Daoism and Confucianism

What is internal alchemy?

One "yogic" practice is called internal alchemy. It aims at transforming and spiritualizing the life force (qi/chi'i) of the practitioner. Some later forms of internal alchemy teach exercises that move the life force from its origin at the base of the spine upward to the head. From there it circles back, via the heart, to its origin. This movement is accomplished through certain postures, muscular exercises, and practices of mental imagery. Some Daoists have held that these techniques of internal alchemy can create an entity- the "immortal embryo"- that can survive the death of the body.

What is the rectification of names?

The Five Great Relationships signify that each person must live up to his or her social role and social status. This has been called the rectification of names. I have only to consult my social role and title to know my duty. For example, a father must be a caring father, a manager must be a responsible manager, and a friend must be a good friend.

Shu: Why does the author think the Silver Rule is superior to the Golden Rule?

The Silver Rule is the Confucian version of the Golden Rule. The Confucian version, interestingly, is stated in negative terms: "Do not do unto others what you would not wish done to yourself." It is therefore often called the Silver Rule. It helps me consider my actions from the other person's viewpoint. This virtue also implies that obligations entailed by relationships are mutually binding.

Yang and Yin: What's with the dot?

The dot suggests that everything contains its opposite and will eventually become its opposite. Both forces are dynamic and in perfect balance as they change, just as day and night are in balance as they progress.

What was the position of Daoists?

The most liberal of the thinkers were the early Daoists, who were so optimistic about the natural goodness of human beings that they resisted formal education. The Daodejing shows clearly the Daoist rejection of artificial formation. The entire book presents instead a vision of people living simple lives in small villages, governing themselves with natural good sense. Laws should be few, because if life is lived simply, order will arise spontaneously.

Tian: What does this term mean?

Tian is usually translated as "Heaven."

Yang and Yin: What analogy does the author finally use to explain this idea?

We can think of yang and yin as pulsations or waves of energy, like a heartbeat or like breathing in and out.

Yang and Yin: What are they?

Yang is the active aspect of reality that expresses itself in speech, light, and heat .Yin is the receptive aspect of the universe that expresses itself in silence, darkness, coolness, and rest. After about 1000 BCE the Chinese commonly thought that the universe expressed itself in opposite but complementary principles like light and dark, day and night, hot and cold, etc. The names for the two complementary principles are yang and yin.

What are the two most translated books in the world today?

After the Bible, the Daodejing is the world's most frequently translated book.

Are all relationships equal?

All relationships, however, are not equal. The level of a relationship may be determined by personal factors, such as friendship or family connection, or by more formal social factors, such as age or social status. Confucianism recognizes this inequality and actually lists relationships according to a hierarchy, beginning with the most important.

The Daodejing: Why is the Dao not god?

Although the Dao is the origin of nature, it is not a "God," because it does not have personality. It neither cares about human beings nor dislikes them- it only produces them, along with the rest of nature. Because the Dao makes nature move the way it does, it can be called the way or the rhythm of nature.

Elder Brother-Younger Brother: What is the role of the older brother; what is the relationship of the younger siblings to the older brother?

An elder brother must assume responsibility for raising the younger siblings, and the younger siblings must be compliant. The practicality of this arrangement becomes clear when we appreciate the possibility of an elderly father dying before all his children have been raised. The paternal responsibility then would shift to the eldest son, who has a unique status in the family.

What themes are important in Chinese art and how are they represented?

As we know, the immensity, flow, and mystery of nature are common themes in the Daodejing, and some of the book's most important images are flowing water, the valley, and the uncarved block of stone. These themes and images are abundant in Chinese painting.

The Confucius Institute: This institute is established at PC! Go visit the statue. What do critics and supporters say about this institute?

Because Confucius Institutes are under the control of universities rather than national governments, critics see the institutes as a means by which the Chinese government promotes its own interests abroad. But supporters appreciate the assistance that host universities receive in offering courses in Chinese culture. No one, of course, knows how Confucius himself might have viewed the institutes.

Why is this art form so valued?

Because it combines so many elements of value, calligraphy came to be considered one of the greatest of the Chinese arts. A work of calligraphy can show physical beauty, as well as intellectual and moral beauty. It manifests the cultivated nature of the person who wrote it, shows respect for poets and thinkers of the past, and inspires the viewer to scholarship and virtue.

DAOISM: What common vehicle does the author use as an analogy for Daoism?

Because it incorporated some of the previously mentioned elements and many others from traditional Chinese belief and practice, Daoism is really like a shopping cart filled with a variety of items: observations about nature, philosophical insights, guidelines for living, exercises for health, rituals of protection, and practices for attaining longevity and inner purity. We should note, however, that Daoism and Chinese folk religion are not exactly the same thing, although the terms are often used interchangeably, and in some cases the border between the two is not clear.

Give a couple of examples of how these relationships are acted out in modern culture.

