DAT Biology

ATP hydrolysis at ___1___ Kcal/mol. This is a "high" value, meaning that ATP has a high phosphoryl group ____2____ potential. Why does ATP possess such a great phosphoryl potential?

1)ΔG° = -7.3 Kcal/mol 2) transfer ATP DOESNT HAVE THE HIGHEST PHOSPHORYL POTENTIAL Two main reasons: 1) At pH of 7, ATP is very negatively charged carrying four negative charges which are close together strongly repel on another. When ATP is hydrolyzed, we decrease this repulsion. 2) The products, ADP and Pi are more resonance-stabilized than ATP alone.

@Erythroblastosis fetalis is caused by

An Rh incompatibility between an Rh-negative mother and her Rh-positive baby during pregnancy

**In _____ Each pair of homologous chromosomes separate, & sister chromatids stay together.

Anaphase I

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by a fused cell consisting of A) a Cancer cell and a Fibroblast B) a B cell and a cancer cell. C) a Mast cell and a macrophage. D) a Macrophage and a red blood cell E) a B cell and a T cell

B) a B cell and a cancer cell. B lymphocyte (a mighty warrior) combined with a cancer cell (virtually immortal).....we get a monoclonal antibody !!!!

@Bile will enter the GI tract at which location ?

Duodenum The liver produces bile, a greenish yellow, thick, sticky fluid. Bile aids digestion by making cholesterol, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins easier to absorb from the intestine. Bile also helps eliminate certain waste products (mainly bilirubin and excess cholesterol) and by-products of drugs from the body.

catalysts aka __________ aka _________

Enzymes aka proteins

Meiosis will give rise to __________, while fertilization gives rise to a __________.

Gametes, zygote

Gram + VS Gram - Bacteria

Gram +: thick & purple Gram -: thin & pink/red https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Didrc3wJ3E8

homologous vs analogous

Homologous: share similar embryonic origin analogous: organs have a similar function.

The oxygen-binding curve for myoglobin is ?

Hyperbolic

**after glucose & fructose are made ________ will be cashed in for ATP at the "bank" called the _________.

NADH, electron transport chain

In _____ and cytokinesis Two haploid cells form, two chromatids (sister) still make up a chromosome.

Telophase I

The reticular formation was electrically stimulated in a lab experiment on an animal. This would most likely cause the animal to:

Wake up if it had been sleeping

@Chitin provides the main structural material in some external skeletons. This framework is rigid and covers the soft tissues underneath. It also provides muscles with a material to pull.The protective shell of chitin gives exoskeleton animals an advantage because it works as a kind of armor. Exoskeletons are made of joints that allow better leverage for animals to move their limbs. Chitin is a modified form of ? (A) Prostaglandin (B) Lipid (C) Protein (D) Nucleic acid (E) Carbohydrate

(E) Carbohydrate

plasma/cell membrane AKA ________ does what? What does it contain?

(plasmalemma) separates cytoplasm from its extracellular environment. Cell maintains homeostasis (steady state of equilibrium) with selective barrier that regulates ions & other solutes to be transported in or out. Contains ion channels, phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, glycoproteins.

isomerization is the "_______" of a group of the same molecule, called _______. Different from isomerase (enzymes convert one isomer to another isomer).

"shifting", mutase

If a bacteria lived in a hot spring, we'd expect to see an _____1____ in percentage of saturated fat & will prevent the bacterial membrane from _____2_____!! If too hot: _____3____ percentage of saturated fatty acids. If too cold: _____4____ percentage of unsaturated fatty acids

1) increase 2) melting 3) increase 4) increase

protein components can span the entire length (____1___) or are simply attached to the cytosolic side (____2___). Since most integral proteins span the entire length, we refer to them often as _____3_____. They are long and can fold while forming _____4____ that allow the passage of specific ions or molecules. **These proteins can ____5____ in a lateral motion along the plane of the membrane in this bilayer sea much like an iceberg. The model which shows this is called _____6_____. Lipids and many membrane proteins are in constant ___7____ motion.

1) integral 2) peripheral 3) transmembrane proteins 4) channels 5) float 6) Fluid Mosaic Model 7) lateral

@**The TCA cycle provides numerous ___1___ for the biosynthesis of molecules like ___2____ & ____2___! This cycle is a "metabolic furnace" that will ____3____ molecules that come from pyruvate. ATP is synthesized by substrate level phosphorylation when succinyl CoA synthase converts to ____4____. The energy comes from the hydrolysis of the ___5___ bond, which yields a very ____6____ reaction. Acetyl CoA is not only formed from ____7__, ____7____ can be oxidized into Acetyl CoA units during beta oxidation, and even some ___8____.

1) intermediates 2) porphoryins, and pyrimidine nucleotides 3) oxidize 4) succinate 5) thioester 6) exergonic 7) pyruvate, lipids 8) amino acids

**Enzymes that catalyze the same reactions but differ in subunit composition are called ___1___. Lactate dehydrogenase has __2__ isozymes!! The isozyme composition in various tissues is determined by ___3___. They may differ slightly in __4___ & __4___ values.

1) isozymes 2) 5 3) genetics 4) Vmax and Km

1) A hemophiliac male and a carrier female for hemophilia have a child. Show the possible outcomes. **What is the probability to have a boy who is normal?

1) its 50% because 2 boys and 2 girls and half is 50% 2) The probability to have a boy is 1⁄2. The probability to have a normal boy is 1⁄2. Thus, 1⁄2 * 1⁄2 = 1⁄4 or 25%.

Autoimmune Disease: The immune system fights _1__! Includes diseases like __1A__, __1A__, __1A___, ___1A__, __1A__, & __1A___. Loss of self-tolerance in __2__, T-cells destroy __3__ of many neurons in the CNS More often in _4__ than __4__! __5__ have been linked, as well as __6__ factors. In Rheumatoid arthritis, __7__ molecules are "locked up" by an __8__ and deposited on __9__ membranes. The deposit complex causes a cascade that leads to _10___ & __10__.

1) itself 1A) Lupus, Hashimoto, Sjogren's syndrome, Multiple Sclerosis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, & Type I Diabetes 2) multiple sclerosis 3) myelin sheath (insulating layer) 4) women than men 5) Genetics 6) environmental 7) IgG 8) antibody 9) joint 10) inflammation and pain

@One primer needed for __1__ strand & Separate primers needed for each __2__ strand. Primers [leads polymerase] are __3__ & _3__ with the correct DNA sequences in both mechanisms. __4__ removed the RNA nucleotides of the primer, and replaces them individually at the 3′ end of the adjacent Okazaki fragment. Okazaki fragments are joined into a continuous span under the direction of DNA __5_, to complete the lagging strand. After each DNA replication, some nucleotide is lost at the chromosome __6__. Eukaryotes have special nucleotide sequences called _7_ at their ends.

1) leading 2) Okazaki fragment lagging 3) removed and replaced 4) DNA Polymerase I [plumer] 5) ligase [gluing enzyme fills in gaps] 6) ends "tip" 7) telomeres start at 1:40 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqe4thU-os8

cellulose a ____1____ polymer of glucose with _____2______ linkage. Humans lack the enzyme to break this linkage! Cellulose is the most _____3_____ compound in the biosphere!

1) linear 2) β (1 4) glycosidic linkage 3) abundant

@amylose, a ____1____ polymer of glucose with _____2_____ linkages. Most starch from plants is ___3____% amylose.

1) liner 2) α (1⟶4)- glycosidic linkage (4 fav #) 3) 20%

@Triglycerides are a type of fat (____1____) found in your _____2_____ made from _____3____ & ____3____. The fatty acids can be _____4_____ with only single bonds or _____5_____ with 1 or more double bonds. The double bond is almost always ____6____. When you eat, your body _____7_____ any calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides. what do they look like?

1) lipid 2) blood 3) glycerol & 3 fatty acids 4) saturated 5) unsaturated 6) cis 7) converts

Membrane phospholipids are most stable when organized in a

1) lipid bilayer

Phospholipids are ____1____ that are a major component of all ______2______. They can form lipid bilayers because of their _____3_____ characteristic. The structure of the phospholipid molecule consists of two _____4_____ fatty acid "tails" and a ____5_____ "head" (R group) consisting of a _____6_____ group. what do they look like?

1) lipids 2) cell membranes 3) amphiphilic 4) hydrophobic 5) hydrophilic 6) phosphate

Terpenes are non-saponifiable ____1___, and do not contain _____2_____. Produced mainly by _____3_____, & used in _____4____, _____4_____, & _____4_____. What do they look like?

1) lipids 2) fatty acids 3) plants 4) spices, perfumes & medicines. terpenes have at least 10 C with fishhook inside with 5 C https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zw3qpFk4shI&feature=youtu.be&fbclid=IwAR3Yuyj0JbwI_AhhT_bg9p1DwzYhjS9blWbJDKSkIkLhRZeX7ra1TZIhuTE

Steroids are nonhydrolyzable ____1____ because they are hydrophobic and ____2_____ in water. steroids make up such things as _____3_____, _____3______, ____3______, & ____3______! what does a steroid look like?

1) lipids 2) insoluble 3) estrogen, cholesterol, progesterone, and testosterone has three six-membered rings and one five-membered ring

prostaglandins are a group of ____1____ made at sites of ______2______ or ______2_____ (made by most cells) that are involved in dealing with ______3_____, ____3______, _____3______, _____3_______, & _____3______. **Some prostaglandins enhance ______4______. ____5_____ can inhibit the work of an enzyme needed in the synthesis of prostaglandins. what do they look like?

1) lipids 2) tissue damage or infection 3) injury, inflammation, blood clotting, induced labor, and illness. 4) inflammation 5) Aspirin has 20 Carbons from Arachidonic acid.

@**The ___1___ is the principle site for the synthesis of cholesterol. Cholesterol is involved in the synthesis of ____2___ which are in the bile and assist in absorption of dietary lipids in the ____3____. Bile acids are often deprotonated becoming the ____4___. They also ___5___ fats. Cholesterol AKA _____6____ molecule (represent both beneficial and toxic effects), can be ____7____. When cholesterol percentage in bile gets too high, precipitation occurs to form ____8___. If a blockage occurs, bile cannot enter the ____9____, hence the ability to digest fats is lost. Bile pigments called ___10___ enter the blood and the skin becomes _____11____, a condition called ___12___. High cholesterol is associated with ____13___ disease. Bilirubin is excreted in ___14____ & ___14_____, and is the main cause of jaundice giving color to ___15____ & ___15____. Bilirubin can be "conjugated" (___16____ form) with a molecule of glucuronic acid which makes it more water _____17____. Bilirubin can function as an _____18____.

1) liver 2) bile acids 3) intestine 4) bile salts 5) emulsify (turn into) 6) Janus-faced 7) lethal 8) gallstones (hardened deposits of bile) 9) duodenum 10) bilirubin 11) yellow 12) jaundice 13) heart 14) bile and urine 15) bile and stool 16) main 17) soluble 18) antioxidant (inhibits/stop oxidation)

Membrane compositions of fish and other cold-blooded animals change when their environmental temperature is _____1_____. The unsaturated fatty acid content of the lipids in the cell membranes _____2_____ when the organism becomes adapted to the lower temperature. What is the purpose of this adaption?

1) lowered 2) increases It is essential to survival that a membrane be flexible and fluid-like. By increasing the percentage of unsaturated fat in the membrane we maintain flexibility and prevent it from becoming rigid.

Translation is similar to transcription in that it has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation is when __1__ is attached to the ribosome. Two sites exist _2__ binding site and _3_ binding site. The "_4__" amino acid is loaded onto a small ribosomal subunit. The anticodon matches up with AUG start codon to the mRNA at the __5_ site. Next, the _6_ site is now available to bring in amino acid #2. A _7__ subunit binds with this small subunit & we are ready for the second step... elongation.

1) mRNA 2) P (Pen*s starts) 3) A 4) "initiator" 5) P 6) A 7) large

@____1___ uses the D-sugars. ____2____ use the L-amino acids. All L-amino acids have the __3__-configuration except for _____4_____... ____5____ -containing amino acid.

1) man (that D) 2) Proteins (PLeaSe) 3) S 4) cysteine 5) sulfur

Sexual reproduction AKA ___1__ is a form of embryonic cell AKA __2__ cell, division that produces the egg and sperm cells known as ___3___. ___4___ daughter cells which are ___5___ are produced from a single precursor cell & ____6___ number is reduced in half. Cell will divide __7___ after chromosome replication, in contrast with just once as seen in mitosis. Two Divisions occur: A) B) ___8__ is a reductive division where Homologous chromosomes separate & Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, and cytokinesis occurs.

1) meiosis 2) germ 3) gametes 4) Four 5) haploid 6) Chromosome 7) twice A) meiosis I B) meiosis II 8) Meiosis I

@**Hydra are NOT protists, but small aquatic animal organisms that are _1_ in the _2_ kingdom, __3__ habitat of the phylum ___4__, __5__ and do not die of old age, have tentacles with stinging cells called __6_, reproduce __7__ & __7__ but more often __8__ through __9__, & non-motile (__10__).

1) multicelled 2) animal 3) Freshwater 4) Cnidaria 5) regenerate 6) nematocysts 7) sexually & asexually 8) asexually 9) budding 10) sessile

Not all mutations occur spontaneously; A chemical or physical agent that can interact with DNA and cause a mutation is called a _1__. They include __2__ & __2__ radiation. X-ray emanations can cause __3__ & _3__ that cannot restore proper function. DNA easily absorbs _4__ radiation. Two thymine bases that are next to each other __5__. A cell with many thymine dimers can either __6__ or __6__ (Stay out of the sun, dammit!!). A mutagen causes a mutation, but NOT necessarily a __7__. A __8__, however is a substance that induces a cancer & include most mutations. Thus, physical mutagens include _9__, __9__, etc. & Chemical mutagens include __10__, __10__, & __10__.

1) mutagen 2) X-rays and UV 3) free radicals and repair enzymes 4) UV 5) dimerize 6) die or undergo malignant transformation 7) cancer 8) carcinogen 9) X-Rays, Gamma rays [Physical seX Games] radiation/heat 10) aromatic amines, nitrous acid, & benzene [Chemical Apes Need Bananas]

@The change in the nucleotide gene sequence is called a _1__. DNA or RNA can have mutations where The genetic code is "_2__" meaning many of the 64 codons are redundant & If a single base pair of gene is affected it is a _3__ seen In __4_. A glutamic acid is replaced by a Valine on the _5__ chain of hemoglobin & _6__ cells are unable to bind O2 efficiently. The erythrocytes (red blood cells) tend to become _7__ in small blood vessels cutting off circulation and causing damage to an organ. Since a glutamic acid was changed to a valine, there is one less _8__ charge meaning, __9__ (sickled-hemoglobin) is more _10_ which is seen during analysis and electrophoretic mobility is examined.

1) mutation 2) "degenerate" 3) point mutation 4) sickle cell anemia 5) beta 6) Red blood 7) trapped 8) "-" 9) HbS 10) +

The DNA duplex is highly __1__ charged on phosphodiester linkages & will __2_ each other __3__ the interaction between the two strands. In NaCl the positive Na+ cation shields the negatively charged __4__ & increases the __5__ of the helix. Therefore, as the NaCl concentration decreases the amount of shielding __6__ and the stability of the helix __7__ resulting in a lower __8__. the rate increases when __9__ of single strands are in complementary sequences & form double strands as the __10__ of the DNA chains __11__; This is known as a __12__ interaction. Urea is a __13__ molecule which can act as a __14__ & __14__ & interferes with __15__. Since H-bonding interactions are responsible for stabilizing the double helix, urea __16__ the melting point by decreasing H-bond interactions.

1) negatively 2) repel 3) weakening 4) phosphate esters 5) stability 6) decreases 7) decreases 8) melting point 9) renaturation 10) concentration 11) increases 12) bimolecular 13) polar 14) H-bond donor and an H-bond acceptor 15) H-bonding 16) lowers

After the unwinding of DNA, DNA polymerases can now catalyze the synthesis of new DNA by adding __1__ to a preexisting chain, one by one working in a __2__ direction. The two DNA strands are not the same but run in __3__ directions known as antiparallel where the two strands are __4__ differently; but __5__ in the same 5′ to 3′ direction. One strand is made in a continuous fashion called the __6__ strand, while the other strand is made in a discontinuous fashion called the __7__ strand. The leading strand is made continuously in __8__ direction under __9__. **The lagging discontinuous strand grow in the __10__ direction & is made in a series of segments called __11__.

1) nucleotides 2) 5′ to 3′ 3) opposite 4) replicated 5) elongated 6) leading 7) lagging 8) 5′ to 3′ 9) DNA Polymerase III [plumer] 10) 3′ to 5′ 11) Okazaki fragments

Mitosis gives two separate cells, each with a __1__, __1___, & __1___; However, this does not always occur. Sometimes, cell division does not do cytokinesis & the result is called __2__ in animals, or __3__ in plants. Usually, hyphae are divided into cells by structures called ___4__ which have pores that allow __5___ & __5___ flow from cell to cell. Some fungi lack septa and are __6__ cells called ___7__ fungi where Hundreds or thousands of nuclei are present caused by repeated cell division of nuclei without ___8__.

1) nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane 2) synctium [ASs] 3) coenocyte [PiC] 4) septa 5) organelles and nuclei 6) multinucleated 7) coenocytic hyphae 8) cytokinesis

Movement of cells occur in gastrulation (U-shaped structure) & In __1__ we see a shape change (___2___) and cell differentiation continue. The greatest changes in cell shape and position occur in ___3__ & ___3__. During organogenesis in vertebrates, Condensing of ___4___ gives rise to the ___5___- a rod of stiffened tissue structure that supports all chordates. Neural plate forms from the ___6__ and rolls into the neural tube (in pic spelled wrong) becoming the ___7___. ___8__, arranged along the notochord, are formed which represent blocks of mesoderm giving rise to ___9___ & ___9___.

1) organogenesis 2) morphogenesis 3) gastrulation and organogenesis 4) mesoderm 5) notochord 6) ectoderm 7) central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) 8) Somites 9) vertebrae and muscle

Myoglobin shows no change in O2 binding over a wide ___1__ range, nor does ___2___ have much of an effect. When muscle is rapidly ____3___, the amount of ___4__ & ___4__ increase and promote the ___5___ of O2 meaning Hb has decreased it's affinity for O2 & Hb dumps its O2 off called ___6__. **An oxygen dissociation/release curve shows __7___ pH on hemoglobin "shifted the curve to the ___8__", dumped off __9___ to tissues in need!!! BPG AKA ___10__ drastically effects the binding capacity of Hb by a factor of ___11__!!! (This BPG molecule is synthesized from an intermediate in the ___12___ pathway). BPG binds to the deoxy ___13__ form & the positively charged groups on the ___14___ deoxy form. O2 dumps off more easily when ___15___ is around.

1) pH 2) CO2 3) contracting 4) CO2 and H+ 5) release 6) Bohr effect 7) Low 8) right 9) O2 10) 2,3-DPG 11) 26 12) glycolysis 13) Hb 14) β-chain 15) BPG

**Archae are not __1___. Taking too many antibiotics or the wrong dosage can cause superinfection & the development of __2___ bacteria as well as __3___ helpful bacteria. Resistance may occur when bacteria change in response to use of __4__, __4__, or __4__ during conjugation. Common areas include ___5__, ___5__, & __5__.

1) pathogenic 2) resistant 3) killing 4) antibiotics, mutations, or transfer of plasmids 5) GI tract, respiratory tract, & genitourinary tract.

The thousands of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions in cells are functionally organized into many different sequences of consecutive reactions called _____1_____, in which the product of one reaction becomes the reactant in the next. Some of these sequences of enzyme- catalyzed reactions degrade organic nutrients into _______2_______, in order to ____3______ energy and convert it into a form useful to the cell. Together these degradative (degrades biological molecules), free-energy yielding reactions are designated as ____4____. Other enzyme-catalyzed pathways start from _____5______ molecules and convert them to ______6_______, these pathways need energy input and are called _____7_____. The network of enzyme-catalyzed pathways make-up the ____8_____.

1) pathways 2) simple end products 3) extract chemical 4) catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones) 5) small precursor 6) larger and more complex acids 7) anabolism (acid) 8) cell metabolism

A ___1____ is a vesicle formed around a particle engulfed by a phagocyte via phagocytosis by the fusion of the cell membrane around a microorganism or ____2____ cell (a cell that no longer ____3____). It fuses with the ____4_____ and the enzymes begin digestion. **In ____5____ disease, a critical lysosomal enzyme is deficient... ____6____ cannot be digested, and cells become "_____7____" and neuronal function suffers ... the child dies before age ___8___.

1) phagosome 2) senescent 3) divides 4) lysosome 5) Tay-Sachs 6) lipids 7) engorged (swell with fluid) 8) 4

____1____ (PEP) is a very high-energy molecule. Since water is lost, this is a ___2____ reaction. It transfers its phosphate group to ___3____ transferring into ATP, (think substrate-level phosphorylation); catalyzed by a kinase!! If ___4___ is lacking, the reaction does not stop here, but proceeds to make lactate and NAD+. The NAD+ is recycled for ____5____. **Pyruvate is ____6___; NADH is ___7___.

1) phosphoenolpyruvate 2) dehydration 3) ADP 4) O2 5) glycolysis 6) reduced 7) oxidized

The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species is termed __1__. In ___2__, organisms are put into categories based on similarities and differences. Hierarchical classification: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) **Binomial nomenclature developed by __3__. __4___ & __4___ of A polar bear is Ursus & maritimus & grizzy bear is Ursus & horribilis. A ___5__ AKA cladogram is a representation of the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. A __6__ is a group of organisms that will include an ancestor and the descendants of that ancestor. The tree is built according to ___7__, __7___, & __7___ traits of an organism. The phylogenetic tree helps us to understand how various functions evolved, and to study the lineage of various species.

1) phylogeny 2) taxonomy a) Domain... (Bacteria, Eukarya, Archae) Bacteria and Archae contain prokaryotes!! b) Kingdom c) Phylum d) Class e) Order f) Family g) Genus h) Species (can interbreed) [Did King Pikachu Come Over For Great Soup] 3) C. Linnaeus 4) Genus & Species 5) phylogenetic tree 6) clade 7) morphology, genetic, and behavioral

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of __1_, __1__, & __1__ organisms that include __2__ & __2__. Mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble __3__. The __4__ code has a few unique codons that do not occur in the "normal" genetic code. Protists contain the most diverse __5__ genomes, having __6__ different types & Animal cells only __7__. DNA in a __8__ & __8__ is circular, and mitochondria multiply by "__9__" in half. In addition, mitochondria & bacterium have their own __10__. The endosymbiont event occurred early in the history of the __11___.

1) plants, algae, and other eukaryotic 2) chloroplasts and chromoplasts [have the word plast in it] 3) bacteria 4) mitochondrial 5) mitochondria 6) five 7) one 8) mitochondrion & bacterium 9) "pinching" 10) cell membranes 11) eukaryote

Translation is the synthesis of a __1__ directed by __2__ which occurs in the __3__. rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA work together outside the nucleus to form the needed polypeptides assembled at __4__ (found in both __5__ & __5__). Each __6__ is specific for a particular amino acid (i.e. if we have 300 amino acids, __7__ tRNA molecules are needed). The reaction that joins the amino acid to the specific tRNA is called __8__ which allows the amino acid to bond at the _9__ end of the t-RNA; At least __10__ synthetase enzyme for each amino acid! Now, the tRNA molecule must join with the appropriate mRNA __11__ which is an mRNA triplet; 64 codons exist (__12__ = 64 different codon combinations possible with a triplet codon of three nucleotides).

1) polypeptide 2) RNA 3) cytoplasm 4) ribosomes 5) prokaryotes and eukaryotes 6) tRNA 7) 300 8) Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase 9) 3′ 10) one 11) codon 12) 43

The nuclear envelope contains ____1____ used for importing and exporting materials such as ____2___ or ____2___. Most cells have a ____3___ nucleus, but some cells have multiple nuclei and a few cells have none. ____4____ (multinucleated cell) are cells that break down bone. (Multinucleated cells can be found under _____5_____ (diseased) conditions like a malignant (cancerous) tumor). Skeletal muscle cells and liver cells are also _____6____. A Red blood has ___7___ nucleus. ____8____ (thrombocytes) are small colorless disk-shaped cell fragment involved with ____9____ also have ____10____ nucleus.

1) pores 2) proteins or RNA 3) single 4) Osteoclasts 5) pathological 6) multinucleated 7) no 8) Platelets 9) blood clotting 10) no

When lactose is __1_ it needs to be metabolized. __2__, an isomer of lactose formed in reasonably small numbers acts as an _3__ which binds to the __4__, __4__, & __4__. The __5__ site is now exposed to RNA polymerase and transcription can begin!

1) present 2) Allolactose 3) inducer 4) repressor, distorts its shape & prevents the repressor from binding to the operator 5) promoter

Only when lactose is _1__ and glucose levels are _2__ does E. coli use lactose as an energy source, and make the three enzymes Permease, Transacetylase, and β-Galactosidase. When glucose levels are _3__, __4__ accumulates and binds to CAP (catabolic activator protein) & has the proper shape to bind to the upstream portion of the promoter which aids in attaching __5__ to the promoter. If glucose is high, cyclic AMP (LOW) levels __6__ & __6__ efficiently to its binding site causing detachment making RNA polymerase binds less efficiently and transcription __7__. Lac operon is under a dual control: a) Negative control by the __8__ b) Positive control by __9__

1) present 2) low 3) low 4) cyclic AMP (High) 5) RNA polymerase 6) fall off, & binds less 7) decreases 8) lac repressor protein [Negative lac protein] 9) CAP [C Always Positive]

@Fertilization in Mammals is internal & Secretions in the female reproduction tract aid in sperm motility known as __1__. Zona pellucida (extracellular egg matrix) contains ___2__ receptors for them to bind to. Binding will allow for ___3__ reaction to occur (same in sea urchins). After fusion, the __4__ sperm is taken into the egg (not just contact like sea urchin), & fertilization is __5__ in mammals than in sea urchins. Once fertilization occurs, we see __6__ which is a rapid period of mitosis, __7___ & __7___ phases of the cycle are carried out! Cytoplasm is now divided into smaller cells called ___8___. Continued cleavage gives a solid ball of cells called a __9__. From here, a fluid-filled cavity called a __10__ forms within this morula and begins to hollow called a __11__. (About __12__ cells or __13__ cleavages). In many animals, __14__ distribution is the most important driving force for cleavage pattern. Two poles are noted: a) b) When sperm penetrates an egg, structural reorganization occurs within the egg ___15___. After cleavage, cell division __16__ and gastrulation occurs to form a __17__. Three germ layers __18___, ___18___, & __18___ result from gastrulation.

1) progesterone 2) sperm 3) acrosomal (head of sperm) 4) entire 5) slower 6) cleavage 7) S (DNA synthesis) and M (mitosis cell division) 8) blastomeres 9) morula 10) blastocoel 11) blastula 12) 128 13) 7 14) yolk a) Vegetal Pole: high in yolk [Venus high] b) Animal Pole: low in yolk [Anus low] 15) cytoplasm 16) slows 17) gastrula 18) (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm)

Most ___1__ are unicellular & Display a range of shapes: a) __2__: are round & can exist ___3___, ___3___, groups of four (tetrads), ___4___, ___4___, or in cubes consisting of eight cells (sarcinae). b) __5__: rod shaped c) __6__ Prokaryotes belong to kingdom __7__ & divide by __8__, asexual! Highly successful because they can ___9__ rapidly given favorable conditions. A new generation can appear in under ___10__!! Many use flagella to move and exhibit __11__ toward or away from a stimulus (light or presence of food). __12__... e.g. bacteria moves toward food. __13__... e.g. bacteria moves away from a toxic chemical. Prokaryotic flagella (spins) and eukaryotic flagella (waves) are an example of __14__ structures. Prokaryotes have many __15__ present, __16___ that mediates flow of material, __17__, __17___, __17___, & __17___ are all present. **Bacteria (prokaryotes) DON'T have __18__ structure noted for flagella, as seen with eukaryotes.

1) prokaryotes 2) Coccus 3) singly, in pairs (diplococci) 4) chains (streptococci), clusters (staphylococci) 5) Bacilli 6) Spiral 7) Monera 8) binary fission 9) reproduce 10) a half hour 11) taxis 12) + Chemotaxis 13) - Chemotaxis 14) analogous (similar) 15) ribosomes 16) plasma membrane 17) Channels, proteins, receptors, and transporters 18) 9+2

Ribosomes are found in both ____1_____ & _____1____. "____2___" made of rRNA and over 80 different proteins. Sites of protein synthesis are: a) ___________ b) ___________ c) ___________ Cells making an ____3____ will have a lot of ribosomes. They consist of ___4___ subunits which are made in the ____5____ of the cell. The subunits are made ____6____ in the nucleolus and exported to the ____7___ for final assembly. The large and small subunit join together by binding an ____8___ strand.

1) prokaryotes and eukaryotes 2) "The Protein factories" a) Attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum b) Attached to the Nuclear Envelope c) Freely suspended in the cytosol 3) enzyme 4) two 5) nucleolus 6) separately 7) cytoplasm 8) mRNA

In ___1__ pairing of Homologous chromosomes (___2___ chromosomes) align so their genes match up, known as ___3__. The __4__ complex is a protein that provides structural framework for crossing over to occur. Crossing over AKA ___5__ is the exchange of ___6___ material during sexual reproduction between two ___7__ chromosome's non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes. Chromosomes, which originally carried AA and aa alleles, respectively, now carry ___8__ alleles in both chromosomes as their new position (locus), at the end of prophase I. These bivalents have ___9__ chromosomes and ___10___ chromatids, with ___11___ chromosome originating from each parent. **Crossing over occurs when all __12__ chromatids are ___13__. __14___ or ___14___ of genes may reside (live in) on each chromosome. The chromosome moves as a unit during this process, any loci (new position) on the same chromosome are "___15___", meaning the tendency of genes on the same chromosome to stay together in the same gamete. The ___16___ the two genes are in distance, the __17___ the possibility of a cross over and _18__ (result of a crossover) between them.

1) prophase I 2) bivalent 3) synapsis 4) synaptonemal 5) chiasma (crossover point) 6) genetic 7) homologous 8) Aa 9) two 10) four 11) one 12) four 13) synapsed 14) Hundreds or thousands 15) "linked" 16) further apart 17) greater 18) recombination

During the process of electron transport, ____1____ are pumped out of the matrix into the ____2____. The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to ____3____, & the pumping of protons results in a ____4___ across the membrane. The gradient of protons represents both a ____5____ of charge across the inner mitochondrial membrane (a potential ___6___ to ___6___; __6___ to ___6__), and a ___7___ energy (from ____8____ gradient). Together these constitute a proton-motive force that drives the synthesis of ATP by the ____9____. This proton gradient is the basis of the ____10____ hypothesis and responsible for oxidative phosphorylation by the electron transport chain. This hypothesis as suggested by ____11____ states that ion gradients represent a ___12___ energy state which can be used to drive processes that are by themselves ____13____. Thus, ____14____ leads to a proton gradient which flows back into the mitochondrion through the ___15____ and at the same time the energy available in this gradient is used to drive the synthesis of ___16___. Therefore, electron transport is coupled to oxidative _____17____ through this gradient.

1) protons 2) cytosol 3) protons 4) proton gradient 5) separation 6) + to -; outside to inside 7) free 8) concentration 9) ATPase 10) chemiosomotic 11) Peter Mitchell 12) high 13) endergonic 14) electron transport 15) ATPase 16) ATP 17) phosphorylation

Fungi are categorized mainly on the basis of their __1__ structures. _2_ reproduction is done by spores which is a haploid cell resulting from __3__ of a __4__ parent. ___5__, __5__, & __5___ disperse the spores & When conditions are favorable the spores develop into new __6__. __7__ do not make spores; they reproduce by a process called __8__ where the offspring is "pinched" off from the parent. __9__ reproduction is also done by all fungi where Mating between haploid __10__ occurs resulting in a __11___ spore called a __12___ that undergoes meiosis forming new haploid cells that can also develop new hyphae. **In the Zygospore a hypha bears a spore sac called a __13__ & the spores within this structure give rise to a new __14__ that hyphae grow from.

1) reproductive 2) Asexual 3) mitosis 4) haploid 5) Water, wind, and other organisms 6) hyphae 7) Yeast 8) budding 9) Sexual 10) hyphae 11) diploid 12) Zygospore 13) sporangium 14) mycelium

A Competitive Inhibitor is ____1____, ____1____, & ____1____. ____2___ [S] can help the situation and ___3___ the effect of the inhibitor, e.g. statin drugs involved with lowering cholesterol inhibit a certain enzyme that makes ____4___. **If you drink ___5___, you might go blind. Alcohol dehydrogenases convert methanol into ___6___. If given ___7___, it will compete for the active site of the enzyme and methanol can be excreted harmlessly in the ___8___. A competitive inhibitor will increase the "apparent" ___9___ for a given substrate since more [S] is needed to achieve 1⁄2 Vmax.

1) reversible, competes for the active site that substrate normally binds, & Vmax stays the same 2) Increasing 3) reverse 4) cholesterol 5) methanol 6) formaldehyde 7) ethanol 8) urine 9) Km

After termination in transcription a "post-transcriptional" modification must occur before we bind to the __1__. 1) The transcript gets a "cap" at the __2__ end where three __3__ groups are present and could be degraded by enzymes such as __4__. A large moiety (distinct part of a large molecule) is placed at the end of this phosphate trio called _5__ or __5__ the 5′ end from degradation & enhancing stability of our newly-formed RNA. 2) A polyA tail is added to our __6__ end which is a bunch of __7__ nucleotides that protects the 3′ end of our RNA from enzymes like __8___ & __8__. **snRNP's and other proteins form a complex called a __9__ where the "cutting" occurs. After all this cutting m-RNA molecule has __10__ & leaves the nucleus as a __11__ mRNA than before.

