addresses the built environment.

In some countries like Europe

Universal design is known as "design for all"

Participants were also asked for suggestions for improving phone design. The size of the

buttons was a concern for 50% of the participants. Fewer (20%-30%) suggested that the size of the display and overall size of the phone be increased and that the complexity be decreased.

A second allocation approach is leftover allocation, in which as many functions as possible are assigned to the human, and the device

carries out the remainder. In AT system design, this approach is often followed to give the consumer as much natural control over his activities as possible but to provide assistance when needed

there are many types of ATs, primarily those based on computer technology, that have not been available to much of the world's population. Computer-based AT includes

computer access, environmental control, cognitive ATs, and augmentative communication

For electronically controlled ATs (e.g., powered wheelchairs, communication devices), this element (e.g., joystick, keyboard) is the

control interface

Once online, factors of Internet use come into play. Digital skills

decline with age and differ by gender.

access to mainstream mobile technologies is limited or individuals with intellectual disabilities because of

deficits in literacy or numerical comprehension and inherent features of the technology such as shrinking size and escalating complexity in features

Because some smart phone technology operating systems are more open to application developers (e.g., Android-based devices), it is possible to

develop personalized ATs based on individualized user profiles

Mobile technologies

devices that are intended to be used in the community, typically battery powered, and lightweight

Mainstream technologies

devices that are used by the general public rather than being designed specifically for people with disabilities. Examples include smart phones, tablets, and computers

Specific problems in computer use include

difficulties in reading text on the screen, selecting targets and perceiving icons and toolbars, hearing auditory prompts, clicking and dragging using a mouse, and finding relevant information in confusing and complex programs. All of these factors also depend on socioeconomic background because it influences computer experience.

Addressing this challenge by accessing mainstream as well as specialized technologies can

enable people who have disabilities to participate more fully in all aspects of society.

Pullin (2009) observed that "despite a proliferation of technology and consumption that is so worrying in other ways, many people remain

excluded and disabled by design that does not acknowledge their abilities"

These two concepts are addressed by different approaches. The first can be addressed by

flexible interfaces that use different sensory, cognitive, and physical modalities. This type of personalization can be found on websites such as Amazon related to content (e.g., "You might also like these similar items") Personalized interfaces may be developed for websites and for other downloadable applications for mainstream technologies ". . . provide alternative and personal user interfaces in an economically feasible fashion"

Information and communication technologies (ICTs), including computers (desktop and notebook), standard and smart cell phones, and tablets, are the

gateway to the knowledge-based economy.

The introduction of the telephone was originally intended to help individuals who were

hard of hearing, but its impact was felt mainly in the mainstream population, actually marginalizing those who had difficulty hearing

The two top levels of ICT use, penetration and skills based on the IDI,

have 26% of the world's population, and the lower two levels have 74%. There is still a long way to go before the "digital divide" is narrowed substantially.

To lead full and productive lives, persons with disabilities need to

have the same access to mainstream technologies as the rest of the population

On the other hand, soft technologies are the

human areas of decision making, strategies, training, concept formation, and service delivery

With the proliferation of mainstream applications, there is increased interest in meeting the needs of people with

intellectual or cognitive disabilities using these devices.

A third approach is economic allocation, in which the basic consideration is whether

it is cheaper to select, train, and pay a personal assistant to do the activity or to design an AT system for this purpose.

Norman used the term constraints to identify the limits on the possible number of uses for an object. Classes of constraints used by Norman include

physical (rely on the properties of the physical world), semantic (based on meaning), cultural (rely on accepted conventions), and logical (describes the relationship between the spatial and functional layout of components and the functions that they control or affect.)

The demographics of the world population are changing with a significant shift to an older population. Because many individuals in this age range require some sort of assistance, this growth is

presenting particular challenges for AT providers. Over the past 5 to 10 years, the needs of individuals with cognitive disabilities have begun to be addressed. This segment of the AT market is also increasing, and there is potential for mainstream technologies to be used in meeting these needs. T

Odor (1984) has distinguished between hard technologies and soft technologies. Hard technologies are

readily available components that can be purchased and assembled into AT systems. This includes everything from simple mouth sticks to computers and software.

Older adults also have an increase in holistic judgment, a lifetime of experience, and a release of creative abilities and energies because of

reduced work and family responsibilities

Commercial products may be designed according to the principles of universal design:

"The design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design"

Norman used the concept of " affordances" to describe this mismatch between observed properties and functional operation. Affordances are

"perceived and actual properties of the thing" (Norman, 2002, p. 9). If a designer follows Norman's principles, then the operation of the device will be conveyed to the user by the design itself.

According to Pullin (2009), universal design mixes two concepts:

(1) different people have different skills and abilities, and some designs may exclude some individuals, and (2) different people have different needs and desires that may or may not be related to their abilities (i.e., they may just want different things from a product or service).

