CST 126: Midterm exam

Variables that influence our perceptions

1. Physiology 2. Expectations 3. Age 4. Culture 5. Cognitive abilities 6. Self

Guidelines for improving perception and communication

1. Recognize that all perceptions are partial and subjective. 2. Avoid mind reading. 3. Check perceptions with others. 4. Distinguish between facts and inferences. 5. Guard against the self-serving bias. 6. Guard against the fundamental attribution error. 7. Monitor labels.

Principles of interpersonal communication

1. We cannot NOT communicate. 2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible. 3. Interpersonal communication involves ethical choices. 4. People construct meanings in interpersonal communication. 5. Metacommunication affects meanings. 6. Interpersonal communication develops and sustains relationships. 7. Interpersonal communication is not a panacea. 8. Interpersonal communication effectiveness can be learned.

Self

A constantly evolving, processual understanding of oneself that grows out of the processes of interacting with others and society and internalizing values and views of our identity that others reflect to us.

Script

A definition of expected or appropriate sequences of action in a particular setting. Scripts are one of the four cognitive schemata; not the same as an identity script.

Speech community

A group of people who share norms, regulative rules, and constitutive rules for communicating and interpreting the communication of others.

Identity script

A guide to action based on rules for living and identity. Initially communicated in families, identity scripts define our roles, how we are to play them, and basic elements in the plots of our lives. Not the same as a script, which is one of the four cognitive schemata.

Paraphrasing

A method of clarifying another's meaning by reflecting our interpretations of his or her communication back to him or her.

Fearful attachment style

A mode of relating instilled by a caregiver in the first relationship (usually parent-child) who communicates to the child in consistently negative, rejecting, or even abusive ways. People with this attachment style are inclined to feel apprehensive and insecure about relationships.

Dismissive attachment style

A mode of relating instilled typically early in life by a disinterested, rejecting, or abusive caregiver, in which the individual later tends to dismiss others as unworthy and thus does not seek close relationships. Those with this style do not accept the caregiver's view of them as unlovable.

Secure attachment style

A mode of relating that involves confidence in oneself and in relationships. Like other attachment styles, this mode is instilled by a caregiver who responds in a consistently attentive, loving way to a child; the most common and most positive of the four attachment styles. People with this attachment style tend to be comfortable forming close bonds with others.

Anxious/ambivalent attachment style

A mode of relating/attachment style characterized by preoccupation with relationships and inconsistent behavior toward the partner. Develops in childhood when a caregiver behaves inconsistently toward a child, sometimes loving and sometimes rejecting or neglectful.

Transactional model

A model of communication as a dynamic process that changes over time and in which participants assume multiple roles.

Interactive model

A model that represents communication as a feedback process, in which listeners and speakers both simultaneously send and receive messages.

Linear model

A model that represents communication as a one-way process that flows in one direction, from sender to receiver. Linear models do not capture the dynamism of communication or the active participation of all communicators.

Attachment style

A pattern of relating instilled by the way a caregiver teaches the child who he or she is, who others are, and how to approach relationships.

Interpersonal communication

A selective, systemic process that allows people to reflect and build personal knowledge of one another and create shared meanings.

Indexing

A technique of linking our evaluations of speech and events to specific times or circumstances, to remind ourselves that evaluations are not static or unchanging.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Acting in a way that embodies expectations or judgments about us.

Nonverbal communication

All forms of communication other than words themselves. Includes inflection and other vocal qualities, haptics, and several other behaviors.

Proxemics

An aspect of nonverbal communication that includes space and our uses of it.

Loaded language

An extreme form of evaluative language that relies on words that strongly slant perceptions and thus meanings.

Noise

Anything that distorts communication such that it is harder for people to understand each other. Can be physical, psychological, semantic, and so forth.

Organization

Arranging information in a meaningful way.

Culture

Beliefs, understandings, practices, and ways to interpret experience that are shared by a group of people.

Personal constructs

Bipolar mental yardsticks by which we measure people and situations along specific dimensions of judgment.

Kinesics

Body position and body motions, including those of the face.

Socialization

Children's play is usually sex segregated, and there are notable differences between the games the sexes tend to play. These differences teach boys and girls distinct rules for using communication and interpreting the communication of others. Girls tend to play games that involve fewer players, include talk to negotiate to how to play. Boys games involve more players and have clear goals and rules, so less talk is needed to play. Most boys games are more competitive.

Metacommunication

Communication about communication. When excessive, as in unproductive conflict interaction, metacommunication becomes self-absorbing and diverts partners from the issues causing conflict.

I-You communication

Communication midway between impersonal and interpersonal communication, in which the other is acknowledged as a human being but not fully engaged as a unique individual.

Social comparison

Comparing ourselves with others in order to form judgments of our own talents, abilities, qualities, and so forth.

Monopolizing

Continually focusing communication on ourselves instead of on the person who is talking.

Punctuation

Defines the beginning and ending of interaction or interaction episodes. Punctuation is subjective.

Interpretation

The subjective process of evaluating and explaining perceptions.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute our positive actions and successes to stable, global, internal influences under our control, and to attribute our negative actions and failures to unstable, specific, external influences beyond our control.

Constructivism

The theory that we organize and interpret experience by applying cognitive structures called schemata.