1) ribosome 2) 5′ 3) phosphate 4) phosphatases 5) "capped" or protecting 6) 3′ 7) adenine 8) phosphatases and nucleases 9) spliceosome 10) exons (DNA or RNA molecule containing coding) 11) smaller

Most _____1____ fats are solids at room temperature, while most _____2_____ fats are oils.

1) saturated 2) unsaturated

@Cells have ____1____, _____1____, & _____1_____. A system of tubules and filaments comprise the _____2_____. The cell organelles can be membranous such as the ____3_____ or ____3____, or be non- membranous such as the _____4____.

1) shape, can move and communicate 2) cytoskeleton 3) mitochondria or lysosome 4) ribosomes

@Waxes are ______1_______ esters made of fatty acids (COOH) and long-chain _____2______. _____3_____ is the structural material for the beehive. what do they look like?

1) simple lipids 2) alcohols 3) Beeswax

RNA is __1__-stranded & has 3 major kinds; describe what they do & what they look like: a) b) c) Cells contain up to 8x more __2__ than __2__

1) single a) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): forms ribosome, most abundant 60% RNA, 40% protein b) Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries DNA info to ribosomes, shortest lived c) Transfer RNA (tRNA): transports AMINO ACIDS to ribosomes, lowest molecular weight, smallest 2) RNA than DNA.

The outer membrane allows the passage of ___1___ molecules and ions. The inner membrane is highly folded and is a _____2____ space, even to small ions! The inner mitochondrial membrane is where the electron ____3____ chain makes up almost __4__% of the ATP is found. The ____5___ of the mitochondria is enclosed by the inner membrane where ____6____ (TCA cycle) and ____7____ processes occur & contains many _____8___, ____8____, & ____8____. Very gel-like and ___9____.

1) small 2) closed 3) transport 4) 90% 5) matrix 6) Kreb Cycle 7) Fatty Acid Oxidative 8) enzymes, ribosomes, and mitochondrial DNA 9) viscous

@Platelets (Thrombocytes) are __1__ & Involved with _2__, Live about __3__, & __3__. If a blood vessel is injured platelets combine with __4__ and become activated leading to a clot. In a blood clot AKA _5__ we see _6__ aggregating into thin threads along with _7__, __7__, & __7__. Platelets originate from giant cells located in the bone marrow called _8__. **List the cell abundance from largest to smallest: __9__ > __9___ > __9___.

1) small fragments of cells 2) blood clotting 3) 2 weeks, & No nucleus 4) collagen (a fibrous protein) 5) thrombus 6) fibrin 7) RBCs, WBCs, and platelets 8) Megakaryocytes 9) Red Blood Cells > Platelets > White Blood Cells [Ross Poops Well]

Chromosomes do not move on their own, but are moved by a ___1__ apparatus composed of organized arrays of __2___. In animal cells, the assembly of the spindle microtubules begin at a structure called a ___3___. (Recall that flagella and cilia were made from microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement). The centrosome consists of __4__ centrioles (only in animal cells) ___5__ to each other. Just before ___6___, these two centrosomes move apart until they are opposite sides of the nucleus. As mitosis proceeds, microtubules known as ___7___ grow out from each centrosome. Plant cells do not have ___8__, but have a mitotic __9___.

1) spindle 2) microtubules 3) centrosome 4) two 5) perpendicular 6) mitosis 7) spindle fibers 8) centrioles 9) spindle

Meiosis II is Similar to mitosis where A ___1___ apparatus forms & separates the two ___2___. In Metaphase II ___3___ stranded chromosomes become attached to the spindle, each ___4__ is aligned at spindle equator. At Anaphase II Each ___5___ splits at the centromere; the resulting chromosomes, each with one ___6___, move toward opposite poles. Finally, in Telophase II and cytokinesis Four ___7___ nuclei form; after cytokinesis each gamete has a ___8___ number of chromosomes.

1) spindle 2) sister chromatids 3) Double 4) chromosome 5) chromosome 6) sister chromatid 7) daughter 8) haploid

Porifera Includes ___1__: have __2___ to trap food, & contain a central __3___ or __3___, surrounded by a collar of ___4__.

1) sponges 2) choanocytes 3) flagellum or cilium 4) microvilli

Cholesterol is an unsaturated ____1_____ alcohol which makes up a significant part of _____2_____. The _____3______ are like hormones, but work together with hormones. In some organs they: -1) ____________ -2) _____________

1) steroid 2) membranes. 3) prostaglandins -1) Help regulate blood flow -2) Effect nerve transmission

Termination in translation is where the Synthesis will stop when a _1__ is read on the mRNA and the polypeptide is released from the ribosome. There are 3 STOP codons in the genetic code - _2__, __2__, & __2__. A "__3__" is a protein that binds to our ribosome which cause enzymatic activity that cause the mRNA and chain to be released from the ribosome. Our newly formed polypeptide moves into the _4_ with other proteins or enters the __5__ to take on their final form before moving to their final destination.

1) stop codon 2) UAG, UAA, and UGA 3) "release factor" 4) cytoplasm 5) rough endoplasmic reticulum

Arthropods are the Most ___1___ of all animal phyla and the ____2__!! It includes ___3___, ___3___, ___3____, ___3___, Spiders, scorpions, mites, millipedes, etc. They have ___4___ bodies, efficient ___5__ system and ___6__, & ___6___ that can shed (molting). **Arthropods have Jointed ___7__ that allows them to move from __8__, ___8__, & __8___!! They Have eyes with thousands of ___9___, ___9___, & ___9___systems for gas exchange. **Grasshoppers use __10___ tubules to aid in metabolic ___11__ removal.

1) successful 2) largest 3) Insects, Crustaceans like crayfish, lobster, shrimp 4) Segmented 5) nervous 6) sensory organs, & Hard chitinous exoskeleton 7) appendages 8) predators, hunt for food, and fight 9) photoreceptors, Open circulatory system, & use tracheal 10) Malpighian 11) waste

@MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) Are proteins that reside on the cell __1_ of most cells except __2_ cells & involve immune cells in antigen presentation to __3__. We divide these proteins into two subdivisions: Class I Proteins: all cells except __4__ (__4__ amino acids in length) & bind antigens inside the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) derived from inside cell. Class II Proteins: _5__, __5_, & __5__ cells; (__6__ amino acids in length) & bind antigens inside endosomes derived from outside cell. A pathogen is captured by a cell and broken into many fragments termed "__7__" that bind to a __8__ molecule __9__ the cell & the class __10__ protein forms a complex which is transported to the cell surface which exposes the peptides to the cell __11__. This combination of MHC molecule and antigen is recognized by a __12__. Two events can occur: a) b) Class I: presents to __13__ & Class II: presents to __14__ & __14__. These classes help __15__ to recognize an antigen.

1) surface 2) red blood 3) T-cells 4) erythrocytes (8-12 5) macrophages, B-lymphocytes, and dendritic [Mac B-lymping Dog] 6) 13-25 7) "antigen fragments" 8) MHC 9) inside 10) I 11) exterior 12) T-cell a) Cell targeted for death b) Immune system activated 13) cytotoxic T cells 14) cytotoxic T-cells and helper T-cells 15) lymphocytes

Platyhelminthes Are flatworms like ___1__ & __1___. They are ___2____ & ___2___: a solid body animal lacking a body cavity with fluid (like vertebrates, they have a body cavity that is derived from ___3__).

1) tapeworms and flukes 2) Unsegmented & Acoelomates 3) mesoderm

We can starve for about ____1___ before we die, but carbohydrates are exhausted within ____2____. The brain cannot tolerate low ____3___ levels for even a short time. The ____4____ & ____4____ are absolutely dependent on this fuel. Like an overnight fast, the first day of starvation sees a decreased secretion of ____5____ and an increased secretion of ____6____. Glucagon is a ____7____ hormone, produced by ____8____ cells of the ____9____ & muscle now shifts from glucose to ____10___ for fuel!! Triglycerides in ____11___ tissue and gluconeogenesis by the liver are the ____12___ processes. The ____13___ Oxidation of fatty acids halts the formation of Acetyl CoA from pyruvate. Three days of starvation will result in an important change where large amounts of compounds called ____14____ are formed by the___15___.

1) three months 2) one day 3) glucose 4) brain and red blood cells 5) insulin 6) glucagon 7) peptide 8) alpha 9) pancreas 10) fatty acids 11) adipose 12) dominant 13) Beta 14) ketone bodies 15) liver

@In a _____1____ electron microscope study, we would see the external of the cell showing a "fuzzy" area, this is the _____2____. It's the _____3_____ chains covalently linked to the _____4____ proteins and/or ____5____ on the outer portion. It has many _____6____ charged ___7____ & ____7___ groups. They are involved with making up ____8____ that participate in functions such as ____9____, _____9___, & ____9____.

1) transmission 2) glycocalyx 3) carbohydrate 4) transmembrane 5) phospholipids 6) negatively 7) sulfate and carboxyl 8) receptors 9) cell recognition, hormone response, and adhesion.

The Krebs cycle AKA ____1_____ cycle (TCA cycle) AKA citric acid cycle, occurs in the ___2___ of the mitochondria and represents ____3____ respiration; except ____4___, which is part of the____5____ mitochondrial membrane, the site of the Electron Transport Chain! If O2 is present, pyruvate combines with a molecule called ____6___ (CoA). Whats the reaction equation for this?

1) tricarboxylic acid 2) matrix 3) aerobic 4) succinic dehydrogenase 5) inner 6) Coenzyme A

A circulatory system must be equipped with __1__, __1___, & __1___. This pump generates the needed __2__ to keep the blood flowing. Two types of circulatory systems: open circulatory system and closed circulatory system. Open Circulatory System: The fluid is called __3__ AKA __3__. Hemolymph is pumped into body cavities known as __4__. __5___ & __5__ have this type of system. Closed Circulatory System: __6__ moves in vessels in continuously connected walls of a __7__ & __7__. _8___, __8__, & __8__ have a closed circulatory system. High blood pressures occur allowing more effective _9__ & __9__ delivery to body cells. Vessels such as __10__, __10___, & __10___ are the three main types.

1) tubes, fluid, and a muscular pump (heart) 2) pressure 3) hemolymph AKA "interstitial fluid" 4) sinuses 5) Arthropods and most mollusks 6) blood 7) heart and vasculature 8) Annelids, Cephalopods, and all vertebrates 9) O2 and nutrient 10) arteries, veins, and capillaries

In endocytosis we see uptake of a molecule and produce a new ____1____ from the plasma membrane. There are 3 types of endocytosis: All require ___2____. ____3____: cell eating... such as the engulfing of microorganisms, cellular ____4_____, ____4_____ cells (e.g. ___5______ & _____5____). ____6___: cell drinking... the cell takes in droplets of extracellular fluid which contains the ____7____ molecules. ____8____: the capture of macromolecules using ____9____ proteins in the cell membrane & then become associated _____10____ as well using a major player molecule called ____11___. ____12____, ____12____, ___12_____, ___12____, & ____12_____ are bound at the cell surface. A region of the cell membrane called a ___13____ is lined by a layer of proteins & when it binds it forms a vesicle!!

1) vesicle 2) ATP 3) Phagocytosis 4) debris, old worn-out 5) macrophages and neutrophils 6) Pinocytosis 7) solute 8) Cell-Mediated Endocytosis 9) receptor 10) intracellularly 11) clathrin 12) Hormones, growth factors, antibodies, & antigens 13) coated pit

@Protein/enzyme structure has four levels: Primary structure is the ____1___. Secondary structure is the ___2___ form of local segments of proteins. The two most common secondary structural elements are ____3____ & ____3___. Its the conformation in a ___4___ region of a polypeptide molecule. The conformations are the same in different regions of the molecule for some polypeptides but are different in different regions for other polypeptides. Tertiary structure is 3D & exists when the polypeptide has different ____5___ structures in ____6___ local regions. Stabilized by molecular __7__. Quaternary structure is 3D & exists only in proteins in which ___8___ or ___8____ polypeptide molecules ____9___ together.

1) α-amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. 2) 3D 3) alpha helices and beta sheets 4) local 5) secondary 6) different 7) chaperones 8) two or more 9) aggregate (combine)

_______1_________, which used to be called hyaline membrane disease, is one of the most common problems of premature babies. babies would need extra oxygen and help ______2______. This course of illness depends on the size and _____3______ age of the baby, the severity, presence of infection, whether or not a baby has a patent ductus arteriosus (a heart condition), and whether or not the baby needs mechanical help to breathe. Which of the below is most likely involved ? a) Iron from Hb b) B-12 c) Surfactant from Type 1 alveolar cells d) Surfactant from Type 2 alveolar cells e) Myoglobin f) Ubiquinone

1)Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) 2)breathing 3)gestational (how far along the pregnancy is) c) Surfactant from Type 1 alveolar cells

How many structural isomers would there be for Val⋅Ala⋅Tyr? How many optical isomers?

3! = 3 X 2 X 1 = 6 N= 3 since each is chiral. 2^3 = 8

The nuclear DNA is found in different configurations such as: A) B) **__1__ is Dark staining in electron micrographs, DNA is __2__ actively transcribed, Located near __3_, _4__, & __4__. __5__ is white in electron micrographs, __6__, DNA available for __7__, "__8_ chromatin", More dispersed and __9__ compacted.

A) Euchromatin B) Heterochromatin 1) Heterochromatin 2) not 3) nuclear envelope 4) Compacted, & Eukaryotic 5) Euchromatin 6) Eukaryotic 7) transcription 8) "True 9) less

What are the 3 major components of the nucleus bounded by a pair of lipid membranes, and describe them? A) ________ B) _________ C) _________ Chromatin can be either ____1_____ or ____1____. _____2____ is dark-staining and found near the _____3_____. It is ___4____ and ___5___ actively transcribed. The ____6____ is the light area, less dense, _____7____ and has genes that are ____8___ transcribing. In most cells, more of the ____9___ is found in euchromatin than heterochromatin.

A) Nucleolus: rRNA synthesis B) Chromatin: genetic material C) Nucleoplasm: the content of the nucleus, excluding the nucleolus 1) heterochromatin or euchromatin. 2) Heterochromatin 3) nuclear envelope 4) condensed 5) not 6) euchromatin 7) less compact 8) actively 9) DNA

name the 4 plasma membranes main functions:

A) Physical barrier: partitions (separation) substances on the inside vs. outside B) Cell Communication: receptors!! C) Selective Structure: regulates ion and molecule flow D) Protection and Support: maintains cell integrity

in RNA which amino acids connect and how many H bonds in each? which are Purines & Pyrimidines? How many rings in each?

A=U two H-bonds C≡G three H-bonds RNA: contains the N-bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil Purines: A and G... 2 rings Pyrimidines: C, U, T... 1 ring [before you eat Py you CUT it & have 1 piece] A purine pairs with a pyrimidine always!

@What is ATP?

Adenosine Triphosphate, allows endergonic reactions to become exergonic. ATP represents the universal currency of free energy in all biological processes.

Where is testosterone produced in the human female ?

Adrenal gland and Ovary

Fluoroacetate readily crosses cellular and mitochondrial membranes to combine with acetyl CoA. to form Fluoroacetate CoA known as TROJAN HORSE inhibitor. This will disrupt which metabolic cycle to the greatest extent ? A) Glycolysis B) Krebs Cycle C) Fatty Acid oxidation D) Urea Cycle E) Fatty Acid Synthesis.

B) Krebs Cycle Normally, when we decarboxylate pyruvate, we combine with CoA to make Acetyl CoA. Since this process is inhibited...KREB CYCLE is inhibited

Bactericidal drug VS Bacteriostatic drug

Bactericidal drug: kills bacterium [suICIDAL kill] Bacteriostatic drug: limits bacterial growth & immune system eliminate pathogen [static stationary limited]

If a DNA sample has 20% cytosine, what is the % of adenine.

C pairs with G. 20% C = 20% G, this makes 40%. The 60% left over must be equally split between A and T. Thus 30% T and 30% A.

According to the rule of _____ in DNA which amino acids connect and how many H bonds in each? In DNA whats on the inside & outside?

Chargraff A=T two H-bonds [Apples in the Tree] C≡G three H-bonds [Car in the Garage] Amount of adenine = amount of thymine Amount of cytosine = amount of guanine In DNA: inside: purines & pyrimidine outside: sugar & phosphate

the duodenum responds by releasing the digestive hormones called __________ & __________. whats the difference?

Cholecystokinin & secretin enzymes: CCK. secretin: bicarbonate ion HCO3-!!!!

@____ is Another type of intermediate inheritance where a pair of nonidentical alleles specify two phenotypes both expressed at the same time in the heterozygote. EX: If a person has AB blood type:One parent gives iA allele, other parent gives iB allele. We get iAiB which is blood type ____. The A and B alleles are said to be codominant.

