D115 - Advanced Pathophysiology - Unit 3

Criteria for Brain Death

-completion of all diagnostic and therapeutic procedures with no possibility of brain recovery -unresponsive coma -no spontaneous respirations -no brain stem functions -flat EEG

Common chronic pain conditions

Arthritis A chronic condition that can cause joint pain and stiffness. Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common type of arthritis. Headaches Chronic headaches are headaches that occur at least 15 days per month for at least three months in a row. Common types of chronic headaches include tension headaches, eye strain headaches, migraines, and cluster headaches. Back pain Chronic pain can affect the back, including lower back pain and radicular pain. Nerve pain Chronic pain can be caused by nerve damage, which can be due to trauma, drugs, nutritional deficiencies, or medical conditions. Fibromyalgia An autoimmune disorder that can cause chronic pain.

Pathophysiology of schizophrenia

Associated with abnormalities in neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

At what age should children reach visual acuity of 20/20?

Between the ages of 3 and 6 years old; with the majority achieving it by the time they are 5-7 years old.

What are conditions associated with increased cranial pressure (ICP)?

Brain injuries: Such as a severe head injury, stroke, or ruptured brain aneurysm Brain tumors: Or cancer that spreads to the brain Bleeding in the brain: Such as a subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracerebral hemorrhage, or epidural hematoma Brain swelling: Such as from encephalitis or hydrocephalus Infections: Such as meningitis or brain abscess High blood pressure: Can lead to hypertensive brain hemorrhage Congenital malformations: Such as aqueductal stenosis, Dandy-Walker malformation, or Chiari malformation

Bell's Palsy Pathophysiology

Inflammation of the facial nerve (Cranial Nerve VII): Facial nerve compression Inflammation can cause edema and ischemia, which can compress the nerve in this segment. Viral infection Several viruses are associated with Bell's palsy, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, adenovirus, mumps, and rubella. HSV-1 is thought to be the most likely cause, as people with Bell's palsy have high antibody levels for this virus. Reactivated viruses Reactivated viruses, such as HSV-1, can damage the nerve when the immune system is low.

Describe the process of nerve injury and regeneration

Injury There are different types of nerve injuries, including neuropraxia, axonotmesis, and neurotmesis. The type of injury determines the treatment. Structural changes The injured nerve's stumps undergo structural and molecular changes to prepare for regeneration. Regeneration The nerve sprouts regenerating units that attempt to restore function to the affected skin or muscle. This process is called reinnervation. Recovery If the regenerating nerve units make the correct connection, the body can recover function. The rate of regeneration is about one inch per month.

How is the Snellen test performed?

Position: The patient sits or stands 20 feet from the chart in a well-lit room. Test eyes: The patient covers one eye and reads the chart from top to bottom, starting with the largest letters. The patient continues reading until they can't see the letters clearly. Repeat: The patient switches eyes and repeats the test. Record: The smallest line of letters the patient can read represents their visual acuity. The results are expressed as a fraction, with the top number indicating the distance from the chart and the bottom number indicating the distance at which a person with normal vision could read the same line. For example, 20/20 is considered normal.

What do glucocorticoids do?

Raise blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis in liver, stress hormones, affect fat/protein metabolism. Regulate Glucose metabolism.

What are some of the most common kind of eye pathologies?

Refractive errors like nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia), and astigmatism cataracts glaucoma age-related macular degeneration (AMD) diabetic retinopathy conjunctivitis (pink eye).

Adipose tissue in its role in nutrition disorders

Regulates energy supply and demand through hunger and satiety (feeling full) signals

What is the function of the spinal chord?

Sending motor commands The spinal cord carries electrical signals from the brain to the body that control movement and other functions. Sending sensory information The spinal cord relays sensory information from the body to the brain, such as pain and pressure. Coordinating reflexes The spinal cord controls some reflexes without the brain, such as the patellar reflex that makes your leg kick when your shin is tapped.

