Critical Thinking Terms

Modus Tollens

(Valid) If p then q ~Q/~P

Denying the Antecedent

(invalid) If p then q ~P/~Q

Affirming the consequent

(invalid) if p then q Q/P

Modus Ponens

(valid) if p then q P/Q

Disjunctive Syllogism

(valid) p or q ~p/q or p or q p/~q

three keys aspects to determine a biased sample

1. random selection 2.sample size 3.psychological factors

Antecedent/Consequet RUles

1. the statement following if is the antecedent 2.the statement following then is the consequent 3. the statement following only if is the consequent

A Happens Formula

100% - A doesn't Happen

A Doesn't Happen

100% - A happens

At Least One Does Formula

100% - Both don't (A doesn't X B doesn't)

At Least One Doesn't Formula

100% - Both happen (A happens X B happens)

Exactly One Happens Formula

100% - Both happen + Both don't

"Tolstory is a great novelist if one enjoys writers who examine life with the utmost seriousness" In the expression above, enjoying writers who examine life with the utmost seriousness is _________ for Tolstoy being a great novelist.

A Sufficient Condition

Unsound Deductive Argument

A deductive argument that is invalid, has one or more false premises or both

Syllogism

A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion

Both Don't Happen Formula

A doesn't X B doesn't

Both Happens Formula

A happens X B happens

Cogent Inductive Argument

A strong argument in which all of the premises and conclusion are true

Being an officially enrolled student at SHSU is _____________ for being an officially enrolled student at a university in the state of Texas.

A sufficient Condition

Hypothetical Syllogism

A syllogism having a conditional statemet (if, then statements) for one or both of its premises

Disjunctive Syllogism

A syllogism having a disjunctuve statement (an "or" statement) for one or both of its premises

The Subjectivist Theory of Probability

A theory according to which probabilities are computed from the odds that one would accept on a bet. Good with events that can change from moment to moment

Sound Deductive Argument

A valid argument in which all the premises are and the conclusion are true

Argument from Definition

Adeductive argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend merel on the definition of some word or phrase used in te premise or conclusion

Weak Inductive Argument

An argument in which the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises, eve though it is claimed to

Argument from Authority

An inductive argument in which the conclusion rests on a statement made by some presumed authority or witness

Argument from Analogy

An inductive argument that depends on the existence of a similarity between two things or states of affairs

Uncogent Inductive Argument

An inductive argument that is weak, has one or more false premises, or both is, the argument may be both weak and have one or more false premise

Generalization

An inductive argument that proceeds from knowledge of a particular sample to some claim about a group

Argument based on Signs

An inductive argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a sign to claim about the thing or situation that the sign smbolizes

Prediction

An inductive argument that uses information from the past or present to make a claim about what will happen in the future

Causal Inference

An inductive inference that proceeds from knowledge of a case to a claim about an effect, or from a claim of knowlege about an effect to knowledge about a cause

Which of the following crimes was Socrates legally charged with?

Corrupting the youth, Impiety towards the Gods, Introducing new deities

If the northern pike is a ferocious predator, then it is a threat to lake trout. Therefore, the northern pike is a ferocious predator.

Deductive, Invalid

Either SHSU mascot is a bearkat or a longhorn. It is clearly not a bearkat, so we can safely conclude that it is a longhorn

Deductive, Valid

If David has graduate degrees in philosophy, then he is qualified to work as a world-class chef. David does have graduate degrees in philosophy, so we can conclude that he is qualified to work as a world-class chef.

Deductive, Valid

If the cat is happy, then the cat guardian is happy. The cat guardian is not happy. Therefore, the cat is not happy.

Deductive, Valid

Jonny is an atheist, so we can conclude that Jonny does not believe in the existence of God or gods.

Deductive, Valid

Recall our discussion of Carol Dweck's research. Based on that discussion, which statement best describes the attitude of someone with a malleable mindset who experiences failure at a particular task:

Failure indicates an opportunity to improve and does not necessarily lowers one's self-worth

According to our discussion of Dweck's research, if a person has a malleable mindset and that person is having to work really hard at an academic task, that person will probably regard the need to work really hard at the academic task as evidence that he or she is not very intelligent in general

False

In our class discussion of the Apology, David Pointed out that there was absolutely no basis for the claim that Socrates was guilty of the crimes with which he was legally charged.

False

In our discussion about Dweck's research on intelligence, we clarified the point that Dweck's research on fixed and malleable (growth) approaches to intelligence is primarily about what intelligence is rather than what people think it is

False

Less than 1% of med born in the United States of America End up being over 5 feet tall. Jim is a man born in the United States of America, so Jim is PROBABLY not over 5 feet tall.

Inductive, Strong

The annual snowfall in Orlando, Florida has been over 40 inches for the past 50 years. Therefore, probably the snowfall in Orlando, Florida will be over 40 inches next year

Inductive, Strong

Today's edition of the New York Times ran a long article on the terrorist bombing in Israel. Therefore, probably the Los Angeles Times, which covers international news about as well as the New York Times, also has an article on that bombing.

Inductive, Strong

James just bought a brand new car. We can conclude, then, that James must have won the lottery.

Inductive, Weak

In our discussion of the Apology, we noted that the Oracle at Delphi had said that no one was wiser than Socrates. We also said that Socrates' response to hearing info was to.