Codominance, AB

@whats the difference between each & which animal phyla are in Coelomates (AKA _____): Acoelomates: Pseudocoelomates "______":

Coelomates (AKA eucoelomates) have a body cavity: mollusks, annelids, arthropods, echinoderms, mammals, & chordates (Coel "call" MAMA Every Christmas) Acoelomates have no body cavity & Semi-solid mesodermal tissues between gut and body wall: Platyhelminthes [Ah No Please] Pseudocoelomates "false cavity", a fluid filled body cavity: nematodes [Pff Now!]

Colloblasts are associated most closely with which of the following organisms?

Ctenophores

@why are triglycerides hydrogenated? Why does partial hydrogenation produce "bad" fats?

-To convert the liquid molecule into a semi-solid! Adding H2 makes a nicer appearance and longer shelf-life! -Catalysts can isomerize cis-double bonds into trans double bonds... called trans-fats cause an increase in LDL cholesterol!!

Genes on the X or Y chromosome are said to be sex linked "__1__" & we don't deal with many Y-linked traits, known as __2__. Some X-Linked diseases are: a) b) c) Each __3__: has an X chromosome Each __4__: has X or Y chromosome Females (mammals) have 1 chromosome that is inactivated in embryonic development by methylation called a __5__ & A male is XY called __6__. Over 150 genes have been assigned to the X chromosome, very few are known on the Y chromosome. XY = _7__ XCY = _8__ XX = __9__ XCX = __10__ XCXC = __11__ Most sex-linked diseases are _12__ meaning a __13__ has the disease since men have only a single X chromosome, but a __14__ with one "bad" gene would only be a carrier! Females must be __15__. Non-sex chromosomes are __16__.**__17__ give sex-linked genes to their daughters not their sons. _18__ only give sons Y chromosome. _19__ give sex-linked genes to both sons and daughters. A male gets a sex- linked disease from his _20__!!

1) "X-linked" 2) holandric inheritance a) Color blindness b) Hemophilia (lacks blood-clotting proteins) c) Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (muscle degeneration) 3) egg 4) sperm 5) Barr Body 6) hemizygous [hemi 1/2 & 1/2] 7) normal male 8) colorblind male 9) normal female 10) carrier female 11) colorblind female 12) recessive 13) male 14) female 15) homozygous 16) autosomes 17) Males 18) Males 19) Females 20) mother

Tight Junctions "____1____" form tight seals around cells to prevent contents from ____2____. They allow skin cells to make us _____3____, and maintain the integrity of the _____4____ barrier. The intestinal barrier is maintained by _____5____. The ____6____ protein structures regulate the permeability of the intestine. Chronic diseases such as ____7____ disease or _____8_____ disease involves a "leaky" intestinal barrier.

1) "Zona Occludens" 2) leaking 3) watertight 4) epithelial 5) tight junctions 6) complex 7) Celiac 8) inflammatory bowel

Microtubules are involved with "______1_____" attaching to ___2_____, ____2____, & ____2____ to help pull them apart. **Drugs such as ___3____ is a "Mitotic Poison" that ____4___ the microtubules and is used to treat ___5___ (form of arthritis). Microtubule disruption ____6____ white blood cell migration which is responsible for _____7____ & mitosis would be ____8____!! The drug often used for ovarian and breast cancer is ____9___ & will bind to the microtubules to prevent them from _____10____. Another way mitosis is stopped is by ____11____ (cancer) that represents an ____12_____ mitosis. **Cilia and flagella are composed of ___13____ & ___13____ and are used for movement. _____14____ are the strongest of the cytoskeletal polymers. Most cells would lose their shape if microtubules were _____15_____ because, they suit the needs of each cell. A mature neuron, for example, uses microtubules for _____16____, while a young neuron uses microtubules to help with _____17____. **Molecular motors such as ____18____ & ____18____, are enzymes that generate enough force to ___19___ along microtubules. Dynein "____20____" is responsible for the bending movements of the ____21_____ & ____21____.

1) "molecular motors" 2) organelles, vesicles, & chromosomes 3) colchicine 4) disrupts 5) gout 6) blocks 7) inflammation 8) halted 9) Taxol 10) disassociating 11) malignancy 12) uncontrolled 13) microtubules and motor proteins 14) Microtubules 15) depolymerized 16) strength 17) movement 18) Dyneins and kinesins 19) walk 20) "walking" 21) cilia and flagella

Tryptophan operon (Trp) Is a repressible operon turned "__1_" unless a molecule called a _2__ is present. __3__ structural genes are involved in making the amino acid tryptophan called _4__, & the lac operon is __5__. ___6__ = corepressor. When an inactive repressor combines with this corepressor it binds to the __7__, once bound RNA polymerase can't bind blocking transcription of structural genes! If __8__ is present RNA polymerase can't bind.

1) "on" 2) corepressor 3) Five 4) anabolic process 5) catabolic 6) Tryptophan 7) operator 8) tryptophan

Intermediate Fibers are more "_____1____" structures than ____2_____ or ____2______. After cell ____3____, they are still seen. These fibers ____4____ the nucleus in place and provide much structural support for the cell & make up the framework of the ______5_____. **____6____ represent a predominant (main) type of intermediate fiber of a diverse family of over ___7___ proteins that provide ____8____ against abrasion and prevent water loss in ____9____ cells.

1) "permanent" 2) microtubules or microfilaments 3) death 4) anchor 5) nuclear envelope 6) Keratins 7) 20 8) protection 9) epidermal

how many sugars does each contain? 1) Monosaccharides: 2) Disaccharides: 3) Trisaccharides: 4) Oligosaccharides: 5) Polysaccharides:

1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4-10 5) 10+

Sucrose is formed by a __1__-linkage between _____2_____ & _____2______. It is exclusively made by linking ____3_____ with ____3______. There will be ___4____ possible ways to link the two, they are ____4____. An ____5______ helps to do the linking. Only when the ____6____ linking occurs do we see this correct fit into the binding pocket.

1) 1,2-linkage 2) glucose and fructose 3) α-D- glucose with β-D-fructose. 4) 4 a) α, α b) α, β c) β, β d) β, α 5) enzyme 6) α, β

Red Blood Cell (RBC) or Erythrocyte Live about __1__, __1___, ___1__, & Packed with __1___. This shape has a __2__ surface-to-volume ratio that helps in _3__ exchange. About __4__ Hemoglobin molecules are in a red blood cell. In __5__, we see a decrease in the number of RBCs. A reticulocyte is An __6__ red blood cell with _7__ of RBC's, Have __8__, & Mature in about __9__. During maturation RBCs lose their __10__, __10__, & _10__ producing __11__ by glycolysis. Macrophages of the __12__, _12___, & _12___ dispose of RBCs after 120 days! RBC's are produced In the ___13__ & the main RBC production site is the __14__, Otherwise they are continuously made in the __15__. When stained with _16__ or _16___ stain they are pinkish in color!

1) 120 days, Lack a nucleus when matured; biconcave shaped, Very flexible can easily change shape when it passes through capillaries, & Packed with hemoglobin which carries O2 to tissues 2) large 3) gas 4) 250 million 5) Anemia 6) immature 7) 1% 8) no nucleus 9) a day 10) ribosomes, mitochondria, and cytoplasmic enzymes 11) ATP 12) spleen, bone marrow, and liver (Kupffer cells) 13) embryo 14) liver 15) red bone marrow 16) Giemsa or Wright

Vitamins are organic molecules that have many functions, needed in our diet in small amounts, __1__ discovered, can function as __2___ or ___2___ for coenzymes. Vitamin A: Vitamin B Complex: Vitamin C: Vitamin D: Vitamin K: Vitamin E: Excess levels of these vitamins are not good & toxic levels can accumulate in ___3___ tissues in the body. **___4___ contain no calories. Water- soluble vitamins are ___5___, and a series known as ___6___. Most water- soluble vitamins are components of ___7___, for example, Riboflavin (B2) is a precursor of the electron carrier FAD. Niacin (B3) is involved with ___8___. Vitamin C is a ___9___ agent in the hydroxylation reactions as seen when proline becomes __10__ in collagen. Vitamins differ in molecular ___11___. A deficiency of certain vitamins may cause ___12___ for example, a deficiency of Vitamin C may cause __13___ and a deficiency of Vitamin D may cause ___14___, a deficiency of B3 (Niacin) may cause __15___. Vitamin __16___ is a radical "scavenger" by taking a "bad" highly reactive ___17___ and destroying it to make a ___18____ Vitamin E radical resonance & will not ___19___ the cells.

1) 13 2) coenzymes or precursors Vitamin A: needed for vision, cell membrane health, skin Vitamin B Complex: has 8 B vitamins, energy levels, brain, and cell metabolism. Vitamin C: needed for proper collagen formation Vitamin D: promotes growth of healthy bones and teeth, made by skin, promotes calcium absorption from small intestine, & depends on melanin in skin. Vitamin K: blood clotting Vitamin E: Antioxidant helps protect cell membranes, stored in liver and fatty tissues. 3) fatty 4) Vitamins 5) Vitamin C 6) Vitamin B complex 7) coenzymes 8) NAD 9) reducing 10) hydroxyproline 11) structure 12) disease 13) Scurvy (swollen bleeding gums and opening of previously healed wounds) 14) Rickets (softening and weakening of bones) 15) Pellagra (inflamed skin, diarrhea, dementia, and sores in the mouth) 16) E 17) radical 18) well-stabilized 19) damage

@In Eukaryotic Gene Expression thousands of genes are present, but only _1__ of the DNA codes for protein, The remainder codes for __2__ or __2__. Chromatin structure can be regulated: A) Genes with __3__ are highly condensed and NOT expressed B) Histones are __4__ for lose packing of chromatin, allowing for better __5__. C) __6__ is when CH3 groups are added & tighter packing occurs causing reduction in gene expression. In other words, __7__ genes are heavily methylated, and certain genes are activated by removal of the CH3 group called __8__. __9__ & __9__ processes are involved in this control process. In eukaryotic organisms, gene expression rate is increased or decreased by things such as _10__, __10__, or _10__. Non-coding __11__ molecules are believed to be involved with gene expression control. MicroRNA (__12__) molecules and small interfering RNA (_13__) molecules can bind to mRNA. These two molecules can: a) b)

1) 2% 2) RNA molecules or nothing at all 3) heterochromatin 4) acetylated 5) transcription 6) DNA methylation 7) inactivated 8) demethylation 9) Methylation and acetylation 10) repressors, activators, or building proteins 11) RNA 12) miRNA 13) siRNA a) Degrade mRNA b) Bind to mRNA and block translation.

Replication needs __1__ different enzymes & Cell division in a human cell takes __2__ than a day; DNA replication accounts for a __3__ of that time. Replication is carried out with an error level of one wrong nucleotide per __4__ & vital to guarantee preservation and integrity of the genome from one generation to another. Replication of DNA begins at sites called __5__ which are short DNA regions that have specific nucleotide sequences. **__6__ have multiple origins of replication & __7__ have a single origin. **The initial nucleotide chain is actually a small __8__ stretch, not DNA, called a __9__ and uses the enzyme _10__. This enzyme starts an RNA chain using the __11__ DNA strand as a template. The primer is __12__ nucleotides long, and base pairs with the DNA. __13__= Y-shaped region where parental DNA strands are unwound called a __14__ mechanism, because The replicated DNA is __15__ & __15___ (i.e.__16__ & __16__). __17__ of bubbles in Eukaryotes, & Prokaryotes __18__ bubble! Many proteins & enzymes called __19__ help DNA to unwind (unzip). **Helicases will untwist the parental helix while the __20__ DNA strands are stabilized by __21__ & __22__ help to relieve strain & prevent from supercoiling at the replication __23_ to be available as _24__ strands!

1) 25 2) less 3) third 4) 10 billion 5) replication origins 6) Eukaryotes 7) Prokaryotes 8) RNA 9) RNA primer 10) primase [leads polymerase] 11) parental 12) 5-10 13) Replication fork 14) semi-conservative 15) 1⁄2 new and 1⁄2 old 16) 1⁄2 parental & 1⁄2 daughter 17) Thousands 18) single 19) helicases 20) unpaired 21) "single-strand" binding proteins 22) topoisomerases 23) forks 24) template

Enzymes can be denatured several ways & lose __1___, ___1__, ___1___ structure. (In ___2___ we lose 1°,2°,3°,4°). Temperature increase: disrupts ___3___ interactions, Radiation: disrupts ___4___ conformation, ____5___ Agitation: violent mixing like using a blender, or shaking causing polypeptide chains to ___6___. ___7___: causes groups to gain or lose charges & disrupts ____8___ interactions. Salts of heavy metals: __9___, ___9__, ___9___ in particular react with ____10___ groups and prevent the formation of native conformation. Organic solvents (___11____, ___11___, ___11___, ___11___): disrupt bonding interactions such as ___12___ bonds (i.e. ___13___ passes through the cell wall of bacteria and destroys proteins!) Oxidizing and reducing agents: can form ___14___ bridges (oxidation) or destroy them by ___15___.

1) 2°, 3°, 4° 2) digestion 3) bonding 4) native (original) 5) Mechanical 6) unfold 7) pH 8) bonding 9) Pb^2+, Hg^2+, Ag+ 10) SH (sulfhydryl) 11) soaps, detergents, urea, alcohol 12) hydrogen 13) alcohol 14) -S-S- 15) reduction

In mRNA, every three nucleotide bases is a ____1____. **The genetic code is almost universal in the vast majority of plants, animals, and microorganisms, Exceptions do exist. For example, UGA is normally a stop codon, but in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster's mitochondria, it codes for the amino acid _2__.

1) 3 mRNA nucleotides = 1 codon = 1 amino acid 2) tryptophan

@Number of Heart Chambers for Organisms Mammals (man) and birds: _1__ chambered heart Reptiles: __2__ chambered heart (crocodilians & Alligators have _3__ though!!) Amphibians: _4__ chambered heart Fish: _5__ chambered heart

1) 4 2) 3 3) 4 4) 3 5) 2

Because of resonance, a peptide bond has about __1___% of double bond character. **It is rigid, allowing _____2____ free rotation!!. We see a flat ___3___ structure. _____4_____ causes the trans conformation to be more stable than the cis conformation.

1) 40% 2) very little 3) sp2 4) Steric Hinderance

Females and males have ___1__ chromosomes non-sex ___2___. The male has an additional __3___ & __3___ sex chromosome & the female has an additional ___4__ X sex chromosome.

1) 44 2) autosomes 3) X & Y 4) 2 the image shows chromosomes in normal karyotype

Blood pH is approximately __1__, it can range from ___2__-__2___. Below 7.35 = ____3___, Above 7.45 = ___4___. In Acidosis, we see a ____5___ of ___5___ synaptic (junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter) transmission. ____6___ & ___6___ can result & ___7___ soon follows. In Alkalosis, we see ____8____ in ___8____ & ___8____ with extreme ____9___ & ___9____ of muscle & ___10___ can result if untreated. The pH balance can easily be ___11___. ___12___, ___12____, ___12___, etc. can contribute to lowering blood pH. Three main mechanisms can help maintain pH: a) b) c)

1) 7.4 2) 7.35-7.45 3) Acidosis 4) Alkalosis 5) depression of CNS 6) Disorientation and coma 7) death 8) hyperexcitability in CNS and PNS 9) nervousness and spasm 10) death 11) upset 12) CO2, lactic acid, ketone bodies a) Buffers b) CO2 removal by the lungs c) H+ removal by the kidneys

H2O diminishes the strength of electrostatic interactions by a factor of ___1__, the dielectric constant of H2O!!! H2O surrounds the + or - charges to form a ____2______ ... these solvent shells produce an _____3_____, which opposes the fields produced by the ions!!

1) 80 2) "solvent shell" 3) electric field

Exocytosis... requires ___1___ Molecules are secreted by the fusion of ____2___ with the ____3____. The release of the contents goes to the _____4____ space without compromising cell/plasma membrane ____5____. ____6____ cells of the pancreas make ____7____ and secrete it into the blood by exocytosis. Exocytosis is triggered in many cells by a brief release of ___8___ ions in the ____9____. Neurotransmitters released into the ____10____ is done by exocytosis.

1) ATP 2) vesicle 3) plasma membrane 4) extracellular 5) integrity 6) Beta 7) insulin 8) Ca++ 9) cytosol 10) synaptic cleft

Some amino acids can bind ___1___ in an enzyme active site. Interactions could include: a) ___________ b) ___________ c) ___________

1) ATP a) Electrostatic b) Hydrogen bonding c) Van der Waals (Hydrophobic Interaction)

In a Light Reaction __1___, ___1___, & ___1___ are made. Occurs in the ___2___ (membranous bodies stacked within the chloroplast). ___3___ is split by sunlight releasing the O2 [___4____ process]. In a Dark Reaction AKA ___5___ Cycle, carbon dioxide enters the ___6___ to produce the 3 carbon ___7___ (3-phosphoglyceraldehyde). A reduction reaction known as "carbon fixation" occurs in the ___8___. The main enzyme is called ___9___ which is the most abundant protein in nature. After many many reactions, ___10___ molecules of CO2 produce one molecule of glucose & 6 turns of the cycle occur. Photosynthesis has an efficiency of about ___11___% a vital process to life on Earth, because it O2.