Structure and function of the endocrine glands

Structure: Endocrine glands are composed of specialized cells that synthesize and store hormones within vesicles, releasing them into the bloodstream when stimulated by specific signals. Function: Hormones act as chemical messengers, traveling through the bloodstream to reach specific target cells with receptors that recognize and bind to the hormone, triggering a cellular response.

Describe the manifestations of peritonsillar abscess

A pus-filled pocket that forms near one of your tonsils. It's usually a complication of tonsillitis and is often caused by the same bacteria that cause strep throat. Symptoms include Severe pain, swollen tonsils and swollen lymph nodes. Throat pain: Severe pain on one side of the throat Ear pain: Pain on the side of the abscess Difficulty opening the mouth: Pain or inability to open the mouth Swallowing problems: Difficulty swallowing or drooling Swollen glands: Tender, swollen lymph nodes on one side of the neck Fever and chills: Fever with rigors and chills Headache: Headache Muffled voice: Speech that sounds like you're talking around a mouthful of hot mashed potatoes Bad breath: Bad breath Neck stiffness: Neck pain due to inflamed cervical lymph nodes

What are the criteria used to diagnose strep throat?

A throat swab test that identifies the presence of group A streptococcus (GAS) bacteria. A throat culture test is considered the gold standard diagnostic test. Strep throat symptoms include: A sudden and severe sore throat Pain or difficulty swallowing Fever of 101 °F (38 °C) or more Swollen lymph nodes in the front of the neck Red and swollen tonsils, sometimes with white patches or streaks of pus Tiny red spots on the roof of the mouth, called petechiae Red rash on the body (scarlet fever) Headache Gastrointestinal symptoms such as stomach pain, nausea, or vomiting

What are the different neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and what do they regulate?

Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle contraction, memory, and learning. Dopamine: Plays a role in reward pathways, motivation, and pleasure. Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and learning. Norepinephrine: Associated with alertness, focus, and the "fight-or-flight" response. Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): Acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming the nervous system. Histamine: Regulates wakefulness and sleep cycles.

What is the function of the nervous system?

Act as the body's communication network, sending and receiving messages between the brain and different parts of the body, allowing for bodily functions like movement, sensation, thought, learning, memory, and regulating vital processes like breathing and heart rate.

The 5 categories of pain

Acute pain: A symptom of tissue damage that occurs at the site of injury. Chronic pain: Pain that persists beyond the healing period of the original injury. Chronic pain can be caused by conditions like diabetes, arthritis, and tumor growth. Allodynia: Pain that results from a stimulus that is normally harmless. Hyperalgesia: An exaggerated pain response to noxious stimuli. Referred pain: Pain that is perceived at a location other than the site of the painful stimulus.

Which Cranial Nerve is affected with Bell's Palsy?

Affects the Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII). This nerve controls the muscles of the face, meaning damage to it can cause facial weakness or paralysis on one side.

What is the difference between allergic rhinitis and rhinitis medicamentosa?

Allergic rhinitis is a nasal inflammation triggered by exposure to allergens like pollen or dust mites, while rhinitis medicamentosa is a type of nasal congestion caused by the overuse of topical nasal decongestant sprays.

Causes of dementia

Alzheimer's disease: The most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-70% of cases Vascular dementia: Caused by long-term high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, or multiple small strokes Brain injury: A serious head injury, or repeated brain injuries known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy Brain tumors: Can cause dementia if they put pressure on nearby brain tissue Infections: HIV-associated dementia is a rare disease that occurs when HIV spreads to the brain Alcohol abuse: Heavy alcohol use over a long period of time can cause dementia Nutritional deficiencies: Low levels of vitamin B12 can cause dementia Other medical conditions: Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease can all cause dementia

What are the different disorders that cause alterations in arousal?

