Cook's Exploration of the Pacific

Who was Captain James Cook and what did he do?

• 1728-1779 • Helps us to understand link between 18th century Enlightenment, imperialism & creation of global world. • Also led to deprivation of native peoples rather than `emancipation'. • Cook's voyages: show production of knowledge in late 18th century embedded in global contexts. • Voyages of Exploration→culminated in Cook's voyages.

Nicolas Baudin

• 1754-1803 • French explorer • 1793: France & Britain at war. • 1800: Napoleon approves Pacific expedition by Nicolas Baudin. • Reached Australia, May 1801.

What prompted British exploration of the Pacific?

After the seven years war, Britain had dominated North America and India, and wanted to expand to the Southern Hemisphere. Wanted to beat the French, were also mapping Australia and New Zealand.

In which ways did Cook improve on-board conditions for his crew?

He also insisted that the crew members practice cleanliness, and overall his strategies led to a remarkably low loss of life. The 41 that did die were from dysentery, alcoholic excess, drowning and tuberculosis. In his later voyages, his losses were even less, with only two deaths on the second voyage of the Resolution, and on the third 11.

Cook's First Voyage

• 1768-1771 • Cook also given sealed, secret Admiralty orders to search for `Great South Land' which geographers insisted must exist to balance the Northern Hemisphere. Expected to discover new lands & take possession of any that promised benefit. • Endeavour arrived in Tahiti on 13 April 1769. • Successfully observed transit of Venus. Lasted • about six hours. • October 1769: Reached New Zealand. • Circumnavigated and charted much of NZ: Two islands, not part of southern continent. • Then departed on 31 March 1770: went west to New Holland. • Sighted New Holland on 19 April 1770. • 29 April: sighted & entered large bay. Initially called Stingray Bay then Botanist's Bay then Botany Bay

Cook's Second Voyage

• 1772: two French expeditions landed on shores of New Holland. • Banks had hopes of accompanying second voyage. • 1772: One year after return of Endeavour, second voyage left Plymouth to complete task of exploring Pacific Ocean. • Remaining question of existence of large, southern land mass. • (Captain) Cook felt two vessels needed (after experience with Endeavour): HMS Resolution& HMS Adventure. • Banks sought to gather scientific party plus servants & horn-players (total: 16) and have them accommodated on Resolution. • Changes to ship would have affected sailing ability of ship and Cook refused to command such a ship. Banks withdrew. • Resolution: commanded by Cook. Crew: 112. • Adventure: crew of 80. • Admiralty appointed own scientific team. • Left Plymouth: 13 July 1772. • Expedition to South Pacific via Cape of Good Hope. • SpentApril1773inNewZealand.ExploredPacific and Antarctic Circle. • ReturnedtoEnglandon30July1775. • Proved no Great Southern Land (as originally envisaged as large southern continent). • Discovered several Pacific islands & mapped Easter Island. • 1773: Banks became unofficial director of Royal Gardens at Kew. • 1778: Banks elected President of Royal Society. Held post for 41 years. • Cosmopolitan ideal challenged by American Revolution (1765-1783). • Benjamin Franklin (1706- 1790)(American revolutionary leader) valued Banks' friendship. • Botanical specimens & illustrations from Cook's three voyages: British Museum. • By 1820s, became area of mass interest. • E.g. museums, botanic gardens & zoos. Also promoted natural history in Australia.

Matthew Flinders

• 1774-1814 • 1801-3: In response, Matthew Flinders circumnavigates Australia, largely sponsored by Banks.

What is Natural History?

• Age of Enlightenment = age of Newton. • But also age of natural history. • In vogue in 18th century England. • 1750: `natural history' = study of animal & vegetable kingdoms plus minerals. • Most popular branch: botany. Why? Long history of gardening & search for materia medica(medicinal plants). • Late 18th century Europe: growth in popularity • Shifted from domain of isolated, eccentric collectors to realm of wealthy upper class. • E.g. wealthy naturalists such as Joseph Banks. • Upper classes amassed large collections and libraries. Became genteel through connection with gardening. • Fitted into idea of natural theology. Clergymen used wonders of nature to demonstrate presence of God. • Natural history also encouraged by imperial expansion. • Cultivation of natural history central to Enlightenment.

Cook's Third Voyage

• Appointed Fellow of Royal Society. • Led third expedition to search for Pacific gateway to Northwest Passage (maritime route across top of North America). • Charted Northwest coast of North America. • Returned to Hawaii. • Skirmish on 14 Feb. 1779 at • Kealakekua Bay. • Cook fatally stabbed & body roasted in pit. Some remains recovered.