1) ATP, O2, and NADPH 2) grana 3) H2O 4) oxidative 5) Calvin-Benson/Calvin 6) stomates 7) PGAL 8) stroma 9) Rubisco 10) 6 11) 30%

@name the main carrier molecules and what they carry.

1) ATP: carrier of chemical energy in all cells 2) NADH and FADH2: carry electrons. 3) Biotin: carry CO2 4) S-Adenosylmethionine (called SAM): carries CH3 groups.

__1__ is the start codon that codes for the amino acid named __2__ (contains a sulfur), but in prokaryotes, chloroplasts, & mitochondria it codes for __2A__. **A ribosome has _3__ binding site and three __4__ binding sites which are _5__, _5__, __5_. Polypeptide synthesis takes place at the _6__ & __6_ sites. __7__ site holds the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain. __8_ site holds the tRNA with its associated amino acid to the polypeptide chain. tRNA is discharged at the _9_ site. Eukaryote ribosomes are made in the __10__ of the cell & have slightly _11__ size and differ in their __12_, thus, drugs can be designed to kill bacteria by targeting their _13__ while sparing ours. Drugs such as tetracycline work by inhibiting prokaryotic ribosomal function. "the ribosome can be regarded as one colossal ribozyme!!" (A __14__ is an RNA molecule that has same functions as an enzyme, __15__ are made of proteins and RNA!)

1) AUG 2) methionine 2A) N-formly methionine 3) mRNA (initiation) 4) tRNA (Three T) 5) A, P, E 6) peptidyl (P) and aminoacyl (A) 7) P (Pen*s Grows) 8) A (A Associated) 9) E (exit) 10) nucleolus 11) larger 12) proteins 13) ribosomes 14) ribozyme 15) ribosomes

Ketone bodies are made from ____1____ since the TCA cycle is unable to oxidize all the acetyl units formed from ___2___ acid breakdown. The liver produces large quantities of these ketone bodies which are released into the ____3____. The brain utilizes the ____4____ in place of glucose!! The ___5___ also uses ketone bodies as fuel. After several weeks, the brain uses ____6____ as a major fuel & need for glucose has ___7____. The duration of starvation is determined by the amount of ____8____ you have stored!! After fat depletion, our only source is ____9___. Protein depletion is not as forgiving as fat, and ____10____ results from the loss of organ function. In ___11____ glucose is not oxidized, thus fatty acids must be oxidized to compensate for unavailable energy. Ketone bodies are formed, and a condition called ___12___ is seen just like in starvation. Prolonged ketone body formation results in ___13___ (blood pH is below ____14____). Most body cells use both ___15_____ & ___15____ for fuel, but during ketosis, we see ____16____ & ____16____ made from gluconeogenesis fuel.

1) Acetyl CoA 2) fatty 3) blood 4) Acetoacetate 5) heart 6) ketone bodies 7) diminished 8) fat 9) protein 10) death 11) diabetes mellitus 12) ketosis 13) acidosis 14) 7.35 15) glucose and ketone bodies 16) free fatty acids and glucose

Stage Four of mitosis is ___1__ which is the ___2__ stage, ___3___ proteins are cleaved allowing the ___4___ to separate from each other and move to opposite poles. Chromatids are the __5__ # as chromosomes in this stage, ___6__ chromosomes= __7___ chromatids. **At the end of anaphase, __8___.

1) Anaphase 2) Shortest 3) Cohesion 4) sister chromosomes 5) same 6) 92 7) 92 8) cytokinesis begins

__1__ Think worms!! ___2___ circulatory system (blood moves through ___3__), Have segmentation, Use ___4__ to move which provide the traction to crawl and burrow through soil, Have ___5__ which is a cluster of nerve cells used for control of local activity, ___6__ which is a functional unit of excretion, & regulates ___7___ & ___7___.

1) Annelids 2) Closed 3) vessels 4) setae 5) ganglia 6) Nephridia 7) body fluid composition and volumes

Another type of organism classified with Prokaryotes are __1___ AKA __1___, which Include three major groups, Thermophiles, Methanogens, & Extreme Halophiles. __2__ Love heat, live in __3__-rich hot springs, Almost all are ___4___ which are microorganisms that die from exposed O2, & ___5__ is their electron donor or acceptor. **__6__ are Cocci and rod-shaped organisms, ___7__: use H2 as an electron source for reducing CO2 to make CH4 gas, Live in __8__, Live in the stomach of __9__ like cows [Ruminants can digest cellulose (__10__ is broken and __11__ released), & contain microorganisms like __12__, __12__, etc.] __13__ love salty (brackish) habitats such as the Dead Sea, Most produce ATP __14___, but when __15___ is low some strains use sunlight for photosynthesis.

1) Archaebacteria AKA Archaea 2) Thermophiles 3) sulfur 4) obligate anaerobes [took hot to breath O2] 5) Sulfur 6) Methanogens 7) chemoautotrophs 8) swamps 9) ruminants 10) β-1,4-linkage 11) glucose 12) bacteria, fungi 13) Extreme Halophiles 14) aerobically 15) O2

The two main groups of decomposer-organisms are __1__ & __1__ & they break down the an organism into ___2__ parts. A __3__ is a classification of decomposers, not directly but they contribute to it; __4__, __4__, & __4__ eat away at the __5__ organism!

1) Bacteria & fungi 2) simpler 3) detritivore 4) worms, slugs, & lice 5) dead

**2 Basic Types of Point Mutations: A) __1__: one nucleotide and its complimentary base in the DNA has been changed into another. If a wrong amino acid is made, it is a __2_ mutation. If a stop codon is made, it is a __3_ mutation. B) __4_: Reading frame changes due to an insertion or base deletion near the _5__ of a coding sequence of nucleotide pairs in a gene, causing a disaster! Each __6_ sequence downstream from the mutation has changed. **__7__ are "jumping genes" which may cause a __8__ when they "jump" around the genome; First discovered in the 1940's by _9__ who studied maize. Seen in both _10___ & _10__ cells. In bacteria, some transposons can carry genes that make proteins for _11__ resistance!

1) Base Pair substitution 2) missense [wrong MISSy] 3) nonsense [NON stop] 4) Frameshift mutation 5) start 6) 3-nucleotide 7) Transposons 8) mutation 9) Barbara McClintock 10) eukaryotic & prokaryotic 11) drug

**When pyruvate is converted into oxaloacetate ___1___ is involved with adding on a ___2___ group. Biotin = ___3___ carrier. Gluconeogenesis is responsible for taking ___4___ produced during anaerobic metabolism and converting it into glucose in the ____5___ by what is called the ____6___. When ATP is needed, _____7____ is active; when there is little need for ATP,_____8____ is more active. One gluconeogenesis enzyme is located in the ____9____, but all the rest are ____10____.

1) Biotin 2) CO2 3) CO2 4) lactate 5) liver 6) Cori Cycle 7) glycolysis 8) gluconeogenesis 9) mitochondria 10) cytoplasmic

@**Lipids and carbohydrates usually only contain _____1_____... but proteins contain _____2_____

1) C, H, N, O 2) C, H, N, O, S

@Hb binds to ___1__ 240x more readily than with O2!! There is ___2___ potential for Hb to bind O2 & the curve will be shifted to the ___3___. **In ___4___ a glutamic acid is converted to a valine & the mutation is on hemoglobin ___5__. In electrophoresis (like electrolysis), the anode is __6__ and the cathode is __7__ & both electrophoresis & electrolysis go from ____8___ to ____8___. The difference between electrophoresis and electrolysis is that __9___ is the chemical change produced by passing an electric current through a conducting solution or a molten salt while ___10__ is the migration of electrically charged molecules through electric field.

1) CO (carbon monoxide) 2) lower 3) left 4) Sickle Cell Anemia 5) β-chain 6) + 7) - 8) electrical to chemical 9) electrolysis 10) electrophoresis

Veins: High in _1_, Carry blood to the _2__, Many veins have _3__, Blood pressure is __4__, __4___ layers but have __5__ walls, __6__ smooth muscle, and __7__ elasticity than arteries. These valves prevent __8__ blood flow, while pressure from __9__ helps to move the blood through veins toward the heart. __10__ fluid leaves the capillaries than returns to them, thus any excess is collected and returned to the __11__ circulation by the __12__ vessels.

1) CO2 2) heart 3) valves 4) lowest, three 5) thinner 6) less 7) less 8) backward 9) muscle contractions 10) More 11) venous 12) lymphatic

@Photosynthesis is when ___1___, ___1____, & ___1____ make ___2___ & ___2____!! ___3___ is the green pigment located in the chloroplasts which ___4___ light energy that is needed to initiate this process. Chlorophyll resides in the ___5___ membranes. Two main processes, Light Reaction: uses light for ___6___ production, Dark Reaction: ___7___ making!! Photosynthetic pigments which absorb the light are chlorophylls and ____8____.

1) CO2, H2O, & light 2) sugar and O2 3) Chlorophyll 4) absorbs 5) thylakoid 6) ATP 7) sugar 8) carotenoids

____1___ are found in animal cells not plants, composed of ___2___ sets of microtubule triplets arranged in a cylinder "____3___" pattern!! The "_____4_____" is the most common _____5_____ (MTOC) within the cell. A pair of ____6_____ & ___6_____ comprise (contain) the centrosome. The centriole pair is _____7____ to each other!! Before an animal cell divides, centrioles _____8____. During cell division, centrioles move to _____9_____ of the cell. Microtubules ____10___ from the centrioles to form the ____11____. Some microtubules attach to the chromosomes by connecting to protein complexes called _____12____ that are present on each _____13_____. Kinetochores control the ______14______ transition.

1) Centrioles 2) 9 3) "9 + 0" 4) "centrosome" 5) microtubule-organizing center 6) centrioles and associated proteins 7) perpendicular 8) replicate 9) opposite ends 10) extend 11) spindle 12) kinetochores 13) chromosome 14) metaphase/anaphase

In the ___1___, like mitochondria, redox reaction occurs in which a ___2____ gradient is formed across a membrane, ATPase is used to form ____3___!! Chloroplasts and mitochondria are both ____4___(organisms that form a symbiotic relationship with another cell or organism.)! Two possible paths for electrons to follow in the chloroplast: A) B) ____4___ photophosphorylation involves electrons that enter ____5___ electron transport chains to produce ___6____ & ____6___. ATP is made by the same process we saw in the mitochondria.... by ____7____. This ATP synthesis reaction can provide energy because of ___8___. The NADPH produced in this noncyclic photophosphorylation is shuttled to the ___9___ Cycle where it consumes a lot of ___10___, so more is needed. When more is needed, we have ___11___ photophosphorylation that only produces ___12____.

1) Chloroplast 2) H+ 3) ATP 4) Endosymbionts A) Noncyclic Photophosphorylation B) Cyclic Photophosphorylation 4) Noncyclic 5) 2 6) ATP and NADPH 7) chemiosmosis 8) light 9) Calvin 10) ATP 11) cyclic 12) ATP

____1____ is a plant organelle, the site of ____2____. Contains green pigment ____3___ which absorbs light energy to convert ____4____ & ___4____ into ___5____ & ____5___! Like mitochondria, they contain their own ____6____ & have a ___7____ membrane (inner & outer). It's ___8_____ shaped!! Mitochondria and chloroplasts were likely came from ____9_____ that got ingested by larger cells (____10____ Theory). Inside the chloroplast, we find flattened sacs called ____11____, stacked like pancakes; each stack is called a ___12___. The fluid outside the thylakoids is called ___13____ which has ___14____, ___14____, & ___14_____.

1) Chloroplast 2) photosynthesis 3) chlorophyll 4) CO2 and H2O (opposite combustion) 5) O2 and sugar 6) DNA 7) double 8) circular 9) prokaryotes 10) Endosymbiont 11) thylakoids 12) grana/granum 13) stroma 14) DNA, enzymes, and ribosomes.

____1___ is a steroid synthesized from Acetyl CoA that modulates (regulates) ____2___ of eukaryotic cell membranes. Cholesterol is the precursor of steroid hormones like ___3____, ____3____, ___3____, & ___3____. ____4____ contains very little cholesterol, but it is the major steroid in ____5____.

1) Cholesterol 2) fluidity 3) cortisol, progesterone, testosterone, and estradiol 4) Plants 5) animals

_____1____ gives us O2 & represent the only form of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria known to date. These bacteria contain _____2____, and perform _____3_____ similar to plants. They are mainly found in ____4___, but can be found on ____5_____, ____5_____, & ____5_____. Cyanobacteria used to be called _____6____. They are from Kingdom _____7____ and represent _____8____. Prokaryotes are ____9_____, and lack a membrane-bound ____10_____, ____10____, & ____10_____.

1) Cyanobacteria 2) chlorophyll 3) photosynthesis 4) water 5) corals, rocks, and land 6) blue-green algae 7) Monera 8) prokaryotes 9) unicellular 10) nucleus, mitochondria, and other membrane-bound organelles.

_1__ & _1__ cells can destroy a cancer cell when they detect them. These lymphocytes can kill without prior MHC (major histocompatibility complex) markers or prior sensitizations. __2__ & __2__ are not normally cytotoxic to tumor cells However, when activated by cytokines such as __3__ they can turn into literal "immunological terrorists". Macrophages may release __4__ & __4__ a certain type of cytokine that binds to the receptor of a cell and fragments it. A cancer continues to grow, despite this immune system because, tumors that have "__5__" that shed their tumor antigens, sending the immune-fighting-cells in a __6__. This allows time for the cancer to __7__ divide and grow larger & as size increases, the ability of immune cells __8__ & a finite capacity for tumor destruction.

1) Cytotoxic T-cells and NK 2) Neutrophils and macrophages 3) interferon- γ 4) lysosomal enzymes & TNF (tumor necrosis factor) 5) "cell markers" 6) different direction 7) mitotically 8) decreases

@We make RNA using __1__ as a template. Transcription occurs in the _2__ of eukaryotic cells & pre-RNA is made which undergoes a modification to yield the final mRNA. In __3__, no processing or modification is done, mRNA directly forms. Transcription proceeds under the control of __4__ enzyme that separates the two DNA strands and nucleotides are joined together as they base-pair along the DNA template strand. Unlike DNA polymerase, NO __5__ is needed thus chain can start from scratch. RNA polymerases bind to an area called the __6__ where this enzyme attaches and initiates transcription. Eukaryotes have at least __7__ types of RNA polymerases, prokaryotes have __8__. The three stages of transcription are __9_, __9__, & __9__.

1) DNA 2) nucleus 3) prokaryotes 4) RNA polymerase 5) primer 6) promoter 7) three 8) one 9) Initiation, Elongation, & Termination

Discuss the water solubility of: 1) the phosphate group & ribosyl group 2) the nitrogen bases (purines and pyrimidines).

1) DNA & RNA Ribosyl group (polar) and phosphate group (negative charge) are hydrophilic & located outside our helix and water soluble. 2) Purines and pyrimidines are relatively insoluble in water (hydrophobic), consistent with their location in the helix interior.

**__1__ are antiparallel (run parallel to each other but with opposite directionality). DNA is an enormous macromolecule and must be compacted to fit into nucleus (Total DNA = __2_). DNA is wrapped around proteins called _3_ which look like a bead with a string wrapped with it (DNA + histone = __4__). Nucleosomes are the basic unit of DNA __5__. Histones are rich in __6__ charged __7__, __7__, & __7__ allowing tight binding to the negatively charged DNA.

1) DNA Strands 2) genome 3) histones 4) nucleosome 5) packaging 6) + 7) amino acids, lysine, and arginine

Structural Changes in Chromosomes include __1__, __1__, __1__, & __1__. __2__ is when A break occurs, a fragment is lost with missing genes. Chromosomal deletions are associated with some __3__! If the short arm of Chromosome __4__ is deleted then Cri du Chat (cat sounding cry) syndrome occurs. __5__ is a production of one or more copies of a gene or chromosome & Partial __6__ results. **Chromosomes may be broken down by _7__, __7__, or __7__. __8__ is when A chromosome segment is turned 180°. **__9__ is A deleted chromosome fragment joined to a _10__ chromosome. In Down syndrome 5% of the time a __11__ occurs when chromosome 21 long arm attaches to chromosome 14 making it nonhomologous.

1) Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, & Translocation 2) Deletion 3) cancers 4) #5 5) Duplication 6) Trisomy (extra #21 chromosome) 7) radiation, chemicals, or viruses 8) Inversion 9) Translocation 10) nonhomologous (do not belong to the same pair) 11) Robertsonian Translocation

____1____ are like "staples" by stapling the cells together into strong sheets "_____2____". They can attach ____3____ cells to one another. Desmosomes have strong _____4____, common in epithelia that need to withstand _____5____ (scraping) such as skin. Some people produce _____6____ against the proteins that make up the desmosome. In a skin disease called ____7____, there is disruption of cell adhesion. Many ____8____ form and ____9_____ fluid is lost. This can be ____10___ if not treated by a ____11_____ agent that can control the pathology.