Because the family is the primary model for all groups, age determines position. We see interesting implications of the Five Great Relationships in Confucian countries today. For example, modern Japanese and Korean companies often act like large families, and management plays a fatherly role. Similarly, an employee's identity comes largely from his or her place in the company, and job titles are significant. The exchange of business cards- on which the person's title is prominently featured- is a careful ritual. Seniors have responsibility for juniors, and one's pay and role are largely based on seniority. Privacy and individual rights are not highly emphasized, and there is far more togetherness. Harmony is all-important.

Seeing Patterns in Nature: What philosophy/religion is rooted in finding and working with natural patterns?

China's long and mighty rivers, high mountains chains, distinct seasons, and frequent floods, droughts, and earthquakes all influenced the Chinese view of the natural world. To survive, the Chinese people had to learn that while they could not often control nature, they could learn to work with it when they understood its underlying patterns. Some of the patterns were quite easy to discern, such as the progression of the seasons, the paths of the sun and moon, and the cycle of birth and death. Others were more subtle, like the motion of waves and the ripple of mountain ranges, as well as the rhythm of the Dao and the alternations of yang and yin. Daoism may be traced back to this concern for finding- and working within- natural patterns.

What has been the greatest influence of Confucianism on the arts?

Confucianism so values the written word that calligraphy has been the greatest influence of Confucianism on the arts.

Laozi (Lao Tzu): What does the name of this "founder" of Daoism mean?

Every movement needs a founder, and Daoists trace themselves back to a legendary figure named Laozi (Lao Tzu), whose name means "old master" or "old child". Whether Laozi ever existed is unknown. He may have been a real person, the blending of historical information about several figures, or a mythic creation.

What is important in Chinese nature paintings? In what way is this used that the author finds "fascinating."

In Chinese nature painting, perspective is important. Images drawn from nature are often presented either very close up or at a great distance. What we most notice in these works is the fascinating use of empty space. Some of the paintings are almost half empty, but they do not feel unfinished, as if something were missing. The space of the paintings is the positive emptiness to which the Daodejing draws our attention.

What was the third stage of Confucian development?

In its third stage, after 1000 CE, Confucianism was enriched by scholarship and philosophy. The movement, called Neo-Confucianism, clarified texts and codified the elements of Confucian thought. It attempted to determine which Confucian schools taught doctrine and that was consistent with the views of Confucius. It also sought to provide a metaphysical vision of all reality for Confucianism, akin to that found in Daoism and Buddhism.

What is the context of Confucian virtues?

Just as social harmony comes from the living out of the Five Great Relationships, so personal excellence comes from the manifestation of five virtues. Although they emphasize harmony between people, the Confucian virtues do not lead to antlike conformity. Some Confucian virtues, such as love of education and the arts, help individuals develop their unique talents. But the virtues most prized by Confucianism are indeed largely social virtues. Individual uniqueness, although valued by Confucianism, is expected to be muted, subtle, and considerate of others.

Wu Wei: The Ideal of Effortlessness: How may this word be defined?

Literally means "no action"; Perhaps a better translation is "no strain" or "effortlessness"; The ideal implies the avoidance of unnecessary action or action that is not spontaneous; If we look at nature, we notice that many things happen quietly, effortlessly: plants grow, birds and animals are born, and nature repairs itself after a storm; Nature works to accomplish only what is necessary, but no more;

Laozi (Lao Tzu): What two miracles surround the birth of Lao Tzu?

1. In the traditional story, Laozi's birth resulted from a virginal conception. 2. According to legend, the child was born old- hence the name "old child." Laozi became a start archivist, or librarian, in the royal city of Loyang for many years. Eventually tiring of his job, Laozi left his post and, carried by an ox, traveled to the far west of China. At the western boarder, Laozi was recognized as an esteem scholar and prohibited from crossing until he had written down his teachings. The result was the Daodejing, a short book of about five thousand Chinese characters. After Laozi was finished, he left China, traveling westward. Later stories about Laozi continued to elaborate his myth. He was said to have taken his teachings to India, later returned to China, and ascended into the sky. He was soon treated as a deity, the human incarnation of the Dao. In this capacity he came to be called Lord Lao. Many stories were told of his apparitions. He continues to be worshiped as divine by many Daoists.

What three reasons led the Chinese Communists to oppose Confucianism?

A. First, Confucianism preaches elitism rather than egalitarianism. Although Confucianism maintains that anyone can become a junzi (noble person) through training, in fact Confucian education has often been limited to only those whose parents could afford it. Communism, in contrast, proposed to educate all equally. B. Second, the Communists accused Confucianism of valuing males over females, reserving education and power for males, and providing no official power to wives and daughters. With only one exception in all of Chinese history, the official role of emperor has been confined to males. Women's roles have been traditionally concerned with childbearing, and women have derived much of their social identity from men. Communism has preached that Confucianism's sexist tendencies have created oppression and a loss of talent for society. C. Third, the Communists criticized Confucianism for focusing on the old rather than the new and on the humanities rather than the sciences. To Communism, this focus on the past reflects a backward vision, like driving a car by looking through the rearview mirror.