Soft technologies are generally captured in one of three forms:

(1) people, (2) written, and (3) computer services as defined in PL 100-407 are basically soft technologies. These aspects of technology, without which the hard technology cannot be successful, are much harder to obtain because they are highly dependent on human knowledge rather than tangible objects

A 2004 study of use of cell phones by elders with disabilities revealed that

60% valued their cell phones, one third used their phones daily, and a large percentage (87%) used their phones for emergencies

Assistive technologies (ATs)

A broad range of devices, services, strategies, and practices that are conceived and applied to ameliorate the problems faced by individuals who have disabilities

Information and communication technologies (ICTs)

A communication device or application, including radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and the services and applications associated with them

Remaining connected to family and community through communication networks can help reduce feelings of isolation. Access to shopping and services from home via Internet connectivity is an advantage for those with restricted mobility. The possibility of working from home can contribute to greater financial security.

All of these advantages depend on ICTs that are available, accessible, and affordable for a senior population.

Another mechanical interface is hand controls for driving

Another function of the AT HTI is provision of structural support for the user (see Chapter 9). Two important factors are the amount of support required (depends on the individual) and the materials used—for longevity of the HTI and for the comfort and support to the individual.

This bidirectional exchange of functionality is longstanding

Cassette tapes and long-playing records were developed to support talking books for the blind. The typewriter was developed for a blind Italian countess, the ballpoint pen for people who could not use a pen with a point because of poor manual skills, and a carpenter's miter blocks for those who could not use two hands for sawing were all developed first for people with disabilities

Processor

Component of an assistive technology device that translates information and forces received from the human into signals that are used to control the activity output

The concept of design of everyday things was originated by Donald Norman in the 1990s (Norman, 2002)

Concerned with the difficulty he and others experienced in using common objects that were poorly designed, he set out to improve the design of the things that we all encounter daily.

Smart wheelchairs

Either a standard power wheelchair to which a computer and a collection of sensors have been added or a mobile robot base to which a seat has been attached

Similar to smart phones and tablets, ICTs have the capability of running AT applications previously requiring laptop or desktop computers

Many apps can be of benefit to people with disabilities even though they were developed for the general population.

A less complex cell phone designed with accessibility and UD features specifically for people with intellectual disabilities -

Participants required significantly less assistance and made significantly fewer errors using the specially designed multimedia phone compared with the mainstream cell phone

There is a need for apps to be compatible across platforms

Specific benefits of Cloud based info Include user preferences stored in the cloud and downloaded to any device being used, the availability of audio presentation of data across applications, and providing access to definitions of unfamiliar words

At the other extreme are ATs that replace significant amounts of ability to generate functional outcomes. For example, some individuals have no verbal communication ability and may require

a device to be able to communicate. Likewise, some individuals are totally dependent on a manual or powered wheelchair for their personal mobility.

Cmpanies faced with limited profits and very competitive markets have adopted the concept that "people with limitations should be

a duty of the welfare system in the different countries and should not be an obstacle to the main aim of industry, i.e., to the generation of profit"

Universal design can be less expensive than modifying a product after production to meet the needs of a person with a disability. However, the increased emphasis on economic sustainability and profit worldwide has caused

a level of skepticism in industry regarding the cost-benefit ratio of universal design

Mainstream smart phones

a smart phone designed for use by the general public

The ITU, the United Nations' specialized agency for information and communication technologies, provides an annual overview of the world's use of ICTs (ITU, 2012). The ITU has developed the ICT Development Index (IDI) that compiles 11 indicators of development in communication and technology within a country, divided into

access (40%), use (40%; percentage of use of the Internet, broadband, and fixed or wired ICT), and skills (20%; based on literacy and enrollment in secondary and postsecondary education). The IDI allows a more detailed look at ICT development than measures based strictly on the number of cell phones or computers.

Over the past 20 years, mainstream off-the-shelf technologies have become increasingly more

accessible to people with disabilities.

individual with complex needs often have impairments in multiple systems—sensory, motor, and cognitive. These multiple impairments compound limitations of

activity and participation and make identification and use of AT more complex. The increased complexity of AT may be structural, resulting in additional requirements for positioning, or functionally requiring accommodation for other components such as a ventilator. Increased AT complexity might also be seen in the electronic and control components if multiple AT devices are required such as a combination of power mobility, augmentative communication, and environmental control.

To improve design, Norman proposed that a mapping of the relationships between

affordances and constraints be used to yield possible operations of any object

Large companies with more resources will be expected to do more than small companies with limited budgets because large mainstream companies "being forced (e.g., by legislation) to take into account all users is considered by them

an undue interference in their goal (serving the mainstream customer and maximizing profits)"

The end result is that there are many more technology options available to meet the needs of individuals who have disabilities. Some of these

are mainstream products, and some are specially designed for people with disabilities.

cultural and societal "progress" over centuries—technology drives change and creates

both positive and negative outcomes in the process

In the universal design approach, features that make a product more useful to persons who have disabilities are built into the product. Features such as

larger knobs; a variety of display options such as visual, tactile, or auditory; alternatives to reading text such as icons or pictures

Affordability is an issue because people with disabilities have lower incomes, and they may also lack training and support. People with disabilities and elderly individuals have attitudes toward the Internet that can

limit its usefulness to them. In general, they have a lack of interest, low motivation, and anxiety about technology use.