1) Desmosomes 2) "spot-weld" 3) muscle 4) intermediate filaments 5) abrasion 6) antibodies 7) Pemphigus Vulgaris 8) blisters 9) extracellular 10) fatal 11) steroidal

@Second step of transcription is __1_ where RNA polymerase moves along our DNA strand and continues to untwist it. RNA nucleotides are added to the __2__ end & As the complex moves down our DNA strand the double helix can __3__. The new RNA moves away & Each transcriptional unit of three bases is called a __4__. Only one strand of the DNA is transcribed called __5__ or __5__ strand & The other strand is the __6__ or __6__ strand. **Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase does NOT __7__ for any errors & more errors occur during __8__ than __8__. Luckily, an error during transcription gives a "bad" __9__ and NOT transmitted to the entire __10__ like if it occurred with DNA.

1) Elongation 2) 3′ 3) re-form 4) codon 5) template or anti-sense [Tiny ANTS] 6) coding or sense [Coin Sense] 7) proofread 8) transcription than replication 9) protein 10) progeny

The three germ layers that arise during gastrulation are __1___, __1___, & ___1__. The Endoderm "__2__" has __3__ linings of respiratory & includes the __4__ system, __5___, ___5___, lining of __6__ systems and ___7__, Glands such as __8___, __8___, ___8___, ___8___, & ___8__. The Mesoderm "___9__" includes __10___, __10____, ___10__, __10___, __10___, ___10__, __10___ system, ___11__ system, ___12__ of skin, & Adrenal ___13__. Ectoderm "__14__" is the most sensitive to ___15___!! It includes __16___, __16___, __16___, __16___, __16___, __16___, __16___, & Adrenal __17___.

1) Endoderm, Mesoderm, & Ectoderm. 2) "inside skin" 3) Epithelial 4) nervous (neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body) 5) digestive tracts, urinary bladder 6) reproductive 7) urethra 8) thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, Liver and pancreas 9) "middle skin" 10) Bone, Muscle, Blood, Connective tissues, Notochord, lymphatic (circulatory system and the immune system) 11) excretory (removes unnecessary materials) 12) Dermis (layer of skin between epidermis & tissues) 13) cortex (outer gland—produces hormones vital to life that help regulate metabolism, respond to stress, & control blood pressure) 14) "outside skin" 15) radiation 16) Skin, Nails, Hair, Sweat, Tooth enamel, Cornea, lens of the eye 17) medulla (inner adrenal gland- controls hormones that initiate flight or fight)

name Proteins functions and what they do. a)_____1_____: these are the biological catalysts that will lower the energy of activation, thus _____2_____ up many reactions. b) ____3_____: many, but not all are protein-derived. _____4____ is a hormonal protein. c) ____5____: antibodies (immunoglobins) are proteins and are linked by _____6______ bonds d) _____7____: e.g. casein is the protein of ____8____ represents the major amino source for young mammals e) ____9_____: on cells, and responsible for detecting _____10_____ signals f) ____11____: hemoglobin is an example of a globular protein that transports ___12___ g) _____13_____: collagen, keratin, and elastin are _____14____ proteins contributing to the structural integrity of the organism. h) ____15_____: Dynein is a "______16_____", actin and myosin are also proteins

1) Enzymes 2) speeding 3) Hormones 4) Insulin 5) Protective 6) disulfide -S-S- 7) Storage 8) milk 9) Receptors 10) chemical 11) Transport 12) O2 13) Structure 14) fibrous 15) Motor Movement 16) "motor protein"

Protists are Eukaryotic organisms in domain ___1__, Have a ___2___ & __2__, __3__ & __3__ organisms but most are __4__, Include __5__ & __5__. ___6__ are organisms unable to make their own organic compounds so they eat other organisms or feed on autotrophs. __7__ vary in function & structure more than any other eukaryotic organism. Protists include: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

1) Eukarya 2) nucleus and other membrane bound organelles 3) unicelled & multicelled 4) unicellular 5) photoautotrophs and heterotrophs 6) Heterotrophs 7) Protists a) Euglena b) Dinoflagellates c) Diatoms d) Algae e) Amoeba f) Paramecium g) Slime Molds [Every Dinosaur Died Altogether Across Planet Slime]

____1___ can be oxidized to yield large quantities of ATP. Fatty Acid oxidation (___2___ oxidation) occurs in the ___3____. Fatty acids are "activated" on the ____4___ mitochondrial membrane & carried across the mitochondria membrane by a molecule called ____5___ that makes Acetyl CoA, & enters the ___6___ cycle. An 18-carbon fatty acid gives ___7___ Acetyl CoA, ____8___, & ____8___, & they provide ATP. Fatty acid oxidation also gives metabolic ____9___.

1) Fatty acids 2) Beta 3) mitochondrial matrix 4) outer 5) carnitine 6) TCA 7) 9 8) NADH and FADH2 9) water

___1__ inhibition is when the output of a process is used as an input to control the behavior & the final product is formed in high ___2___.

1) Feedback 2) concentrations

Chordates include __1___,___1___, ___1___, ___1___, ___1___, ___1___, & ___1___. They have ___2__ symmetry, a ___3___: provides skeletal support, ___4___ for gas exchange, & ___5___ that Develops into the brain and spinal cord, unique to chordates. **In humans, the notochord becomes a __6__ found between vertebrae Muscular, ___7___. **___8__ & __8___ are classified as chordates, but are invertebrates.

1) Fish, amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles, tunicates and lancelets 2) Bilateral 3) notochord 4) Pharyngeal gill slits 5) Dorsal hollow nerve chord 6) gelatinous disk 7) post-anal tail. 8) Tunicates (sea squirt looks like tube) and amphioxus (looks like feather fish)

Amphibians include __1___, ___1__, ___1___, __1___ & ___1___. **Evolved from __2__ (many live in ___3__ water such as coastal ___4__). They are Half-__5___ & ___5___, found in damp areas such as ___6__, moist skin for ___7__ (some even lack lungs and this moist skin is essential), __8___ circulatory system, & __9___ chambered heart (__10___ atria, __11__ ventricle). ___12__ fertilization: egg and sperm are discharged into the environment by Eggs being laid in ___13__, & male then fertilizes them. Lack an __14__.

1) Frogs, salamanders, toads, newts, and caecilians (looks like a worm snake) 2) lobe-finned fish 3) brackish (salty) 4) wetlands 5) aquatic & half-terrestrial 6) swamps 7) gas exchange 8) Closed 9) Three 10) 2 11) 1 12) External 13) water 14) amnion (innermost membrane that encloses the embryo)!!

____1____ allow communication to occur between cells. Membrane proteins that surround a _____2___ will allow substances such as small ____3____, ____3____, & ____3____ to pass. The proteins of gap junctions are called ____4____. Many types of tissues such as _____5____ & ____5_____ contain these junctions. ____6___ exchange occurs between these junctions. Cyclic AMP (____7____), involved with cell ____8____ transduction can easily move. _____9____ are responsible for the heart's coordinated beat. ____10____ are intercellular channels that connect plant cells. ___11_____ & ____11____ can pass freely between the cells. These microscopic channels traverse (cross) the cell wall of ____12____ & ___12____ cells.

1) Gap Junctions 2) pore 3) molecules, amino acids, and ions 4) connexins 5) muscle and heart 6) Rapid 7) adenosine monophosphate 8) signal 9) Gap junctions 10) Plasmodesmata 11) H2O and small molecules 12) plants and some algal (algae)

_1__ can be done on a fetus to find out if any genetic abnormalities are present. _2__ is when the Amniotic fluid of the fetus is sampled. __3__ & __3__ cells from the Respiratory and GI tract can be cultured and subjected for __4__ analysis. _5__ is where the Fetus is visualized to see any morphological defects prenatally. **_6__ is when A sample of the placenta is physically removed and is Slightly _7__ risk than amniocentesis. Chorionic tissue is rich in cells giving fast results for a __8__. To find the number of gametes made Use _9__ rule, n = number of __10__. How many gametes can be made given the following genotype: Xx Yy Zz WW BB; _11___.

1) Genetic Testing 2) Amniocentesis 3) Fetal secretions and epidermal 4) karyotypic (picture of a person's chromosomes) 5) Ultrasound 6) CVS (Chorion Villus Sampling) 7) higher 8) karyotypes 9) 2^n 10) heterozygotes 11) 2^3 = 8

___1___ is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as ___2___, ____2___, or ____2____. This is one of the main mechanisms that allow humans and many animals to keep their ____3____ levels up to the levels needed to survive. Occurs in: ___4____, ____4____, ____4____, ____4____, & ____4____. This is the process that occurs during: a) b) c) d) **It occurs mainly in the ____5___ and a small amount in the cortex of the ____6___. It begins in the ____7___ and then goes to the ___8___ of the __9__ & finished in the ___10__ of the ___11___. Many of the reactions are the reverse of glycolysis but not all.

1) Gluconeogenesis 2) lactate, amino acids, or glycerol 3) glucose 4) plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and many microorganisms a) Starvation b) Low carb diets c) Fasting d) Intense exercise 5) liver 6) kidney 7) mitochondria 8) cytosol 9) cytoplasm 10) lumen 11) endoplasmic reticulum in pic: (*) next to enzymes unique to this pathway. no need to memorize picture!

___1___ Is a very large branched polymer of glucose and storage form of glucose. It is found mainly in the ___2___ & ___2___. Most glucose residues are the ____3___ bonds. Branches are seen by ____4____ bonds of which there is one in about ten residues. Branching does what? a) b) c)

1) Glycogen 2) liver and skeletal muscle 3) α- 1,4- glycosidic 4) α-1,6-glycosidic a) Makes polymers more compact b) Makes polymers more H2O soluble c) Produces more terminal glucose residues

____1___ is the breakdown of glycogen. We see the release of glycogen in the ___2___ due to low levels of glucose into ____3____, which is then made into glucose. This helps to raise the glucose levels in the ____4___. In ____5____, the glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis directly rather than being delivered to the blood. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate and stored within the liver and skeletal muscle as glycogen ____6____.

1) Glycogenolysis 2) liver 3) glucose-6-phosphate 4) blood 5) muscle 6) granules

____1___ is where Plants such as seedlings cannot carry out efficient photosynthesis, some ____2____ & ____2____ can use acetate as a carbon source for all the carbon compounds they produce. It is a Kreb-Cycle (TCA Cycle) modification. The enzymes of this cycle are found in organelles called ____3___. **Glyoxylate Cycle allows certain seeds to grow in the ___4____ or ___4___ where ____5___ is impossible. It is possible to target specific enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle in pathogenic ____6____ & ____6____, and make drugs that ____7____ these enzymes. A drug design done on the bacteria can cause _____8____, and involves glyoxylate cycle enzyme inhibitors. This cycle takes _____9____ into succinate (salt or ester of succinic acid) for the synthesis of carbohydrate.

1) Glyoxylate Cycle 2) bacteria and algae 3) glyoxysomes 4) dark or underground 5) photosynthesis 6) fungi and pathogenic bacteria 7) inhibit 8) tuberculosis 9) acetyl-CoA

@Many of the cells polysaccharides are made by the ___1____ and most of the ____2____ of the extracellular matrix. (In plants, ____3____ & ____3____ are made which contribute to the cell wall).

1) Golgi 2) glycosaminoglycans 3) hemicellulose and pectin

@_____1_____ has stacks of membranous "sacs" that is involved with the synthesis of carbohydrates and in the modification of _____2____. For example, _____3_____ are added to the protein by Golgi enzymes where _____4______ modification and "_____5_____" of proteins occur. Some proteins are _____6_____ meaning sugar is added, while other proteins have sugars ____7______. Three main sections & what occurs: a) _________ b) _________ c) _________

1) Golgi apparatus 2) proteins 3) carbohydrates 4) post- translational 5) "packaging" 6) glycosylated 7) removed a) Cis Golgi: molecules go in b) Main Golgi: molecules get processed c) Trans Golgi: molecules go outward

__1__ bred pea plants and studied the patterns of inheritance. Each gene has its own location on a chromosome called a _2__. A _3__ (haploid cell of 23 chromosomes) includes eggs and sperm. An allele is a form of a gene where one allele of a pair is dominant and the other is recessive. The allele that is dominant will mask the effect on a trait of its recessive partner. Let A = an allele, AA = homozygous dominant, Aa = __4__, aa = homozygous recessive. A _5__ is the genes inherited through genetic code & A _6__ is the physical and physiological traits (observable). Mendel's First Law is Law of __7__, When AA is crossed with aa, the offspring is Aa expressing only the _8__ trait. Done on a _9__ to predict outcome of genetic cross. Law of _10_ is When gametes (egg or sperm) are formed, each allele of one parent segregates randomly into them; half of the parent's gametes carry each allele. Mendel's Second Law is Law of _11__ which States that genes located on different chromosomes assort ___12__ of each other meaning during the forming of gametes the alleles for height segregate independently from the alleles for color on different __13__. The closer the genes are located on a chromosome, the more likely they will be _14__. Genes on the same chromosome are said to be __15__.

1) Gregor Mendel 2) gene locus 3) gamete 4) heterozygous 5) genotype 6) phenotype 7) Dominance 8) dominant 9) Punnett- Square 10) Segregation 11) Independent Assortment 12) independently 13) chromosomes 14) linked 15) linked genes

We need ___1___ flow into the "ATP-machine" called ___2___ (ATPase) Two things are going on: a) write equation b) simplification for ATP to be made, the following reaction must occur: write equation The arrival of H+ within ____3____ causes conformational changes & allow ATP to be made.

1) H+ 2) ATPsynthase a) Electrons add to O2 to form H2O: 1/2 O2 + 2H+ 2e- --> H2O b) ADP + Pi <--> ATP 3) ATPase

@The ___1___ refers to the effect of O2 on CO2 transport of the Hb molecule. The deoxy form of hemoglobin increases its ability to carry ___2___ which is when ___3___ from Hb will increase its affinity for CO2. Hb-CO2 is a ___4___ hemoglobin & a major contributor to this effect where the CO2 binds to the amino groups of ___5___ & ___5___ residues in hemoglobin. **What shifts the Hb curve to the right? Known as the ___6___. a) b) c) d) e) The left would be the ___7___, plus ___7___. ____8___ is a increase in basicity and would shift to the left. Shift to the right: O2 __9__. Shift to the left: O2 __10__

1) Haldane Effect 2) CO2 3) O2 4) carbamino 5) lysine and arginine 6) Bohr effect a) Increase in temperature b) Increase in BPG (anionic compound found in hemoglobin) c) Increase in CO2 d) Increase in H+ or a decrease in pH e) Increase in acidity [Age RIGHT] 7) opposite plus fetal Hb [fetaL Left] 8) Alkalosis (base) [Blab Less] 9) dumps off Hb [dump RIGHT] 10) stays [Stay Loyal]

Denaturing agents include: a) ___1____: disrupts _____2____... causes molecules to ____3___ too violently. (e.g. _____4_____) b) ____5____ works in the same/similar way as heat c) ____6_____: affects _____7_____ and ____8___ -bonds d) _____9____: same as detergents e) ______10______, such as Ag+, Hg++, Pb++ combines with ____11____ groups and forms _____12_____, as well as ____13____ amino acids f) ____14____: disrupts H-bonds

1) Heat 2) H-bonds 3) vibrate 4) cook an egg 5) Radiation 6) Detergents 7) salt bridges 8) H 9) Strong acids/bases 10) Salts of heavy metals 11) SH 12) precipitate 13) acidic 14) Urea

___1___ is a globular protein which has four polypeptide chains: a) b) Similar ___2___, ___2____, & ___2___ structures to that of Mb. Each chain has a heme group with its ___3__ ion. When Hb is ___4___, a molecule called BPG AKA DPG is made in red blood cells & held in a central cavity. This molecule is contained in ____5___ cells where its main job is to transport O2 from the ___6___ to ___6___. Since there are four hemes, this molecule can carry ___7___ O2 molecules. Unlike Mb which is a monomer of one chain, Hb is a ___8___ and shows what is called ___9___ binding meaning when an O2 binds to Hb, many ___10___ bridges are broken which causes the conformation to change. The binding of additional O2 molecules becomes more easily attained, meaning the affinity for O2 binding is now ___11___. Hb is an ___12__ protein, the binding of O2 to one subunit affects the ___13___. Binding in myoglobin is ___14___ cooperative. The cooperative binding of O2 in ___15___ renders Hb, a more efficient O2 ___16___ because when four O2 molecules are bound, and then subunits ___17___ O2, the other subunits unload O2 more readily.