What are these three purities?

A. The first of the Three Purities is primordial Dao B. The second, a deity responsible for transmission of Daoist insight, is called the Heavenly Worthy of Numinous Treasure C. The third is the deified Laozi, whose image may be recognized by its white hair

What position did Confucians take in the early years of that faith?

Before Confucianism was adopted as official state policy during the Han dynasty, major schools of thought on this topic already had emerged, reflecting a full spectrum of opinion. The Confucian schools took a middle course between extremes, recognizing both the great abilities of human beings and the need for their formation.

Father-Son: What are the obligations of the younger generation?

But the relationship of obligation is mutual: parents and children must show care for each other. The obligation of mutual care does not end upon death; even after their parents' death, children are expected to honor their parents' memory, especially by venerating photos of them at a home altar and by maintaining their graves.

How are yang and yin seen in domestic Chinese architecture?

Chinese garden design is an art form that complements and completes Chinese architecture. The house is yang, the realm of the square and the straight line; the garden is yin, the realm of the circle and the curve. Inside is family harmony; outside is harmony with nature. One realm supports the other. Chinese garden design differs from that of common Western design. Instead of straight lines and symmetry, walkways, meander, and bridges may zigzag. Gates, in imitation of the moon, may be round. And water moves in its natural manner- that is, not upward, as in a fountain, but only gently down.

What position did Mencius take? What was his view of universal love?

Closer to the center, but still to the left, was the teaching of Mencius, a Confucian who flourished about 300 BCE. Mencius did not merely repeat the thoughts and values of Confucius; it seems he was a bit more optimistic about human nature, perhaps because of his contact with Daoism. Mencius was struck by the many virtues shown by ordinary people: mercy, kindness, conscience. In human beings, he thought, there is an "innate goodness," and virtues exist in everyone, at least in seedling form. The sprouts need only the proper nurturing, which education can provide by helping naturally good tendencies in a child to grow properly and to flower. Education does not radically redirect human nature but it helps it to become what it already potentially is. Mencius was aware of the ideal of universal love but thought that such an ideal was impossible and unwise. According to Mencius, in society there is a hierarchy of love and responsibility: we must love our families first, then our friends and neighbors, and then the rest of society; and to reject that structure would bring about social disorder. Education is valuable in making the natural order clear and in helping individuals live with it dutifully.

According to Confucius, how does one become a "full person"?

Confucius believed that each human being is capable of being good, refined, and even great; but he differed from the Daoists because he was convinced that a human being cannot achieve those qualities in isolation. In his view, a human being becomes a "full person" only through the contributions of other people and through fulfilling one's obligations to them. These other people include parents, teachers, friends, aunts and uncles, grandparents, ancestors, and even government ministers.

What is the equivalent of the Three Purities in Christianity?

Daoism developed a pantheon of hundreds of deities. Some are powers of the universe; others are people who became immortal; others are ancestral spirits. The deities include Laozi, spirits of nature, protective household gods, deified historical figures, and many others. Most important are the Three Purities (Sanjing, San Ching). These constitute a Daoist trinity (probably modeled on the Buddhist notion of the three bodies of the Buddha).

Simplicity: Why were Daoists so suspicious of education?

Daoism has often urged its followers to eliminate whatever is unnecessary and artificial and to appreciate the simple and the apparently ordinary. In this regard, Daoists have tended to distrust any highly formal education, owing to its inherent complexity and artificiality. This was one of their major complaints against the Confucians, who put so much trust in education. In a passage that has delighted students for centuries, the Daodejing in the twentieth chapter states its opinion: "Give up learning, and put an end to your troubles."

What keeps Daoist practices and beliefs alive?

Daoist practices and beliefs are kept alive not only by Daoists but also by the Chinese tendency to blend beliefs of several systems. It is common, for example, to find Daoist images in Buddhist temples. In the mind of most Chinese, there need to be no argument. In ordinary practice, elements from Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism are combined. The three religions are mutually supportive- as their members have generally agreed.

What was the life ambition of Confucius?

Despite his eventual success as a teacher, Confucius had always wanted to play an influential part in government, and it is possible that for a time he became a government minister.

Husband-Wife: What two qualities of the husband wife relationships would be unpopular in the West?

Each person in this relationship is responsible for the other's care. In Confucian thought, the relationship is hierarchical. The husband is an authoritative protector, and the wife is a protected homemaker and mother. The Confucian notion of marriage also implies much less romantic expectation than does the modern Western notion; in Confucian societies wives, over time, can even become quite motherly toward their husbands.

What position did the Mohist school take?