What other benefits were there from Cook's first voyage?

• Britain gained prestige & shared in kudos of international effort to view transit of Venus. • Achievements of science = indication of rationality & civilisation = Enlightenment. • Science served as means of projecting & consolidating imperial power. • Strengthened British claims to be dominant power in South Pacific.

How was the pacific as a laboratory?

• Can see the Pacific as Europe's principal geographical scientific testing ground in the Enlightenment. • Laboratory for testing of long-held ideas about the earth. • Idea of great unknown southern continent. • Up until mid-18th century: relatively little commercial & imperial expansion in Pacific Ocean.

When were the early voyages to Australia and what do we know about them?

• Early voyages by Dutch (e.g. Abel Tasman in 1642-43; 1644), Spanish & Portuguese explorers to Australia. • Tasman sailed around parts of Australia & New Zealand, plus Tonga, Fiji & New Guinea. Concluded that little profit to be made by further exploration or colonization. • Left little record of flora & fauna.

Republic of letters

• Embodied, in secular form, older concept of united Christendom. • Transcended national & regional boundaries. • Strengthened by ties of aristocratic kinship & common culture. • Offered relief to intellectual elite who tired of conflict. • Enlightenment maintained cosmopolitan character of Republic of Letters, but added social & political engagement.

What was natural theology?

• English Enlightenment different from French Enlightenment. • 18th & 19th centuries: In Britain, science seen as allied to cause of religion. • Tradition of natural theology in Britain that reassured the church and political regime. • Newton helped promote it. • Scientific reason, correctly applied to the world, would lead to knowledge of God. • New science of empirical science (exploring & seeing for one's self) meant not trusting scriptural or ancient authority.

What was the enlightenment and exploration?

• Exploration →acquisition of new knowledge about nature & humanity. • Embodied the Enlightenment. • Exploration of Pacific was relatively peaceful. • In contrast to Spanish subjugation of the Americas. • More `noble' goal of `civilising' the world. • Inspired by `love' of science and mankind. • Helped to bind enlightened population of Europe.

Cook's legacy

• Helped create highly accurate maps. • Facilitated new, more scientific approach to exploration & discovery. • Opened up new lands for European settlement. • 1788: First Fleet sailed into Botany Bay to establish first British colony in Australia.

Royal society

• Helped legitimize Republic of Letters in England. • Primarily promoted science undertaken by gentlemen of means who acted independently. • Isaac Newton: President from 1703-1727. • From early 18th century: academies founded throughout the European continent. • Second half: greater emphasis on practical learning by seeing.

What role did science play in Cook's first voyage?

• In Age of Enlightenment, promotion of science seemed to assume role once held by religion. • Science could promote wealth of nation. • Harness knowledge of natural world to advance British imperial interests. • Botanical knowledge could help promote British national self-sufficiency.

What did Cook's voyages achieve?

• Incorporation of world into European systems of knowledge. • Context of trade relations, colonies and mapping of globe. • Global gathering of facts & information. • Co-production of modern knowledge. • Age of Enlightenment: knowledge production not confined to academy & formal lab but also in contact zones overseas. • `Western' science produced outside of West. • Opening up of Pacific • Accompanied by naturalists who identified, described & drew new species of plants & animals. • 1770 voyage: resulted in large records of natural history thanks esp. to Joseph Banks on board Endeavour.

Who was Joseph Banks?

• Joseph Banks (25 years old), new member of Royal Society, requested Society to allow him and a scientific party of 8 on voyage. • Personally bore entire cost himself. Great difference in social status between Banks and humbly born Cook.

Who was William Dampier?

• Lived 1651-1715 • 1688, 1699: Voyages to Western Australia by English explorer William Dampier. • First English man to explore Australia. • Wrote A New Voyage round the World (1697): new observations on natural history. • Natural historian. • Australian plant life (right) from Dampier's A Voyage to New Holland (1703)

Who was Daniel Carl Solander?

• Lived 1733-1782 • Cook named Cape Banks & Cape Solander after the two botanists who collected specimens. • Swedish Botanist Daniel Carl Solander in Bank's party. • Pupil of Linnaeus.

Who was Joseph Banks?

• Lived 1743-1820 • Role of loyal courtier of George III, patron of Royal Society. • Banks = gentleman who owed power & influence due to inherited wealth & position. • Became expert & authority on matters relating to Australia & Pacific. • President of Royal Society, part of international network of academies. • Combined national role with service to a cosmopolitan, scientific Republic of Letters.