1) Hemoglobin (Hb) a) 2 α-chains b) 2 β-chains 2) 1°, 2°, and 3° 3) Fe2+ 4) deoxygenated 5) red blood 6) lungs to tissue capillaries 7) four 8) tetramer 9) cooperative 10) salt 11) enhanced 12) allosteric 13) other subunits 14) not 15) Hb 16) transporter 17) release

The famous __1__ experiment concluded that DNA carries genetic material, not proteins. In this experiment radioactive __2__ labelled the proteins and __3__ labeled the DNA. __4__ were used to note which of molecules entered the bacterial cell. Result: Phage __5__ entered the bacteria, phage __6__ did not. __7__ Experiment included two strains of bacteria: A: Pathogenic (disease causing) B: Nonpathogenic (harmless) When he killed A (___8__) with heat and mixed the cell remains with living B (__9__) bacteria, some of these harmless bacteria became ___10__!! All further __11__ were pathogenic!! This indicated that __12__ transformed the __13__. __14__ Experiment in 1944 confirmed the work done by Fred Griffith to establish that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation. When a cell undergoes apoptosis (programmed cell death), __15__ occurs. Radiation can damage DNA by __16__, _16___, __16__, & __16__ leading to cell death.

1) Hershey-Chase 2) sulfur 3) phosphorus 4) Bacteriophages (viruses) 5) DNA 6) protein 7) Fred-Griffith Transformation 8) pathogenic 9) nonpathogenic 10) pathogenic 11) progeny (offspring) 12) DNA 13) bacteria 14) Avery-McCarty-Macleod 15) DNA fragmentation 16) breaking strands, modifying bases, structural damage, & free radicals

**__1__ for the sickle cell gene are less likely to get Malaria. The organism (__2__) spends a lot of time in red blood cells (live for _3_ days), the sickle cell has a __4_ life-span and prevents plasmodium from completing its life cycle known as "_5_" to individuals living in areas such as Africa where Malaria is a major cause of death. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are endosymbionts that were smaller prokaryotes that began living in _6_ cells & have their own _7_!!

1) Heterozygotes 2) plasmodium 3) 120 4) shorter 5) "selective advantage" 6) larger 7) DNA

___1__: the active enzyme including the nonprotein portion. __2___: inactive enzyme-does not contain the nonprotein portion. If the nonprotein portion is an ion such as Zn+2 or Fe+2 we call it a ___3___. If it is a small organic molecule it is a ___4___. If the coenzyme is permanently bound to the enzyme and returned to its original form after a reaction is completed, we call it a ___5___ group. The enzyme allows a reaction to occur by providing an ____6___ reaction pathway that lowers the energy of activation. By adding H+ (acidify) or OH- (make alkaline) it can interfere with binding and decrease ____7____!**Enzymes do not change: ___7___, ___7___, ___7___, ____7___, or ___7___.

1) Holoenzyme 2) Apoenzyme 3) cofactor 4) coenzyme 5) prosthetic 6) alternative 7) reaction rate 8) Equilibrium, ΔG, ΔH, Keq constant, or product amount

Cnidaria includes __1__, __1___, __1___, & __1___. They have Unique stinging cells called ___2__ that are Painful; A single cnidarian tentacle could contain ___3__ of nematocysts!!

1) Hydras, jellyfish, corals, & sea anemones 2) nematocytes 3) thousands

_1__ are protein molecules that act as antibodies in our immune system. Antibodies are secreted by __2__. There are 5 major classes called _3___: __3__, __3__, __3__, __3__, __3__. 1) _4__: Most abundant (about 75%), longest __5__, Only immunoglobulin that can cross the __6__ protecting newborn against infections called _7_, & turns on the __8__ system (over 30 blood proteins participate in inflammation, and phagocytosis) which aids the immune system by Protecting against _9__, __9__, & __9__. 2) __10__: Also activates complement system, Together with IgD it is found in surface of __11__ (both work together to bind __12__ to __12__), & __13__ secreted antibody to appear during an infection. 3) IgA: Found in __14__, __14__, __14__, __14__, & __14___. Prevents __15__ & __15__ from attaching to mucous membranes which is the innermost layer of the __16__. The mucosa surrounds the __17__ which contains this main __18__ antibody IgA that helps immunize __19___ (__19__) shortly after birth. 4) IgD: Found on the surface of __20__, involved with __21__ & __21__, & _21__ secreted. 5) IgE: Triggers _22___, __22__, __22__, & _22__ to release histamine in __23__ & response to __24__.

1) Immunoglobulins 2) plasma cells 3) isotypes: IgA, IgE, IgD, IgG, IgM [D GAME] 4) IgG [Gross fat] 5) half-life 6) placenta 7) passive immunity (given antibodies rather than producing on their own) 8) "complement" protein [complement fat person] 9) bacteria, viruses, and toxins 10) IgM [MD 1st to help] 11) white blood cells 12) antigens to B-cells 13) First 14) vaginal fluid, breast milk, saliva, mucous, & tears [Aqua liquids] 15) bacteria and viruses 16) gastrointestinal tract 17) lumen (open space within the tube) 18) intestinal 19) breastfed newborns (passive immunity) 20) B-cells 21) cell Differentiation and B-cell activation & rarely 22) mast cells, Leukotrienes, heparin (blood thinner), and basophils 23) allergic reactions [Extra allergic] 24) parasitic worms

____ Dominance Occurs when neither of the two alleles exerts dominance; an __2__ or __2__ phenotype is made. If red-flowered snapdragons are crossed with white-flowered snapdragons, we get _3__ snapdragons.

1) Incomplete 2) intermediate or "blended" 3) pink

First step of transcription is __1__ where promoter binding occurs & RNA polymerase lands. The DNA helix then __2__ and the enzyme initiates RNA synthesis at the start point on the template strand. Eukaryote promoter includes an area rich in _3__ & __3__ about 25 nucleotides upstream from the transcriptional start point called a __4__ & Prokaryotes have a __5_ box. Proteins called __6__ in eukaryotes recognize an area within the promoter site (__7__) and binding occurs. Transcription factors and RNA polymerase make up the __8__. After __9__ transcription begins.

1) Initiation 2) unwinds 3) adenine and thymine 4) TATA box 5) Pribnow 6) transcription factors 7) (TATA box) 8) "TIC" transcription initiation complex 9) attachment

__1__ refers to the tendency of genes which are located on the same chromosome to stay together. Linkage could be disrupted when crossing over occurs during __2__. The farther apart the two genes are on a chromosome, the greater the frequency of crossover and recombination (result of a crossover) between them. A linkage map can be made that is based on the % of cross-overs!! **The probability of a crossover is __3__ to the __4__ separating the genes!!

1) Linkage 2) meiosis 3) proportional 4) distance

____1____ give off far more energy than proteins or carbohydrates when burned. what happens to the excess? They have many diverse structures and are not identified by the presence of a particular ______2________.

1) Lipids excess lipids are stored as fat. 2) functional group

_____1_____ are membrane bound organelle that contains hydrolytic enzymes used to ___2____ macromolecules. Over ____3____ different enzymes are found and are particularly abundant in cells with high _____4____ activity which is a type of endocytosis in which large particles are ___5____ or ___5____ by the cell. **___6____ & ___6____ are loaded with lysosomes. pH is about __7___ within lysosomal lumen. Usually ________ shape.

1) Lysosomes 2) digest 3) 40 4) phagocytic 5) engulfed or eaten 6) Neutrophils and macrophages 7) 5 8) spherical

___1___ is when pH < 7.35 due to loss of HCO3- ions through kidney dysfunction, severe diarrhea, or laxative abuse. Accumulation of metabolic acids such as ____2___ are seen in diabetes mellitus & __3___ & ___3___ could result. If your ___4___ are not working properly then H+ is not effectively removed, thus we have an abundance of ___5___ ions. ____6___ is when pH > 7.45 & there are loss of acids such as repeated ____7____ of the gastric contents or if you take too much ____8___(medicines that neutralize acid in the stomach). The respiratory system tries to compensate through ___9___ by retaining CO2 in the body ___10___ the pH. ___11___, ___11___, & ___11___ work as a team to maintain proper pH in homeostasis.

1) Metabolic Acidosis 2) ketone bodies 3) coma and death 4) kidneys 5) H+ 6) Metabolic Alkalosis 7) vomiting 8) antacid 9) hypoventilation 10) lowering 11) Blood, lungs, and kidneys

Stage Three of mitosis is __1__ where ___2___ are officially at opposite ends, ___3___ of each chromosome attached to the spindle, & Chromosomes are lined up at ___4___. Chromatids are ___5___ the # of chromosomes in this stage, ___6__ chromosomes= __7___ chromatids. Chromosomes are photographed when most condensed in _____8____ for a karyotype.

1) Metaphase 2) Centrosomes 3) Sister chromatids 4) spindle equator 5) double 6) 46 7) 92 8) Metaphase

Most enzymes follow ____1___ Kinetics. When enzyme becomes saturated with substrate all the available binding sites on the enzyme are ____2___ up. At low substrate concentration (initial volume), the rate of the reaction is ____3___ proportional to substate concentration & reaction is __4___ order. At higher concentrations ___5__ order kinetics is obtained, where reaction rate still depends on substrate concentration, but there isn't a ____6___ relationship. As substrate concentration continues to increase, the rate becomes ___7___ & all enzyme molecules have ___8___ bound at their active sites, and rate of reaction is ____9____ of substrate concentration. Rate now depends on ____10___ concentration (The only way you can increase the rate is to add more ____11___), & is ___12___ order. Km is ____13___ constant Km = ___14____ value!! Small Km: ____15____ affinity of enzyme for substrate & ___16___ concentration. Large Km: ___17___ affinity for substrate & ____18___ concentration needed for 1⁄2 Vmax.

1) Michaelis-Menten 2) taken 3) directly 4) 1st 5) mixed 6) linear 7) constant 8) substrates 9) independent 10) enzyme 11) enzyme 12) zero 13) Michaelis 14) substrate concentration of 1⁄2 Vmax 15) high 16) low 17) Low 18) high

___1___ are the inorganic nutrients such as ___2____, ___2____, ___2____, ___2___, & ___2___. They have a wide range of functions for example, Co is a component of Vitamin ___3___, Mo is needed for ___4___, Cr is involved with ___5___ production, and Fe is involved with ___6___ transport and various enzymes. Like vitamins, they do not supply ___7____. Minerals are found in all ___8____ cells and their concentrations are regulated by ___9____ mechanisms that balance their ___10____, ___10____, & ___10____. ___11____ is most highly concentrated in the thyroid because, it needs to make hormones ___12___ & ___12___. A healthy diet must supply sufficient ___13____, ___13____, ___13____, ___13____, & ___13____ to ensure optimal health and growth.

1) Minerals 2) copper, zinc, molybdenum, chromium, and sodium (My Zebra Can Count Stars) 3) B12 4) enzymes 5) energy 6) O2 7) ATP (energy) 8) body 9) homeostatic 10) storage, use, and excretion 11) Iodine 12) T3 and T4 13) calories, essential fats, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals

__1__ Are methods employed to measure evolutionary change based on the idea that some genes and regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates. Some genes will evolve __2__ or __2___ times faster than others & mutation rates can be noted and conclusions about when two or more life forms diverged is figured out through __3__ analysis.

1) Molecular Clocks 2) thousands or millions 3) DNA

@A cross that Mendel performed on flowers is a _1__ Cross which a cross between parents that differ in a single gene. A _2__ AKA __2__ can be used for an organism that shows dominance, but we are unsure if it is homozygous or heterozygous. **Let A = red color, a = white color; it must cross with a _3__ individual If we have A_ and we want to tell if it was AA or Aa, If we get all red our original was _4__, If we get a 50-50 mix our original was _5__.

1) Monohybrid 2) testcross AKA backcross 3) homozygous recessive 4) AA 5) Aa

__1__ is a symbiosis that is beneficial to both organisms involved. Bacteria can serve good purposes when inside the humans large intestine known as ___2__, by forming Vitamin __3__. We allow them to live (host), & they help make Vitamin K. Vitamins __4__, __4___, ___4__, & __4__ are Fat soluble & Vitamins __5__ & __5__ are H2O soluble. **__6__ do not produce ATP for energy!!

1) Mutualism 2) E. coli 3) K 4) A, D, E, K [A DEK Fat] 5) B & C [BeCause H2O] 6) Vitamins

The study of fungi is called __1__. The cell wall of a fungi contains __2_ which is a __3__ made of __4__. Chitin is also found in the ___5___ of ___5___. Fungi include: a) b) c) d) e) **A __6__ is the mutualistic association of a fungus and __7__ or __7__ such as __8__. Lichen live on areas like ___9__ and seen in the __10__ where reindeer survive on them. A fungus produces __11__ & Depending on conditions such as dampness, food availability, and temperature the spores could be __12__, __12___, or __12___! The Major groups are __13__ "Sac Fungi", __14__ "pin mold", __15__ "water molds", ["mycetes" = fungi].

1) Mycology 2) chitin 3) polysaccharide 4) amino sugars 5) exoskeleton of arthropods a) Mushrooms b) Toadstools c) Yeasts d) Molds (i.e. Rhizopus stolonifer) e) Mildew [My My My You're Tall] 6) lichen 7) cyanobacterium or green alga 8) green algae 9) bare rock 10) Arctic Tundra 11) spores 12) Sexual, asexual, or both 13) Ascomycetes [A sac] 14) Zygomycetes [Z pin] 15) Oomycetes [cOOl water]

___1__ is a globular protein that is found in skeletal muscle & cardiac muscle in almost all vertebrates and mammals. Has a higher O2 affinity than ___2___. Stores ___3___ and uses it as a reserve for when the demand for O2 cannot be met by Hb. **High amounts of myoglobin allow organism to hold their ___4__ for an extended time under water like __5___ & __5___!! O2 is bound on a heme group found on its ___6___ polypeptide chain & most of the myoglobin is ___7___ (80%). Since it is a monomer of 1 chain, it has no ___8___ structure. Folding of the myoglobin (Mb) chain places the ___9____ residues on the interior, where they are shielded from water. Many polar amino acid residues reside on the ___10___, making Hb a H2O-soluble globular protein. Globular proteins = ___11___ & ___11___. The ___12__ group (prosthetic group... nonprotein part) sits on a crevice lined by ___13___ amino acids. ___14___ clearly shows 3D structure of heme. Mb can bind only one molecule of O2 since it contains one ___15__ group. Myoglobin is the heme iron containing protein responsible for the color of ___16___, more myoglobin the darker the red meat!! Older animals have more Mb, meat is ___17___.

1) Myoglobin 2) hemoglobin 3) O2 4) breath 5) whales and seals 6) single 7) α-helix 8) quaternary 9) nonpolar 10) outside 11) hydrophilic and H2O soluble 12) heme 13) nonpolar 14) X-Ray Crystallography 15) heme 16) meat 17) darker

_1__ are "first responders" defending against invading microorganisms like bacterial infections, and are active in _2__!! _3__ numerous ~65%. If you have an __4_, you likely have a fever caused by numerous bacterial products like endotoxins. Eosinophils are involved in destroying _5__, participate in _5___, & __5__ phagocytic activity. __6__: Our least numerous WBC under 1%, initiate the process of __7__, does __8__, produce __9__ that induces inflammation (_10__) as well as __11__ (prevents blood clotting), & a key "player" in _12___, __12__, & _12___. __13__: can be small, medium, or large and constitute an entire family that can live for years! B-Lymphocytes: responsible for __14__ & differentiate into __15__ which make antibodies. T-Lymphocytes: responsible for __16__! Memory cell can be derived from both __16A__ & __16A__. __17__: can kill a cancer cell & tumor cells infected by a virus. NK cells also secrete ___18__ which are "hormones" of the immune system. T-Helper Cells: can release __19__ & help activate __20__ to secrete antibodies and macrophage activation. T-Suppressor Cells: involved with regulation of both __21__ & _21___ responses. __22__: the largest of the circulating blood cells & Differentiate into macrophages which are derived from the __23__, loaded with lysosomes since they are avid (eager) phagocytosing cells, and produce cytokines that activate __24__ processes. Monocytes and macrophages are the same cell but in different stages of __25__. They have many have many Golgi complexes, Lysosomes, & different names; For example: In the liver, they are called _26__, In the skin _27__ Cells, In the bone __28__, In the CNS _29__ Cells. Macrophages = __30__! Large molecules that are foreign to the cell, macrophages can __31__ to make up a Foreign Body Giant Cell ready to fight!!!