Holding a view of human nature similar to Xunzi's was the Mohist school, although its exact position is not easy to categorize. Mozi (Mo Tzu) was known as a self-disciplined, idealistic person who lived simply and worked actively against war and for the betterment of common people. He thought that without laws, people are predatory, and that with laws, although there is order, society is inequitable. He held that social problems arise because people's love is graded and partial. The answer, he thought, is to practice equal love for everybody.

Divination: What is I Ching?

I Ching is known as the Book of Changes. I Ching is an ancient book that interprets life through an analysis of hexagrams. A hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines. There are two kinds of lines: divided (yin) and undivided (yang). A hexagram is made of two trigrams- figures of three lines each. A hexagram is "constructed" by tossing sticks or coins and writing down the results, beginning with the bottom line. Thus sixty-four different hexagrams are possible. The hexagrams are thought to represent patterns that can develop in one's life, and the I Ching gives an interpretation of each hexagram. With the help of the I Ching, a person can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions about the future.

Li: What does this term mean practically today?

In Western culture, which values what is different and individualistic, the notion of li may seem oppressive and suggest personal weakness. Confucianism, on the contrary, sees self-control as a sign of strength- and practicality. We all recognize that every social situation has its hidden structure. Chew gum at a job interview and you will not get the job; wear shorts to a funeral and you will probably cause hurt to the mourners. Li means good manners. It is putting ren into practice.

(Friend-Friend): Are friendships equal?

In some versions of the Five Great Relationships, the friend-friend relationship is listed fourth. The relationship between elder and younger and that between friend and friend are actually quite closer, however. In friendship there is often a certain hierarchy: the friends may differ in rank, health, wealth, or knowledge. And if the difference is not evident at first, time will bring it about.

(Friend-Friend): What kind of love is found in Confucian friendships?

In this relationship, the more powerful friend has a responsibility to assist the other friend, who is in need. In Confucian culture, a friendship entails serious commitment, and a friendship made in youth is expected to last a lifetime.

Tian: How was it ultimately defined in early Chinese beliefs?

It appears that Tian was envisioned both as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth and as a cosmic moral principle that determines right and wrong.

For what purpose is the Chinese Garden an ideal place?

Nature is never looked upon by the Chinese as chaotic or disorganized. Heaven and earth co-exist in harmony, and the four seasons run their course regularly. This harmony of man and nature in the flow of the great stream of rhythm makes the Chinese garden more than something merely secular. It is true that no one would look upon the Chinese garden as a religious structure. But in spite of all this, we cannot deny the fact that the garden is regarded as an ideal place for mediation. Mediation may be purely moral, an effort at self-introspection. Intense and sincere meditation, however, inevitably leads to the absorption in the Infinite.

As Daoism developed two organizations within it became prominent. What was the purpose of the Way of the Heavenly Masters and how did it try to real that goal?

One is an ancient organization called the Way of the Heavenly Masters. The organization traces itself back to a second-century teacher, Zhang Daoling (Chang Tao-ling), who was believed to have had visions of Laozi. Zhang Daoling is thought to have developed an organization that helped Daoism survive into the present. Control of the organization is based on a hereditary model, with power usually passing from father to son to grandson. The heads of the organization have the title of Heavenly Masters. The organization set up a system of parishes (congregations). It is strong in Taiwan and has come to life again, after severe repression by the Communist government, on the mainland.

Relativity: Why do humans fail to have a vision of reality?

People see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own concerns. They see things in terms of divisions: I-you, good-bad, expensive-cheap, valuable-worthless, beautiful-ugly, and so forth. Daoists believe that it is necessary to attain a vision of things that goes beyond these apparent opposites.

The Daodejing: What is "the Dao"?

Refers to the mysterious origin of the universe, which is present and visible in everything; The Daodejing begins famously by saying that the Dao is beyond any description. It states that the Dao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Dao. In other words, we cannot really put into words exactly what the Dao is- a fact that is ironic because the book itself uses words. Yet the book goes on to tell us that the Dao is "nameless"; that is, it is not any individual thing that has a name, such as a door, a tree, a bird, a person. The Dao cannot be named because it has no form. But the Dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name. The Daodejing says the Dao is the origin of everything and that all individual things are "manifestations" of the Dao.

Ren (jen): How does one demonstrate this virtue?

Some people, though, do not know how to be kind, or they have difficulty in certain situations being kind spontaneously. In Confucian thinking, to follow social conventions is an important way for such people to show ren. After all, underlying all worthy social conventions is considerateness. A motto that reflects the essence of ren is, "If you want to be kind, be polite."

What are the Analects?

The Analects (Lunyu, Lun Yu) are presented as the sayings of Confucius and his followers. Tradition holds that his disciples collected his sayings and wrote them down, but this work may be attributed to many later generations of followers. It is now thought that the Analects were written over a period of at least two hundred years, being created in layers and subject to regular rearrangement. The twenty sections of the Analects contain little stories and short sayings- sometimes only a sentence or two long- that often begin with the phrase "The Master said." They cover a wide variety of topics but often discuss the character of the noble person.