Anxiety disorders depression addiction schizophrenia insomnia PTSD bipolar disorder certain sleep disorders like sleep apnea and restless leg syndrome sexual dysfunction disorders conditions like hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism

When should you refer a child to a ophthalmologist?

Any misalignment of eyes (intermittent or constant) in children after the age of 4 months or constant misalignment of eyes at any age even before 4 months should be evaluated. - Frequent eye rubbing - Light sensitivity - Persistent tearing - Redness that doesn't go away - White or yellow material in the pupil - Squinting - Frequent head tilting - Drooping eyelids - Sudden vision changes

Identify eye conditions that are a medical emergency

Sudden vision loss: This can be a symptom of a stroke in the retina, which can cause severe vision loss within minutes to hours. Double vision: This is a serious symptom that can indicate an emergency medical issue. Chemical exposure: Chemical burns to the eye require immediate medical care and thorough eye washing for at least 30 minutes. Blunt force trauma: This can include injuries to the eye or eyelid. Sudden onset of floaters: This can be a symptom of a serious condition like a torn retina or detached retina. Blood in the eye: This can include blood in the clear part of the eye. Other eye injuries: This can include cuts, scratches, objects in the eye, or a ruptured globe.

Changes to olfaction and taste with aging

Taste buds The number of taste buds decreases and the remaining ones shrink. Saliva production The mouth produces less saliva, which can lead to dry mouth and affect taste. Nerve endings The number of nerve endings in the nose decreases, which can impact the ability to smell. Mucus production The nose produces less mucus, which helps odors stay in the nose long enough to be detected. Neurochemical changes The brain experiences neurochemical changes, such as a deficiency in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter important for the olfactory system.

Pathogenesis and benefits of fever

The body's innate febrile response to an infection mitigates and resolves the infection, improves survival by stimulating various immunologic mechanisms, and inhibits the growth of some microorganisms. However, extreme temperature elevation (typically > 41° C) may be damaging.

Discuss the anatomy of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, located within the skull and vertebral column respectively, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises all the nerves that branch out from the CNS to reach the rest of the body, essentially acting as the communication pathway between the CNS and the body's organs and muscles; the CNS is responsible for processing information and initiating responses, while the PNS transmits sensory data to the CNS and carries motor commands from the CNS to the body's periphery.

Pathophysiology and common manifestations of metabolic syndrome

The pathophysiology of MetS is complex and involves multiple mechanisms, including: Insulin resistance: A key player in the progression of MetS Chronic inflammation: An essential player in the progression of MetS Neurohormonal activation: An essential player in the progression of MetS Visceral adiposity: An important trigger that activates most of the pathways of MetS Common manifestations of MetS include: Central obesity: The primary component of MetS, leading to insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia High blood pressure: A common sign of MetS Signs of insulin resistance: A common sign of MetS High blood sugar: Also known as hyperglycemia, this can cause symptoms like darkened skin, blurred vision, increased thirst, and increased urination Abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels: A common sign of MetS

Mechanisms of heat loss and heart regulation

The primary mechanisms of heat loss from the body are radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation, with the majority of heat loss occurring through radiation; the heart regulates heat loss by adjusting blood flow to the skin through vasodilation (increased blood flow to the skin to dissipate heat) or vasoconstriction (reduced blood flow to conserve heat), ultimately controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain which acts as the body's thermostat.

Discuss the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "fight or flight" response, preparing the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and diverting blood flow to muscles, while the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "rest and digest" response, calming the body down by slowing the heart rate, constricting pupils, and stimulating digestion when in a relaxed state

Theories and clinical descriptions of pain

Theories of pain Cartesian dualism theory of pain: Proposed by French philosopher René Descartes in 1644, this theory states that pain is a mutually exclusive phenomenon that can be caused by either physical or psychological injury. Intensive theory: Proposed by Wilhelm Erb in 1874, this theory states that pain can be generated by any sensory stimulus that is intense enough. Gate control theory of pain: This theory states that the brain doesn't pay as much attention to a painful signal if it perceives a stronger signal coming in. The gate mechanism is located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.