Investigate the meaning of the oracle's statement by interviewing and questioning people in his culture that were supposed to be wise

Chronotypes

Larks and owls: two types of people ones that are productive during the day and sleep at night and vise versa

Being a woman is __________ for getting officially as a student at SHSU

Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition

Non-Statement Sentences

Question, proposal, suggestion, command, exclamation

Workspeeds

Sprintters: work in bursts of intense activity and delibertly wait for pressure of deadline, marathoners: takes there time procrastinator: wait until the last minute as well but hates the pressure

Premises

Statements that set forth the reasons or evidence for another statement

Fixed Mindset approach to Goals

The goal is to avoid failure and achieve victories that can confirm one's intlligence

The Classical Theory of Probability

The theory according to which probabilities are computed a priori by dividing the number of favorable outcomes by the number of possible outcomes. All possible outcomes are taken into account and are equally probable. computation formula: P(A) = f/n

Relative Frequency Theory of Probability

The theory according to which probabilities are computed by dividing the number of observed favorable events by the number of observed events. Unhelpful with unusual events. P(A)=f*o/n*o

System 2

This system allocates attention to the effortful mental activities that demand it, including complex computatons, the operations of System 2 are often associated with thr subjective experience of agency, choice, and concentration

System 1

This system operates automatically and quickly, with little to or no effort and no sense of coluntary control

If an Argument is invalid, then, even if both the premises and the conclusion are true, the argument cannot be sound,

True

Control Principle Corollary

Two people ought not to be morallt assessed differently if the only other differences between them are due to factors beyond their control

Response bias

When the tendency of someone's response or lack of resonse to the sampling

Selection Bias

a bias in data gathering that is the result of selecting individuals for a sample who are unrepresentative of the population being studied

Outcome Bias

a bias in which an agent is judged primarily by what actually happened in an event rather than what the agent knew or reasonably should have known going into the event

HAlo effect

a bias where a favorable or unfavorable impression concerning one trait leads an agent to have positive or negative attitudes toward some group or person wih respect to a different trait

Arguments BAsed on Mathematics

a deductive argument in which the conclusion depends on sone purely arithmetic or geometric calculation or measurement. *statistical arguments are usually inductive

random sample

a sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Argument

a sentence that is either true or false

"If you fail to see the genius in Bob Dylan's music, then it is probably best you leave" In the expression above, you failing to see the genius in Bob Dylan;s music is _____________ for it probably being best for you to leave.

a sufficient condition

Valid Deductive Argument

an argument in which it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true

Strong Inductive Argument

an argument in which it is improbable that the the conclusion is false given that the premises are true

Deductive Argument

an argument in which the argue claims that itis impossibe for the conclusion to be false given that the premise is true

Inductive Argument

an argument in which the arguer claims that it is improbable that the conclusion is false given that the premises are true

Invalid Deductive Arguments

an argument in wich it is possible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true

Ego depletion

examples include deviating from one's diet, overspending on purchases, reacting aggresively or provocation, performing poorly in cognitive tasks and logical decision making

Consequents

in a conditional statement are always to be understood as necessary conditions

Antecedents

in conditional statements are always to be understood as sufficient conditions

a posteriori method

information first collected about the world rather than conceptual analysis

Fixed Mindset Approach to failure

one's intelligence is regularly beig tested and in jeopardy, since failure signals that one might not actually be intelligent

Questioners

question all experiences and will meet an expectation only if they believe it is justified

Rebels

resists all expectations, outter and inner alike

Upholders

respond readily to both outer expectations and inner expectations

obligers

respond readilyto outer expectations but strggle to meet inner expectations

Premise Indicators

since, as indicated by, because, for, in that, may be inferred from, as, given that, seeing that, for the reason that, inasmuch as, owning to

Fixed Mindset

some thing intelligence is a fixed trait,, with each person having a certain finite amount of it

Apples and oranges type of deception

statistics that compares twogroups in a misleading way

a priori

the computations are made independently of any sensory observation of actual events

Statistical Median

the number lying at the midpoint of a set of numbers, such that there is an equal probability of a number in the set falling above or below it

Statistical Mode

the number that occurs the most often in a set

Conclusion

the statement that the evidence in an argument is supposed to support or imply

Statistical Mean

the sum if a set of numbers divided by the quantity of numbers in the set

Hindsight bias

the tendency, when looking at past events , to treat actual events as inevitable events and to overestimate how easy it was to predict that a particular event would happen

Statistics Lacking Proper Context

there might be useful information not presented with the statistic itself. missing meaningful information

Conclusion Indicators

therefore, wherefore, thus, consequently, we may infer, accordingly, we can conclude, it must be that, for this reason, for these reasons, so, entails that, hence, it follows that, implies that, as a result

Outer expectations

those expectations that are the products of the desires of other people or groups

Inner expectations

those expectations that are the products of what we want ourselves

Growth Mindset

view intelligence as a potential that can br developed oer time. Its about working hard, taking on challenges, striving to learn

Control Principle

we are morally assessable only to the extent that what we are assessed for depends on factors under our control

Moral luck

when an agent can be correctly trated as an object of moral judgemnt despite the fact that a significant aspect of what she is assessed for for depeds on factors beyond her control

Undercoverage Bias

when some members of a population are not adequately represented in a sample

Necessary Condition

x is a necessary condition for y when y cannoy occur without x. X is required for Y

Sufficient Condtions

x is a sufficient condition for y when an occurrence of x is all that is needed for y to occur (x is enough for y)