Ren (jen): What are the qualities of this virtue?

The Chinese character for ren (jen) illustrates the word's meaning by blending two simpler pictographs- for "person" and "two." When we look at the Chinese ideogram for the virtue of ren, we understand its meaning: to think of the other. It is translated in many ways: "sympathy," "empathy," "benevolence," "humaneness," "kindness," "consideration," "thoughtfulness," and "human-heartedness."

Confucianism stresses sincerity, but how does this term differ from the Western understanding?

The Confucian notion of sincerity, however, is not the same as the Western notion; in fact, it is virtually the opposite. The Western notion of sincerity concerns something that an individual says or does that is personal and "from the heart," free of social control. The Confucian notion of sincerity, however, means to choose naturally and automatically to do what is correct for society. It teaches that the individual should restrain selfish desires in order to fulfill job duties and social obligations properly. Through this kind of unselfish sincerity, the noble person becomes united with the force of the universe, which is already- according to Confucian thought- sincere.

What is the major divisions in the debate about human nature in China?

The basic nature of human beings has been one of the great topics of discussion throughout the history of China. Is human nature good or bad or somewhere in between? This is not a theoretical question at all, because how one answers this question has crucial practical results. If human nature is basically good, it should be left on its own and trusted, and moral training, laws, and punishments are of little importance. If human nature is basically evil, human beings need strict moral education, stern laws, harsh punishments, and a strong ruler. A middle position is also possible: if human nature is neutral, human beings need education that is not coercive and a ruler who governs primarily through example.

Wu Wei: What are American slogans that stand as antitheses of this concept?

The ideal of "no strain" is the antithesis of all those sweat-loving mottoes such as "No pain, no gain" and "Onward and upward."

What were the two ideals that Confucius sought?

The ideals of Confucius were two: he wanted to produce "excellent" individuals who could be social leaders, and he wanted to create a harmonious society. He believed that these ideals were complementary: excellent individuals would keep society harmonious, and a harmonious society would nurture excellent individuals.

THE ORIGINS OF DAOISM: What best defines the origins of Daoism?

The origins of Daoism, quite appropriately, are mysterious. Its earliest documents contain many threads- shamanism, appreciation for the hermit's life, desire for unity with nature, and a fascination with health, long life, breathing, mediation, and trance. These many threads point to a multiplicity of possible sources, which seem to have coalesced (combined) to produce the movement.

What is the context under which Confucius developed his views?

The period in which Confucius was born was a time of social turmoil because of the disintegration of the feudal system. Seeing families and individuals suffering from the social disorder, Confucius concluded that society would function properly only if virtues were taught and lived.

Veneration of Ancestors: What philosophy/religion was aided by this ancient Chinese practice?

The same cautious reverence that was shown to spirits was also naturally felt for ancestors. Ancestors at death became spirits who needed to be placated to ensure their positive influence on living members. Veneration of ancestors provided the soil for the growth of Confucianism.

As Daoism developed two organizations within it became prominent. What is the Way of Complete Perfection and how did promote Daoism?

The second persistent form of organized Daoism involved monasteries and related groups of celibate monks and nuns. Although this form of Daoism was also suppressed in the early days of the Communist government, it has resumed in mainland China, though under careful governmental control. This monastic order is known as the Way of Complete Perfection. It deliberately has blended elements of Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Its principal prayer book was reprinted in 2000. Morning and evening services that make use of the prayer book may be attended at many of its monasteries- most notably at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.

Shu: What does this word mean?

The usual translation of shu is "reciprocity," but its essence addresses the question, How will my actions affect the other person? It is also another version of the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

Xiao (hsiao): What does this word mean, and how is it practically applied?

The word xiao (hsiao) is usually translated as "filial piety" (devotion of a son or daughter to a parent). It also means the devotion that all members have to their entire family's welfare. It encompasses several notions: remembrance of ancestors, respect for parents and elders, and care for children in the family. Ideally, it means valuing the entire extended family- of past, present, and future. It is possible that later generations of Confucians emphasized this virtue more than did Confucius himself. This virtue was especially spread by the Classic of Filial Piety (Xiaojing), written at least a century or two after the time of Confucius.

Yang and Yin: What isn't one good and the other evil?

These principles are not the same as good and evil. Yang is not expected to win over the force of yin, or vice versa; rather, the ideal is a dynamic balance between the forces. In fact, the emblem of balance is the yin-yang circle, divided into what look like two intertwined commas. One half is light, representing yang; the other is dark, representing yin. Inside each division is a small dot of the contrasting color that represents the seed of the opposite.

Dao: How may Dao be defined and what is its relationship to humans?