Pterygium

Thin triangular tissue growing from the conjunctive into the cornea, usually caused from sun exposure or dusty sandy environments.

Common children's mental disorders

anxiety depression oppositional defiant disorder attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Tourette syndrome obsessive-compulsive disorder post-traumatic stress disorder

Different types of diabetes

diabetes type 1, the pancreas does not make insulin, because the body's immune system attacks the islet cells in the pancreas that make insulin. diabetes type 2, the pancreas makes less insulin than used to, and your body becomes resistant to insulin.

Cheilosis

A condition that causes painful cracking and inflammation in the corners of the mouth. It's characterized by scaling and fissures in the corners of the mouth, and sometimes blood oozes from the cracks. Treatment: Applying protective lip balms and barrier creams, Topical steroids, Antibiotics and Addressing any underlying causes.

Chalazion

A nodule or cyst, usually on the upper eyelid, caused by obstruction in a sebaceous gland

Discuss the different congenital abnormalities of the hard and soft palate

Cleft lip and palate A common congenital anomaly that occurs when the roof of the mouth and upper lip don't fully close during fetal development. There are different types of cleft lip and palate, including: Complete cleft palate: A cleft that affects both the hard and soft parts of the palate Submucous cleft palate: A cleft that involves the hard and/or soft palate, but is covered by the mucous membrane Primary or hard palate cleft: A cleft that extends into the alveolar arch Secondary or soft palate cleft: A cleft that extends through the soft palate to the uvula Venous malformations (VM) Slow-flow vascular malformations that are usually present at birth. They can involve the skin, mucosa, subcutaneous tissues, and deeper structures. Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) A condition caused by structural and/or functional abnormalities of the soft palate and pharyngeal muscles. Symptoms include hypernasal speech, abnormal articulation, and decreased intelligibility.

Discuss the different kinds of hearing loss

Conductive hearing loss Occurs when there's an issue with the outer or middle ear that prevents sounds from reaching the inner ear. This can be caused by earwax, foreign objects, or an injured eardrum. Conductive hearing loss can often be treated with surgery or medication. Sensorineural hearing loss Occurs when there's a problem with the inner ear or the hearing nerve. This can be caused by aging, exposure to loud noises, or genetic conditions. Mixed hearing loss A combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. This can happen if someone has an issue with both their outer and middle ear, as well as their inner ear. For example, if someone ruptures their eardrum and takes medication that affects their inner ear, they'll have mixed hearing loss.

Levels of Altered Consciousness

Confusion disorientation lethargy obtundation stupor coma

Function of the endocrine system

Control and coordinate many of the body's functions by releasing hormones into the bloodstream. Metabolism: The endocrine system regulates metabolism and blood sugar levels. Growth and development: The endocrine system controls growth and development, including the development of the brain and nervous system. Reproduction: The endocrine system controls the growth and function of the reproductive system. Response to stress: The endocrine system helps the body cope with stress, injury, and mood. Homeostasis: The endocrine system helps maintain a constant internal balance, or homeostasis.

What are nervous system changes that happen with aging?

Decrease in the number of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, slower nerve signal transmission due to myelin breakdown, reduced neurotransmitter production, impaired reflexes, decreased sensation, and potential cognitive decline, leading to slower processing speeds and memory difficulties; essentially, the ability of nerves to communicate efficiently with each other diminishes with age.

Alterations of neurologic dysfunction in children

Deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Autism Learning disabilities intellectual disability (also known as mental retardation) Cerebral palsy

Discuss alterations and disorders of the nervous system in children

Developmental delays, seizures, movement disorders, headaches, and cognitive impairments, often stemming from abnormal brain development, genetic factors, birth injuries, infections, or trauma, and can significantly impact a child's daily functioning and quality of life; early diagnosis and appropriate interventions are crucial for managing these conditions.