Achieving widespread global availability of AT applications at an affordable local price will have to be based on

mainstream devices

The second need cited by Pullin (2009) (i.e., different people have different needs and desires that may or may not be related to their abilities) is addressed through multimodal platforms that have many features and flexible configurations. Inexpensive AT devices will have to be based on

mainstream devices such as smart phones equipped with a variety of sensors; a GPS antenna built in; and features such as voice recognition, word prediction, and speech output that make them ideal platforms (Emiliani et al., 2011). Customization of the platform to meet AT goals will be provided through software apps.

Because it is less expensive, there is a need to use

mainstream technology to meet the needs of people with disabilities through apps that function like AT devices.

The contribution to the mainstream of design concepts, materials, and approaches that were originally intended for people with disabilities includes material and

manufacturing techniques as well.

At one extreme of the continuum of needs are devices that provide some limited assistance or augment the individual's ability to perform a task. For example, an individual with cerebral palsy

may be able to speak, but occasionally his speech may be difficult to understand. In these instances, he may clarify his speech using a letter board to spell out words not understood

Mechanisms

mechanical components comprising the processor in the AT portion of the HAAT model

In this book, we will deal with the continuum of technologies from mainstream to highly specialized with a focus on

meeting the needs of individuals who have disabilities.

Vicente and López found that online patterns of use compared with users without disabilities showed

no difference.

The ability to make tools is what distinguishes us as human, but

our tools ultimately control us by making us dependent on them

Despite the changing attitudes of tomorrow's seniors, there are major needs that this group will have that might be addressed by technology, particularly ICTs (Information and communication technologies )

particularly ICTs (Information and communication technologies )

An estimated 80 per cent of all people with disabilities in the world live in

rural areas of developing countries and have limited or no access to services they need"

When c ing an assistive device for a specific individual, consideration must be made as to whether the user can

see information displayed on an HTI, hear auditory output, exert sufficient force and control when manipulation is required, is properly positioned to be able to access the HTI, and has sufficient cognitive abilities to control and interpret information from the HTI

Norman also described the concept of perceptual models that allow us to predict the effect of our actions on an object. Associated with the perception of the object is the

sensory feedback that the object provides to the user. This feedback can be tactile (e.g., the click of a switch or the force encountered in turning a knob), visual (e.g., movement when activated, lights or other indicators), or auditory (e.g., a click when a knob

The final approach is flexible allocation. In this approach, the user can vary his or her degree of participation in the activity based on

skills and needs. Whenever possible, we use this approach in AT systems, and we couple the use of the AT system with personal assistant services (PAS). The human and technology components are not fixed in scope; rather, they change based on the specific activities and tasks to be carried out.

Features of modern cell phones could

support reminders of activities on specific days or specific times or provide navigation assistance via GPS location and a second key feature, spoken presentation of information.

The PL 100-407 definition of an AT device applies primarily to hard technologies as we have defined them. The main distinguishing feature of hard technologies is that they are

tangible.

people with disabilities often depend on

technologies to access work, perform tasks of daily living, and participate fully in the community.

There is also a trend from a regional or national scope to a global scope. This may mean that

the "digital divide" between developed and emerging countries is narrowed.

This age-driven increase in the size of the "disabled community" has been characterized as

the "new old." These individuals will have greater technological competence and experience, higher expectations for technology performance, more active [lifestyles], and a longer life span than previous "older populations".

HAAT model with assistive technology components: identified.

the basic structure of an AT system in terms of the four components of the HAAT model: someone (human) doing something (activity) in a specific context using technology as an enabler. Regardless of whether the technology is based on a mainstream device or is specially designed for people with disabilities and whether it is a tangible device (phone, computer, wheelchair) or a software program, we can conceptualize the AT functionality in a systematic way.

The boundary between the human user and the AT is called

the human/technology interface (HTI).

Norman also considered the role of design in system errors. He defined two types of errors, slips and mistakes. Slips result when

the user has the correct goal but the wrong execution. Mistakes result from the wrong goal. He discusses these types of errors in terms of the device affordances, operator patterns of action, and user device features.

The functional limitations of this group are not the same as those of younger individuals who have disabilities. Disabilities associated with aging include

visual (acuity, color sensitivity, and ocular motor control), visual search and identification of targets, manual dexterity, hearing (high frequencies blocking out noise), cognitive functioning, and requirements for mobility and stability (use of a walker, avoiding long periods of standing)