This is the name for whatever mysterious reality makes nature to be what it is and to act the way it does. The Chinese character for Dao is commonly translated as "way," but it has also been translated as "existence," "pattern," and "process." Primarily, the Dao is the way that nature expresses itself- the natural way. Human beings can unite themselves with the Dao in the way they live.

The Seasons of Life: What does the story of the death of Zhuangzi's wife and his reaction to it teach to Dao's followers?

This tale suggests that to live in harmony with nature means to accept all its transformations. The great Dao produces both yin and yang, which alternate perpetually. The story says that yin and yang are our parents and we must obey them. If we cannot embrace the changes, we should at least observe them with an accepting heart.

Li: What does this word mean and to what did it originally apply?

This word is often translated as "propriety," which means "doing what is appropriate" or "doing what is proper to the situation." Originally, li referred to carrying out rites correctly. More generally, it means knowing and using the proper words and actions for social life. For each situation, there are appropriate words to say, proper ways to dress, and correct things to do. Sometimes propriety entails the control of one's own desires.

What was Xunzi's position on human nature?

Xunzi (Hsun Tzu), who was active about 250 BCE, held a darker view of human nature. He is also considered a Confucian, but because of his pessimism about human nature, his thought did not ultimately receive the official support that was eventually given to Mencius. Mencius and Confucius tended to view Heaven, the power that rules the universe, as ultimately benevolent. But for Xunzi (as for the Daoists), the universe is totally uncaring, it works according to its own nature and patterns. Xunzi viewed human nature and human beings as functioning in a similarly mechanistic way. Human beings will veer toward self-interest unless they are taught differently. Consequently, education is not social refinement of an already good person; instead, it must be a radical moral and social reformation of human tendencies that are primarily selfish and individualistic. Education must inculcate proper ceremonies, manners, laws, and customs, for these artificial rules help transcend selfish individual interest and make civilization possible.

Why are three actions in Confucian society that support relationships?

A. Good manners are essential. The civilized person is expected to be respectful in vocabulary, tone, volume of voice, action, manner of dress, and even posture. Etiquette must especially be followed in all formal interactions- for example, between social superiors and their inferiors, between people meeting each other for the first time, and between people participating in an important social event. To follow the rules of etiquette is to show respect. B. Gift-giving plays an important role in Confucian cultures. Gifts soften the anxiety of meeting new people and strengthen existing relationships. But gifts must be carefully chosen and appropriate to the situation; they must not be too personal or too impersonal, nor lavish or stingy. Gift wrapping is also important; when money is given, such as in the case of a funeral offering- it must be presented in a proper envelope. At formal ceremonies, certificates and other objects are given and received carefully, with both hands extended and with a bow of the head. C. The bow itself is an art form that varies according to the occasion. A small inclination of the head is used for greeting an equal; a bow from the shoulders is given to a social superior; and a deep bow is used to show profound respect, make a serious request, or offer an apology. Confucian etiquette such as this may seem artificial to an outsider, but this respectful behavior is inculcated from childhood in Confucian societies and seems perfectly natural to the participants. All of these elements are important because they are relationships made visible.

In what two ways did Daoism imitate Buddhism when Buddhism arrived in China?

A. One of the stimuli that influenced Daoism to take an organizational path was Buddhism, which entered China in the first century CE. Buddhism was brought by a monastic clergy who set up monasteries and temples that had impressive rites. Daoism followed these models in its own development. By the fifth century CE, Daoism had grown into an organization with significant political influence. B. Daoism also imitated Buddhism in its production of a vast number of sacred books with wide-ranging topics: guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga; stories of wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes for longevity and magical powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions for ritual. A small sample of titles conveys the flavor of Daoism: Scripture of Wondrous Beginning, Scripture of Great Simplicity, Like unto a Dragon, Wondrous Scripture of Inner Daily Practice, Pillowbook Scripture, Biographies of Spirit Immortals, The Yellow Court Scripture, and Scripture on Going beyond the World. A collection of more than a thousand authoritative books was gathered and makes up the Daoists canon (Daozang, Tao Tsang). A major edition of the canon was published in 1445, but supplements continued to be added later.

The Daodejing: What three purposes does the author of the text find in this work?

A. One theory holds that its overall purpose was political, that it was meant as a handbook for rulers B. Another sees it primarily as a religious guidebook, meant to lead adherents to spiritual insight C. Still another views it as a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe It is possible that the Daodejing fulfilled as these purposes and that its passages can have several meanings at the same time. Part of the genius of the book is its brevity and use of paradox: its meaning depends on who is interpreting it.

Gentleness: What is the Daoist attitude toward war?

Because Daoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war. The wise person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence. The wise person "does not regard weapons as lovely things. For to think them lovely means to delight in them, and to delight in them means to delight in the slaughter of men."

What has caused leaders in Confucian countries to re-embrace Confucianism?