Explain degenerative changes that can happen to the eye

Dry eyes: Tear production decreases after age 40, which can lead to dry eyes. Cataracts: Proteins in the lens break down, which can lead to cataracts. Floaters or retinal detachment: The vitreous, a gel-like fluid in the middle of the eye, shrinks, which can cause floaters or retinal detachment. Presbyopia: The lens of the eye becomes less flexible, which can cause presbyopia, or reduced near vision. Corneal degeneration: The cornea can lose its transparency, which can significantly reduce vision. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): The macula, the part of the retina that controls sharp, straight-ahead vision, is damaged by aging. AMD can cause blurred central vision, distorted central vision, blank or dark spots, and complete loss of central vision. Glaucoma: A degenerative disease of the optic nerve that transmits information from the eyes to the brain. Glaucoma is usually associated with an increase in pressure inside the eye, which can lead to irreversible blindness.

Patterns of breathing

Eupnea: Normal, quiet breathing that uses the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles Diaphragmatic breathing: Also known as deep breathing, this requires the diaphragm to contract Costal breathing: Shallow breathing, this requires the intercostal muscles to contract Hyperpnea: Forced breathing that involves muscle contractions during both inhalation and exhalation Dyspnea: Shortness of breath Tachypnea: An increased respiratory rate Bradypnea: A decreased respiratory rate Apnea: A brief period of stopped breathing that quickly resumes Agonal breathing: Irregular, labored, or gasping breaths that can be a sign of cardiac arrest or other life-threatening emergency

What part of the brain does the Glascow coma scale evaluate?

Evaluates multiple parts of the brain, including the brainstem, central nervous system, and other areas

What are the specific functions of different divisions of the brain?

Frontal lobe Controls voluntary movement, speech, personality, emotions, and higher thinking skills like problem-solving Temporal lobe Processes hearing, smell, taste, and other senses, and helps with language and reading Parietal lobe Interprets sensory information, including taste, texture, and temperature, and is involved with attention and language Occipital lobe Processes visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors Cerebellum Controls coordination and voluntary movement, and receives sensory information to fine-tune motor activity Brainstem Connects the brain to the spinal cord, and controls autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, temperature regulation, and sleep-wake cycles Hypothalamus Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep patterns, and plays a role in memory and emotion

Rinne Test

Hearing test that evaluates hearing loss in one ear by comparing how well a patient hears sounds transmitted through air versus bone conduction. How it is performed: Gently strikes a 512 Hz tuning fork Places the base of the vibrating tuning fork on the mastoid bone behind the patient's ear Asks the patient to indicate when they can no longer hear the sound Quickly moves the tuning fork next to the patient's ear Asks the patient to indicate when they can no longer hear the sound

Weber test

Hearing test that uses a tuning fork to help identify the cause of hearing loss. How it's performed A medical professional strikes a tuning fork and places it on the middle of the patient's forehead or top of the head. The patient is then asked if they hear the sound better in one ear or equally in both ears. What it's used for The Weber test is often used to distinguish between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss in patients with unilateral hearing loss. What it indicates In a normal hearing patient, the sound is heard in the center of the head or equally in both ears. If the sound is heard on the side of the better cochlea, then that's usually what's happening. However, if there's conductive hearing loss, the sound may be heard in the poorer-hearing ear.

Disorders of heat regulation

Heat cramps: Heavy sweating and muscle cramps that occur during exercise Heat exhaustion: A more serious condition that can cause a range of symptoms Heatstroke: A medical emergency that can be life threatening Anhidrosis: The absence of sweating Impaired thermoregulation: Can occur in patients with severe TBI, hydrocephalus, or CNS infection Malignant hyperthermia, Neuroleptic malignant syndrome Hyperthermia Hypothermia Hyperhidrosis: A condition where a person sweats more than their body needs to regulate temperatur

What is the function of Insulin?

Hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels by moving glucose from the blood into cells throughout the body

Explain the difference between hyperopia and myopia

Hyperopia Farsightedness, this condition occurs when the eye is too short or the cornea is too flat, causing light to focus behind the retina. This makes distant objects appear clear, but objects up close are blurry. Hyperopia is usually present at birth and tends to run in families. Myopia Nearsightedness, this condition occurs when the eye grows too long from front to back, causing light to focus in front of the retina. This makes nearby objects appear clear, but distant objects are blurry. Symptoms usually begin in childhood, but can develop at any age.

Differences between hypothyroid and hyperthyroid

Hypothyroidism: An underactive thyroid that produces too few thyroid hormones Hyperthyroidism: An overactive thyroid that produces too many thyroid hormones

Difference in the alterations in endocrine system disorders between children and adults

In children, hormonal imbalances can significantly impact growth and development, leading to noticeable changes in height and physical appearance, while in adults, symptoms may be more subtle and related to metabolic issues like fatigue, weight changes, or mood swings due to altered hormone levels.

Conditions that cause acute confusional states or delirium

Infections: Urinary Tract Infections. Sepsis Medications: Side effects from certain medications, like sedatives or opioids. Stopping a medication can also cause delirium. Alcohol or drugs: Alcohol poisoning or withdrawal, including delirium tremens, can cause delirium. Metabolic disorders: Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) or diabetic ketoacidosis can cause delirium. Organ failure: Kidney or liver failure can cause delirium. Dehydration: Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances can cause delirium. Surgery: The time after surgery, especially in older people, is a common time for delirium to develop. Pain: Severe pain can cause delirium. Sleep deprivation: Lack of sleep can cause delirium. Carbon monoxide poisoning: Carbon monoxide poisoning can cause confusion or delirium. Seizures: Absence or complex partial seizures can cause alterations in consciousness.

What are the common sleep disorders?

Insomnia The most common sleep disorder, insomnia makes it difficult to fall or stay asleep. Sleep apnea A breathing disorder that causes you to stop breathing for at least 10 seconds during sleep. Restless legs syndrome A tingling or prickly feeling in the legs that makes you want to move them. It's more common in women and becomes more prevalent with age. Narcolepsy A condition that causes extreme daytime sleepiness and can include involuntary napping. Circadian rhythm disorders Problems with your sleep-wake cycle that make it hard to sleep and wake at the right times. Parasomnia Unusual behaviors that happen while falling asleep, sleeping, or waking up, such as talking, walking, or eating. Periodic limb movement disorder Muscle spasms in the legs that can wake you up. It's more common in the middle-aged and elderly. Snoring Noisy breathing caused by a narrow throat or nose. It's more common in men

What mechanisms are controlled by the autonomic nervous system?

Involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, respiration, sweating, pupil dilation, salivation, urination, and body temperature regulation, essentially maintaining internal homeostasis by managing various organ systems without conscious control.

What test checks for colorblindness?

Ishihara test The most common test for colorblindness, where you look at images with numbers or symbols made of colored dots. The numbers are a different color than the background.

Define efferent pathways

Known as motor pathways, these carry information from the CNS to the body's organs to cause an action or effect.

Define afferent pathways

Known as sensory pathways, these carry information from the body's sensory organs to the central nervous system (CNS).

Common manifestations of bipolar disorder

Manic episodes Feeling very happy, excited, or elated, or extremely irritable or touchy. Other symptoms include having racing thoughts, talking very fast, and having a decreased need for sleep. People with mania may also act impulsively, such as spending a lot of money or having unsafe sex. Depressive episodes Feeling very down or sad, or anxious. Other symptoms include having trouble concentrating or making decisions, and having trouble falling asleep, waking up too early, or sleeping too much. People with depression may also feel hopeless, worthless, or lonely.