Who was Sydney Parkinson?

• Lived 1745-1771 • One of two artists who produced more than 400 sketches of plants while in Australian waters. Died Jakarta, 1771.

What were the 18th century voyages of exploration?

• Made clear that ancient knowledge in natural history was lacking/deficient. • Limitations of classical learning. • Need to turn to nature itself. • Early 18th century: many voyages privately financed & organised. • Latter half of 18th century: organised by government. For example, British Admiralty.

Cook's First voyage

• Most dangerous part of voyage to follow. • 10 June: Endeavour ran aground on reef, part of Great Barrier Reef. • Took seven weeks to repair. Stayed on Endeavour River, near Cooktown, North Queensland. • Aborigines not interested in trading. • Cook decided to go to Dutch base of Batavia (Jakarta) for further repairs. Arrived 11 October. Left 26 Dec. 1770. • Seven died in Batavia & 24 on way home . • Arrived Plymouth on 12 July 1771.

How did the Transits of Venus affect the voyages?

• Occurred in 1761 & 1769. Transits occurred in pairs. • 1761: Seven-Year War between France & England. Ended in 1763. Resulted in British dominance in North America & India. What about Southern Hemisphere? • British Admiralty guaranteed French astronomer safe passage. Belief that political differences should not stand in way of exploration. • 1761: 120 observers from nine nations. Poor results. • Scientifically oriented explorers like Cook granted immunity even in times of war. • 1769: Involved approx. 500 international European observers. • "Mr Banks shows the Indians the Planet Venus on the Sun" (right)

Natural History

• On return, Banks showcased many discoveries. Used Linnean system of classification of flora and fauna of South Pacific. • During voyage: many specimens described, drawn, painted & classified. • Collection of more than 1000 previously unknown plant species.

Self-fashioning as scholars

• Represented themselves as citizens of Republic of Letters. • Cosmopolitan ideal. • Scholars would create an egalitarian world where views could be expressed without national, religious or historical barriers. • Belief that science could advance humankind. • 18th century scientists: ignored war to exchange ideas.

How was there international cooperation?

• Royal Society hoped to establish international network of meteorological observers. • Contributed to `Republic of Letters' (see Week 8 lecture on Enlightenment). • Like long-distance intellectual community in late 17th to 18th centuries in Europe and America. Promoted communication among intellectuals (`philosophes') of Age of Enlightenment. • Both Britain and France eager to participate in 1769. • Would allow astronomers to calculate distance of sun from earth with more accuracy. Next transit: 1874. • Natural philosophy became a passport to participation in international science. • Even national expeditions relied on scientific colleagues from other countries. • Enlightenment exploration became like `big science': government sponsored, well equipped & international cooperation.

When was Cook's First Voyage and how did it come about it?

• Royal Society lobbied King George III for resources and funding. • Requested Admiralty to provide vessel for voyage to South Pacific. • Admiralty agreed to send expedition to Tahiti. • Competition with France: also planned transit expeditions. • Pacific still largely unknown. • 1768: HMS Endeavour under command of Lieutenant James Cook. • • Endeavour: 33 m long collier (ship used to carry coal) • Cook had reputation as surveyor with background in `nautical astronomy' and coastal mapping. • Had published observations of solar eclipse of 1766. • Left Plymouth to observe transit of Venus across face of sun.

Representations of cook

• Symbol of humanistic, scientific empire. • Nicholas Thomas sees both Banks and Cook as Enlightenment men: replaced confusion with precision & provided information on geography and natural history. • Cook = Enlightenment voyager who pursued scientific rationalism & sought to impose civilising European values. • To indigenous people: symbol of violence in encounters with native peoples. • In New Zealand, suppression of mistreatment of native islanders by Cook. • Controversy over killing of Cook in Hawaii. Some (e.g. Marshall Sahlins) suggest that Cook seen as the god Lono when he first arrived during the Hawaiian feast of Makahiki. • When forced to return for repairs, he unwittingly transgressed rules governing Lono and Makahiki. • Gannath Obeyesekere points to myth of white explorer cum civiliser who is a god to savages.

What role did astronomy play in the voyages?

• Type of astronomy used on voyages of exploration during 18th century known as `nautical astronomy'. • Focus on accurate determination of latitude & longitude. • Chief purpose of Cook's first voyage: looking. • Marked a new form of naval career based on scientific exploration rather than military role.