Confucian teaching is, in practice, being modified for modern life. The lesser status of the female is being abandoned widely as women are beginning to demand equal opportunity. Confucian societies everywhere now offer curriculums that blend science and a focus on the future with studies of the past. Great latitude is gradually being given to individual needs and personalities. With these modifications, Confucianism is gaining a renewed attractiveness.

Father-Son: What parts of the parental role would not be generally popular in the West?

Confucianism has extended this parental role in ways that some people in more individualistic societies today might not appreciate; for example, the parents are expected to help in the selection of a career and a marriage partner for each child.

The Ideal Human Being: This concept would appear to run counter to the ethic of Confucianism in what way?

Confucianism is often thought of as a system for the regulation of social groups. Yet Confucianism is also a system for the transformation of the individual. Undergirding Confucianism is not just the ideal of an orderly society but also the ideal of a perfect human being known as junzi (chun tzu).

What was needed for human personal excellence and what was essential to accomplish this?

Confucius also believed that more than social interaction is needed to have personal excellence. For Confucius, that "more" is what makes ordinary human beings into excellent human beings, "superior persons." According to Confucius, excellence comes partly from the cultivation of an individual's virtues and intellect. Thus, education is essential. We should recognize, though, that for Confucius education meant more than knowledge; it also involved the development of skills in poetry, music, artistic appreciation, manners, and religious ritual. Confucius valued education because it transmitted the lessons of the past into the present. He believed that much of the wisdom required to produce excellent human beings is already expressed in the teachings of the great leaders of the past. Convinced that the past provides fine models for the present, Confucius thought that education could show the way to wise and happy living.

Spirits: How was harmony restored between humans and all the natural forces surrounding them?

Early Chinese belief thought of spirits as active in every aspect of nature and the human world. Good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility. Bad spirits caused accidents and disease. Disturbances of natures, such as droughts and earthquakes, were punishments from spirits for human failings, but harmony can be restored through ritual and sacrifice.

Father-Son: What else does this relationship represent?

Family is the foundation of society for Confucians, with the relationship between father and son at its core. This relationship also represents all parent-child relationships. Parents must be responsible for the education and moral formation of their children. The children must be respectful and obedient to their parents, and they must care for them in their old age.

What is the visible sign of physical alchemy?

In ancient China, some people experimented with physical alchemy, hoping to create an elixir (potion) that could extend life and even make a person immortal. Because gold did not rust, individuals attempted to make gold either into a drinkable liquid or into a vessel from which an elixir (potion) could be drunk. Jade, pearl, mother-of-pearl, and compounds of mercury were also utilized. Some people undoubtedly died as a result of these experiments. When there seemed to be little success in this direction, the alchemical search became a metaphor for the development of the type of internal alchemy just described. In Chinese culture there remains, however, a great interest in pills, foods, and medicines that are believed to prolong life. Some of these (such as ginseng, garlic, and ginger) seem to have genuine medical benefits.

What has caused the Chinese government to soften its opposition to Confucianism?

Ironically, according to many scholars, Confucian virtues may have helped lead many Confucian countries to modern economic development. This fact has not been lost on the government of mainland China, which has begun to soften its earlier anti-Confucian stance.

Because civilization is fragile what qualities were required of civilized humans?

Moreover, Confucius saw civilization as a complicated and fragile creation; because of this, he believed that civilized human beings must be full of respect and care. Care must be given to the young, who will continue human life on earth, and to the elders, who teach and pass on the traditions. There should be reverence for everything valuable that has been brought from earlier generations.

What caused Confucianism to enter into this stage of its development?

Partially in response to Buddhism's success in China, Confucianism entered a second phase and took on explicitly religious characteristics. Members of Confucius's family had made sacrifices to the spirit of Confucius at his tomb long ago before Buddhism entered China. Several Han emperors did likewise. But in succeeding centuries, Confucius received posthumous titles, and in the seventh century, every province of China was expected to establish a Confucian temple and to support regular ceremonies. Statues of Confucius were set up, along with pictures of his disciples; and elaborate ceremonies, with sacrifice, music, and dance, were conducted in spring and autumn. Authorities began to place Confucianism on a par with Buddhism and Daoism, and the three traditions were viewed as a religious triad. The three systems (which, many agreed, complemented each other) were compared to the sun, the moon, and the planets- each one a necessary part of a complete religious cosmos. Pictures and statues of the three founders- Laozi, Confucius, and the Buddha- began to appear, with the three figures side by side in friendly poses. This practice continues today.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu): What is the famous dream of Zhuangzi?

Perhaps the most famous of all the stories in the book tells of Zhuangzi's dream of being a butterfly. In his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know that he was Zhuangzi. When he woke up he was struck by a question: Am I a person dreaming that I am a butterfly, or am I a butterfly dreaming that I am a person? This story hints that the boundary between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think.

What is taiji and what is its purpose?