Talk about the different types of sensory receptors

Mechanoreceptors (responding to physical pressure) Thermoreceptors (detecting temperature changes) Chemoreceptors (sensing chemical substances) Photoreceptors (sensitive to light) Nociceptors (perceiving pain)

What autoimmune disorders can cause eye problems

Multiple sclerosis (MS) Can cause inflammation of the optic nerve, leading to temporary or permanent vision loss. Sjogren's syndrome Causes chronic inflammation of the tear glands, leading to dry eyes, itchiness, irritation, and sometimes blurry vision. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) Can cause severe inflammation in the blood vessels, which can narrow and cause a blockage (eye stroke). Other ocular manifestations include conjunctivitis, uveitis, and retinal hemorrhages. Thyroid disease Conditions affecting thyroid function can elevate the risk of glaucoma, a sight-threatening eye condition. Graves' Eye Disease can cause blurry vision or double vision.

What is the pathophysiology of Myasthenia gravis?

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease that occurs when the body's immune system produces antibodies that attack the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). This attack impairs the transmission of nerve signals to muscles, resulting in weakness and fatigue. The pathophysiology of MG depends on the type of antibodies produced

Identify disorders of the nervous system and neuromuscular junction.

Nervous system: stroke, meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, spinal cord injuries, and epilepsy. Neuromuscular junction: Myasthenia Gravis, Lambert-Eaton syndrome, and Botulism, where communication between nerves and muscles is disrupted, leading to muscle weakness.

Pinguecula

Noncancerous growth appears as a small yellowish mass on the conjunctiva that may be related to exposure to ultraviolet light, dry climates, and dust

Mood and Anxiety disorders

OCD, Phobias, PTSD, Depression, Bipolar, Anxiety

Differences in sleep patterns between pediatrics, adults and older adults

Pediatric sleep patterns involve significantly more REM sleep and deeper slow-wave sleep, Older adults experience less deep sleep, more frequent awakenings, and an earlier sleep-wake cycle

Identify the anatomical structures of the mouth and throat

Tongue: A muscular structure in the mouth that forms part of the floor of the oral cavity and the anterior wall of the oropharynx. Salivary glands: Located near the oral cavity, these glands secrete saliva to help with digestion, protection, and lubrication. Hard palate: Separates the nose from the mouth. Soft palate: A muscle structure at the back of the mouth that separates the nose and mouth, helping with breathing, swallowing, and speech. Larynx: Also known as the voice box, this part of the throat contains the vocal cords and connects the mouth and nose to the lungs. Eustachian tubes: Also known as the auditory tubes, these tubes connect the throat to the ears. Nasopharynx: Located at the top of the throat, this area connects the nose and mouth and provides a passageway for air to pass from the nose to the lungs. Oropharynx: Located in the middle of the throat, this area includes the mouth and throat. Tonsils: Located at the back of the throat, these masses of soft tissue are part of the lymphatic system and help to ward off infections. Esophagus: A tube that carries food and liquids from the throat to the stomach. Trachea: A tube that carries air between the throat and the lungs.

How do you test vision in an illiterate person?

Tumbling E charts: Also known as Illiterate E tests, these charts are used to test people who are illiterate or mute. Patients indicate which direction the "E" is facing by signing or gesturing. The Landolt C, also known as a Landolt ring, Landolt broken ring, or Japanese vision test, is an optotype: a standardized symbol used for testing vision.

Discuss conditions that can lead to post nasal drip

Viral and bacterial infections: Colds, the flu, sinus infections, and strep throat. Allergies: Hay fever and other allergic reactions. Medications: Birth control and high blood pressure medications. Structural abnormalities: A deviated septum or other structural issues in the nose or sinuses. Environmental factors: Cold or dry air, changing weather, bright lights, and fumes from irritants like smoke, cleaning products, or perfumes. Foods: Spicy foods and other acidic foods Pregnancy Smoking: By impairing the ability of cilia to move mucus out of the nose. Age: More prone to dehydration and have drier nasal cavities.

What is a snellen test used for?

Visual acuity test