Attribution errors

Two common errors people make in their attributions. 1. Self-serving bias 2. Fundamental attribution error

Gender speech communities

We know more about it than other speech communities. 1. Socialization 2. Gendered communication in practice 3. Misunderstandings between gender speech communities

Selection

Which impressions we will attend to; what information we choose to use.

Gendered communication in practice

Women's talk is usually more expressive and focused on feelings and personal issues. Mens are more instrumental and competitive.

Selective listening

Focusing only on selected parts of communication. We listen selectively when we screen out parts of a message that don't interest us or with which we disagree and when we rivet attention on parts of communication that do interest us or with which we agree.

I-Thou communication

Fully interpersonal communication in which people acknowledge and deal with each other as unique individuals who meet fully in dialogue.

Difference between hearing and listening

Hearing is a physiological activity that occurs when sound waves hit our eardrums. Listening has psychological and cognitive dimensions that mere hearing, or physically receiving messages, does not. Listening is an active, complex process that consists of being mindful, physically receiving messages, selecting and organizing messages, interpreting messages, responding, and remembering.

I-It communication

Impersonal communication in which people are treated as objects or as instrumental to our purposes.

Prototypes

Knowledge structures that define the clearest or most representative examples of some category.

I language

Language in which one takes personal responsibility for feelings with words that own the feelings and do not project responsibility for the feelings onto others.

Hate speech

Language that dehumanizes others and that reflects and often motivates hostility toward the target of the speech.

You language

Language that projects responsibility for one's own feelings or actions onto other people. Not recommended for interpersonal communication.

Ambushing

Listening carefully to an exchange for the purpose of attacking the speaker.

Monitoring

Observing and regulating your own communication.

Listening to support others

One of the three goals of listening; focuses more on the relationship level of meaning than on the content level of meaning. Aims to understand and respond to others' feelings, thoughts, and perceptions in affirming ways.

Listening for information

One of the three goals of listening; focuses on gaining and evaluating ideas, facts, opinions, reasons, and so forth.

Listening for pleasure

One of the three goals of listening; motivated by the desire to enjoy rather than to gain information or to support others.

Implicit personality theory

Our often unconscious assumptions about what qualities fit together in human personalities.

Fundamental attribution error

Overestimating the internal causes of others' behavior and underestimating the external causes.

Defensive listening

Perceiving personal attacks, criticisms, or hostile undertones in communication when none are intended.

Artifacts

Personal objects that we use to announce our identity and personalize our environment.

Stereotypes

Predictive generalizations about people and situations.

Pseudolistening

Pretending to listen.

Remembering

The process of recalling what you have heard; the sixth element of listening.

Principles of nonverbal communication

1. Nonverbal communication may supplement or replace verbal communication. 2. Nonverbal communication may regulate interaction. 3. Nonverbal communication often establishes relationship-level meanings. 4. Nonverbal communication reflects and expresses cultural values.

Reflected appraisal

The process of seeing and thinking about ourselves in terms of the appraisals of us that others reflect.

Differences between verbal and nonverbal communication

1. Nonverbal communication tends to be perceived as more believable. 2. Nonverbal communication is multichanneled. 3. Nonverbal communication is continuous.

Guidelines discussed for effective listening

1. Be mindful. 2. Adapt listening appropriately. 3. Listen actively.

Guidelines for improving verbal communication

1. Engage in dual perspective 2. Communication in everyday life - social media: urban dictionary in the courtroom 3. Own your feelings and thoughts 4. Respect what others say about their feelings and thoughts 5. Communication in every life - diversity: respecting others' experiences 6. Strive for accuracy and clarity

Symbolic abilities

1. Language defines phenomena. 2. Language organizes perceptions. 3. Language allows hypothetical thought. 4. Language allows self-reflection.

Models of interpersonal communication

1. Linear model 2. Interactive model 3. Transaction model

Guidelines for improving self-concept

1. Make a firm commitment to personal growth. 2. Gain and use knowledge to support personal growth. 3. Self-disclose when appropriate. 4. Set goals that are realistic and fair. 5. Seek contexts that support personal change.

Similarities between verbal and nonverbal communication

1. Nonverbal communication is symbolic. 2. Nonverbal communication is rule-guided. 3. Nonverbal communication may be intentional or unintentional. 4. Nonverbal communication reflects culture.

Message overload

Receiving more messages than one can process

Misunderstandings between gender speech communications

Socialization in different gender communities accounts for some common misunderstandings between women and men. The man offers a solution to the problem when a girl is telling him about her problems. However, women typically want to talk about their feelings first before a solution. Women sometimes think that men are being insensitive when they first offer a solution before talking about their feelings. Men may see empathy and support from a woman happening before offering a solution as annoying.

Responding

Symbolizing your interest in what is being said with observable feedback to speakers during the process of interaction; the fifth of the six elements of listening.

Perception

The active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting people, objects, events, situations, and activities.

Chronemics

The aspect of nonverbal communication that involves our perceptions and use of time to define identities and interaction.

Ethics

The branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles and codes of conduct. Because interpersonal communication affects people, sometimes profoundly, it always has ethical implications.

Haptics

The sense of touch and what it means. Haptics are part of nonverbal communication.