Refers to a series of slow arm and leg motions thought to aid balance and circulation; An astounding sight in the early morning in China is to see hundreds of people doing taiji exercises in the parks; The spectacle looks like ballet in graceful slow motion;

The Daodejing: What analogy does the author use in describing the intuitive nature of the Dao?

The Dao cannot be "known" in the same way that we see a car or hear a sound, for example. It cannot be perceived directly but rather by intuition. Perhaps it is like the difference between only hearing musical sounds and recognizing a song.

The Daodejing: What is it? And how can its title be translated?

The Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) is generally seen as one of the world's greatest books. It is also the great classic of Daoism, accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture. Its title can be translated as "the classical book about the Way and its power." Sometimes the book is also called the Laozi (Lao Tzu), after its legendary author. Possibly because of its brevity and succinctness (brief and concise), it has had an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

How does this difference show itself in practice?

The Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian text, recommends several types of training, including training in the cultivation of personal equilibrium and harmony. We should recall that the Daoist ideal of the Daodejing warns against such "training," feeling that formal education has a potential for distorting one's originally pure state. Confucians, however, hold that the best training does not contaminate character but, by cultivating virtues, gives it definition and clarity.

How were the Legalists different from the Mohist?

The Legalists, who were influential from about 400 to 200 BCE, also had a view of human nature like Xunzi's and Mozi's but possibly even starker. For the Legalists, human beings are fundamentally selfish and lazy. They will lie, cheat, steal, and kill whenever it is in their interest. "Civilization" is just a very thin veneer, easily shattered; and without stern laws and punishments, people will destroy one another. According to Legalists, the education of children should consist mainly of warning and punishment, and society must continue these sanctions with adults, because adults are really just children in disguise.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu): What does Zhuangzi reject?

The Zhuangzi rejects every barrier, including that between the ordinary and the fantastic, between the normal and the paranormal, as hinted by the story of the butterfly dream.

How did Li Po die? At what fraternity party did it occur?

The poet who is often praised for his fine expression of Daoist ideals was Li Bai (Li Bo and Li Po). He lived during the Tang dynasty and died about 762 CE. Little is known about his life, but his death is famous. According to tradition, he died as the result of a poetic accident. Sitting drunk in a boat one night, Li Bai reached out to embrace the moon's reflection on the water, but he fell in and disappeared beneath the surface.

Wen: What does this virtue mean?

The term wen means "culture" and includes all the arts that are associated with civilization. Confucianism has a special love for poetry and literature, as well as a fondness for calligraphy, painting, and music. The educated person is expected not only to have a knowledge of these arts but also to have an amateur skill in them. Wen can also entail the general notion of art appreciation, or connoisseurship. A connoisseur has a highly developed aesthetic sense and is able to know and appreciate beauty in its many forms.

Elder-Younger: What do the tradition characters used to write "teacher" mean in Chinese?

The traditional characters for teacher in Chinese and Japanese literally mean "earlier-born." The term suggests the relationship of master-disciple, and it has overtones of strong mutual obligation.

Confucianism: What is the difference in the understanding of the Dao between Daoism and Confucianism?

There is a difference, however, between Daoist and Confucian notions of the Dao. For Confucians, the Dao of primary interest is the Dao within the human world, manifested in "right" relationships and in a harmonious society. It was social harmony that Confucius described when he listed his particular wishes: "[In] regard to the aged, to give them rest; in regard to friends, to show them sincerity; in regard to the young, to treat them tenderly." In Daoism, everything is a part of the rhythm of nature- the Dao. In Confucianism, however, although birds and clouds and trees are what they should be, human beings do not automatically become what they should be. The sweet, spontaneous infant can quickly turn into the selfish child. The Confucian would say that training in virtue is necessary in order to enable the Dao to manifest itself clearly in the human being.

In looking at Daoism and Confucianism the author falls back on yang and yin. Which one represents yang? Which one represent yin?

We now turn to two great systems of Chinese religious thought, Daoism and Confucianism, which many consider to be complementary traditions. Daoism is often thought to emphasize the yin aspects of reality and Confucianism the yang. Together they form a unity of opposites. Although we'll discuss these systems separately, one before the other, separate treatment is something of fiction. The two systems grew up together and actually, as they developed, helped generate each other. We must keep this in mind as we study them.

What does Confucianism mean when it proclaims that good art makes good people?

While Confucianism certainly influenced the arts, it seems the sensual nature of the arts may have softened the sharp edges of Confucianism. One cannot love the arts and hate the physical world, because the arts celebrate its beauty. But Confucianism has recognized that all artworks have a moral aspect. At the lowest level, the morality of an artwork can be judged in a way that depends on the obvious. A simple person, for example, may think that an art object is automatically moral if it has a proverb written on it. At a more sophisticated level, however, we recognize that an artwork conveys mortality by its quality. Thus we say that there is "bad art" and "good art." It is interesting that we use the terms bad and good to describe both art and human behavior. Confucians would say that this usage is quite correct and that good art makes good people.