1) Neutrophils 2) phagocytosis 3) most 4) infection 5) parasitic worms, participate in allergic reactions, & low 6) Basophils 7) inflammation 8) phagocytosis 9) histamine 10) vasodilator (dilates blood vessels) 11) heparin 12) asthma, anaphylaxis, and hay fever 13) Lymphocytes 14) humoral immunity (antibodies) 15) plasma cells 16) cell-mediated immunity 16A) T-Lymphocytes & B-Lymphocytes 17) T-Killer Cell (NK Cell) 18) cytokines (peptides or glycoproteins of low molecular weight & act on cells that have receptors for them) 19) cytokines 20) B cells (B lymphocytes) 21) humoral (body fluid) and cell-mediated 22) Monocytes 23) Bone marrow 24) inflammatory 25) maturation 26) Kupffer Cells 27) Langerhans 28) Osteoclasts 29) Microglial 30) Big Eaters 31) fuse

Chromosomal Abnormalities such as _1__ is the Failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in Anaphase I or II of meiosis & 95% cause _2__ syndrome causing offspring to have wrong (abnormal) number of chromosomes called an _3__. Down syndrome has An extra #21 chromosome "__4__", __5__, __5__, & More prone to __6__ & __6__. Most nondisjunction's affecting autosomes (non sex chromosome) are __7__, especially if a loss of an autosome occurs but not always! Turner Syndrome is where A female has just 1 X called _8__ (only in __9__), No __10__ in this __11__ (cant produce children) female with poorly developed ovaries, and incompletely developed __12__. Kleinfelter syndrome is where A __13__ & _13___. __14__ is very common in plants which include a 3N or 4N cell like in weeds, dandelions, and wild oats. Endosperm of plant seeds is 3N, & Human liver cells are occasionally __15__, __15__, etc.!!

1) Nondisjunction 2) Down 3) Aneuploidy 4) "Trisomy 21" 5) Mental retardation, Heart defects 6) Alzheimer's and Leukemia (cancer that affects blood and bone) 7) lethal 8) monosomy 9) humans 10) Barr Bodies 11) sterile 12) secondary sex characteristics (features that appear during puberty) 13) male has XXY & Sterile (infertile) male with feminization 14) Polyploidy 15) 3N, 4N

____1____ is the ribosome production factory & a ____2_____ organelle. One to ___3___ may be found within the nucleus. The assembly of ____4____ & ____4____ ribosomal subunits occurs here. Small amounts of DNA are present, but does not ___5___ with Feulgen stain (staining technique to identify chromosomal material or DNA). In cancer cells, the nucleolus is often _____6____ (increased in size). Large nucleoli are not only encountered with rapidly growing malignant (infectious) tumors, but are found in cells that are actively _____7____ proteins.

1) Nucleolus 2) non-membranous 3) three 4) large and small 5) stain 6) hypertrophic 7) synthesizing

_____1_____ is the largest organelle of the cell. In the eukaryotic organism, most of the ____2___ are found here (a small amount is found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts). It is enclosed by the _____3____, which is a double membrane (outer & inner). Inside the nucleus, ____4___ is organized into units called chromosomes. The chromosomes are made of proteins and DNA called a ______5_____. All cells except sperm and ova are __6__ meaning there are __7__ pairs of chromosomes or __8__ total chromosomes in humans. The germ cells, sperm and eggs, have ___9___ chromosomes.

1) Nucleus 2) genes 3) nuclear envelope 4) DNA 5) chromatin complex 6) diploid 7) 23 8) 46 9) 23

The fetus gets ___1___ from the mom's bloodstream through the placenta. ___2___ has a higher O2 affinity than adult Hb. Two reasons: a) b) This stabilizes the ___3___ form meaning the "preferred" conformation will have ___4___ dumped off & the hemoglobin curve for fetal Hb is shifted to the ___5__ since it will keep its O2 and use it for its own ___6___.

1) O2 2) Fetal Hb (HbF) a) Adult has 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains. Fetal Hb has 2 alpha chains and 2 gamma chains. (All Alphas Bang-Females And Girls) b) Fetal Hb binds BPG less strongly than adult Hb. 3) deoxy 4) O2 5) left 6) development.

Arteries: high in __1__, __1__ is under high pressure, Carry blood away from the __2__, __2___ & ___2__, & __2__ distinct layers with thick walls. They get progressively __3__ and give rise to the __4__ which convey blood to the capillaries; also have three layers. **The resistance is highest in the __5__ than in any part of the systemic circulation. __6__ is vital to blood flow regulation. Blood is pumped under very high pressure and eventually decreases to almost _7__ mmHg when it reaches the right atria of the heart. Their large diameters offer very __8__ resistance to flow thus very little drop in blood pressure.

1) O2, blood 2) heart, Strong and elastic, & 3 3) smaller 4) arterioles 5) arterioles 6) Resistance 7) 0 8) little

___1__ Occurs in ovaries of female. Early cells stop ___2___ and stay in ___3___ until puberty. One ___4__ will mature each month giving rise to a cell that has the potential to be fertilized. Primary oocyte is __5__. Secondary oocyte is ___6___, and it gets ___7__. **Only if a sperm fertilizes the secondary oocyte will it resume ___8__. Polar bodies may eventually ___9__. A polar body is made because, this small haploid cell generally cannot be ___10___. Polar bodies contain only a small % of the ___11___ which was given to the ___12___ cell. ___13___ is the final fate where polar bodies eliminate half of the ___14___ chromosome set produced by the meiotic division. Many sperm cells reach the egg, only ___15___ will fertilize it. The functional maturation of the sperm is termed ___16__ & must occur to render the sperm cell competent (function) for fertilization which allows the acrosomal reaction to take place.

1) Oogenesis 2) meiosis 3) Prophase I 4) follicle 5) diploid (2N) 6) haploid (N) 7) fertilized by sperm 8) Meiosis II 9) degenerate (deteriorate) 10) fertilized 11) cytoplasm 12) daughter 13) Apoptosis (death of cell) [pop its dead] 14) diploid 15) one 16) capacitation

Name three heat system types & examples

1) Open System: mass and energy can exchange (EX: H2O in an open container) 2) Closed System: allows energy to transfer, but not mass (EX: H2O in a closed flask) 3) Isolated System: Neither energy nor mass can transfer (EX: H2O in a flask that is closed and placed in a vacuum jacket (insulated))

_____1____ is the final stage of cellular respiration, occurring in the ___2___ mitochondria. All the enzymatic steps in the oxidative degradation of ____3____, ____3___, ____3____ in aerobic cells converge at this final stage of cellular respiration. ATP is generated as electrons flow to ___4___. ___5_____ & _____5____ provide electron donation.

1) Oxidative phosphorylation 2) inner 3) fats, carbohydrates, amino acids 4) O2 5) NADH and FADH2

@Elongation in translation has an amino acid in the _1__ site, and an amino acid in the _2_ site; they join and form a _3__ bond. A "__4__" now occurs, where the tRNA that occupied the A site moves to the P site, and the tRNA that occupied the P site is moved to the _5__ site for release!! **The 3rd base of the _6__ and 3rd base on _7__ might not always be complimentary called a "_8__" that Crick developed. Now, a third tRNA can move into the vacated _9__ site. Peptide bond forms between amino acids _10__ & __10__ & continues with amino acids added to the growing chain.

1) P 2) A 3) peptide 4) "translocation" 5) E 6) codon 7) tRNA 8) "Wobble hypothesis" 9) A 10) 2 and 3

__1__ fungi can penetrate the cell wall and lie against the cell membrane in order to absorb nutrients from the body fluids of the host by using specialized hyphae called __2__. Penicillin made by a __3__ was Discovered by ___4__ & is one of the world's most widely-used and effective antibiotics!! Penicillin interrupts ___5__ cell wall synthesis. Resistance to penicillin is a __6__ process. The penicillin structure is called the ___7__. A major mechanism developed by bacteria is through the production of Beta-Lactamases which ___8__ the beta-lactam ring!

1) Parasitic 2) haustoria [Host] 3) fungus 4) Alexander Fleming 5) bacterial 6) slow 7) beta lactam ring 8) cleaves

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway AKA ___1____ AKA ____1_____ pathway is primarily ____2____ (set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units) and has two main purposes also name their biosynthesis: a) b) All reactions occur in the ____3___. This pathway is quite active in adipose tissue such as the ____4____ gland, since NADPH makes ____5____ & ____5____. Tissues such as ___6____, ____6____, & ___6_____ also have an abundance of enzymes of this pathway. Glucose-6-phosphate has other routes other than ____7_____.

1) Pentose Shunt AKA hexose monophosphate 2) anabolic a) Provides NADPH... reductive biosynthesis of lipids b) Provides ribose-5-phosphate... nucleotide and nucleic acid biosynthesis 3) cytosol 4) mammary 5) fatty acids and steroids 6) adrenals, liver, and adipose tissue 7) glycolysis

_____1_____ (Microbody) are spherical organelles that are membrane-bound and contain over 40 oxidative enzymes!! Peroxisome makes _____2____, which detoxifies substances like ethanol and kills microorganisms. Excess H2O2 is broken down by ____3___ which is harmful to cells. Peroxisomes contain enzymes involved with ____4___ metabolism. The ___5___ oxidation of long chained fatty acids, of __6__ carbons or longer, are done by peroxisomal enzymes, which are different from those of the ____7____, where fatty acids are made ____8____, then subsequently (later) shuttled to the ____9___ of the mitochondria for oxidation. The _____10_____ can self-replicate, but unlike the mitochondria lack their own ____11____, & must import the needed proteins for self-replication. Mitochondria generate ____12____, peroxisomes ____13___.

1) Peroxisome 2) H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) 3) catalase 4) lipid 5) beta 6) 18 7) mitochondria 8) shorter 9) matrix 10) peroxisome 11) DNA 12) ATP 13) do not

__1__ are protein filaments used to attach to cell surfaces or to one another during conjugation. The conjugation __2__ tube connects them as well as pilli extensions! The ___3__ is a circular small self-replicating piece of DNA.

1) Pilli 2) pilus 3) plasmid

__1__ Carry genes beneficial for the hosts cell separate from bacterial chromosome & Contains one -> hundreds of genes that encode traits for __2__! __3__-Plasmids: contain genes that allow conjugation, _4_-Plasmids: contain genes for resistance against poisons or antibiotics.

1) Plasmids 2) antibiotic resistance 3) F [F*ck/conjugation] 4) R [Resistance]

_1__ has two or more genes contributing to a single trait like Hair color, skin color, and height result from the interactions of several genes. When several genes are involved, a _2__-shaped curve is often used to describe the phenotype. _3__ occurs When a gene has more than two given alleles for example using the three allele gene the ABO blood type in humans. There could be four possible __4__ A, B, O, AB all produced from combinations of three different alleles: ia, ib, and io. Types __5__ & _5__ are produced from a single genotype, but _6__ & __6__ may be either homozygous or heterozygous. Type _7__ = Universal Donor & Type _8__ = Universal Recipient. If Type B blood was injected into a Type A person, anti-B-antibodies in their plasma will recognize the "foreign invader" and _9__ AKA _9_ would occur to cleanse the blood. Type A: __10__ antigens on surface; _11__ antibodies in plasma Type B: _12__ antigens on surface; __13__ antibodies in plasma Type AB: __14__ antigens on surface; __15__ antibodies in plasma Type O: __16__ surface antigen; __17__ antibodies in plasma

1) Polygenic Inheritance 2) bell 3) Multiple Alleles 4) phenotypes 5) O and AB 6) A and B 7) O 8) AB 9) clumping AKA agglutination [glu] 10) A 11) B 12) B 13) A 14) A and B 15) No A or B 16) No A or B 17) B and A

__1___ leads to unsuccessful fertilization. Fertilization in sea urchins has ___2___ which is triggered Upon contact with the jelly coat of the egg's cytoplasm. The tip of the sperm (acrosome) releases ___3__ which digest this jelly coat. __4___ Reaction is when Enzymes punch a "hole" in the jelly while growing __5__ filaments from the acrosomal process & the sperm binds to the egg cell ___6___!! ___7__ to polyspermy is when Contact and fusion of sperm and egg occurs & The membrane ___8__ changes known as __9__. Cortical reaction occurs when __10__ ions (essential for reaction) are released from the __11__ & cortical granules in the egg fuse with the ___12__. __13___ receptors are removed and fertilization envelope forms termed the ___14__ to polyspermy. **Studies were done extensively on ___15__, but cortical reaction was also noted in __16__ & __16___!

1) Polyspermy 2) Exocytosis 3) enzymes 4) Acrosomal 5) actin 6) receptors 7) Fast block (Fuse) 8) voltage 9) depolarization 10) Ca++ 11) endoplasmic reticulum 12) plasma membrane 13) Sperm-binding 14) slow block (Remove) 15) sea urchins 16) mammals and fish!

The mitochondria is the ____1_____ of the cell. It Contains enzymes specialized in making __2___ and carrying out ___3___ respiration Can have a shape that is ____4____ or ___4____. Cells usually possess a high number, but ____5____ & ____5____ have enormous numbers of mitochondria!! ___6___ has the most; ___7___ are second. A ___8___ cell might have 2,000, but a ___9___ cell has 5,000 mitochondria. ___10____ & ___10____ contain mitochondria. Cristae foldings on the ____11____ greatly increases _____12____.

1) Powerhouse 2) ATP 3) aerobic 4) round or elongated 5) kidney and heart 6) Heart 7) kidneys 8) liver 9) heart 10) Animals and plants 11) inner membrane 12) surface tension

@Stage Two of mitosis is __1__ where ___2___ become more condensed & ___3___ fragments appear. **___4___ surrounds the nucleus & has __5___ & __5__ membrane. The nucleus protects the ___6__ and will help to ___7___, ___7___ & ___7___. **Some microtubules attach to ___8___ which is a protein structure attached to the ___9__ that links the ___10___ to the mitotic spindle. Kinetochore belongs to the ___11___!!

1) Prometaphase 2) Chromosomes 3) Nuclear envelope 4) Nuclear envelope 5) inner and outer 6) DNA 7) contain, repair enzymes and regulatory proteins 8) kinetochores 9) centromere 10) sister chromatids 11) chromosome

Stage One of mitosis is ___1__ where ___2___ disappear, ___3___ condense, ___4___ move to opposite poles, Mitotic ___5___ begins its formation, & ___6___ fibers become tightly coiled; chromosomes are observable under a light microscope. Chromatids are ___7___ the # of chromosomes in this stage, ___8__ chromosomes= __9___ chromatids.

1) Prophase 2) Nucleoli 3) Chromosomes 4) Centrioles 5) spindle 6) Chromatin 7) double 8) 46 9) 92

____1____ are protein complexes found in the cytoplasm about the size of a ribosomal subunit (small). They _____2___ denatured or unneeded proteins (quality control protein department). ____3_____ do the bulk of the job, but these organelles assist with primarily _____4___ proteins. They remove ____5___ or ____5___ proteins and use ____6____ to drive the needed conformational changes in their subunits. The structure has ___7___ stacked rings.

1) Proteasomes 2) degrade 3) Lysosomes 4) individual 5) abnormal or misfolded 6) ATP 7) 4

Red Bone Marrow: Makes __1_, __1__, & __1___, it's Red due to __2__, Found in __3__ at the time of birth but by age 15 it is confined to the __4__ (__4__, __4__, __4__). Yellow Marrow: appears microscopically as __5__ and is seen in the bones of __6__. **When there is severe blood loss, yellow bone marrow can transform into __7__ to allow for more __8__.

1) RBCs, WBCs, and platelets 2) hemoglobin 3) all bones 4) axial skeleton (skull, ribs, vertebral column) 5) fat tissue 6) limbs 7) red bone marrow 8) hematopoiesis (forming blood cellular components)

Autosomal _1__ Inheritance include diseases such as _2__ (defect in Cl- channel protein causing excessive mucus & infections); _3__ disease (unable to metabolize phenylalanine); & _4__ (absence of melanin which is a pigment that protects you from skin cancer). Both sexes affected _5__ & Can appear to _6__. A = Autosome = _7__ A.A is a _8_ A.A. _9_ Autosomal Dominant Inheritance has __10__, __10__, & __10__, i.e. _11__ or _11__ = disease. Examples include __12__ & _12__.

1) Recessive 2) cystic fibrosis 3) PKU 4) Albinism 5) equally 6) skip generations (i.e. a girl and her grandmother are afflicted) 7) bad gene 8) carrier 9) has disease 10) Both sexes affected equally, no skipping of generation & if one gene is affected, you have the disease 11) A.A or A.A. 12) Achondroplasia (dwarfism) and Marfan syndrome (connective tissue disorder)

___1___ is when pH > 7.45 & loss of CO2 occurs causing hyperventilation!! When ___2__ levels increase, the respiratory center in the brain tells you to breath more rapidly. This happens in cases of severe ____3___, early stages of ____4___ overdose, or ___5___ deficiency in high altitude. (The rising CO2 and H+ ions are sensed by ____6___ in the carotid artery and the brain receives the message). ___7___ is when pH < 7.35 & interfere with H+ loss. People with Emphysema will ___8___ (breathing slow) and the CO2 loss is ____9___. If CO2 is not removed from the lungs fast enough, it "_____10____" and H+ will not be removed by ____11___. Airway obstruction such as ____12_____ or a ___13___ like barbiturate (sleep drug) depresses the respiratory center.

1) Respiratory Alkalosis 2) CO2 3) anxiety 4) aspirin 5) O2 6) chemoreceptors 7) Respiratory Acidosis 8) hypoventilate 9) hindered (stopped) 10) "backs up" 11) HCO3- bicarbonate 12) Asthma/Pneumonia 13) drug

Echinoderms include __1___, ___1___, & ___1___. They Have radial __2___ in all directions & Nervous system is ___3___ meaning no brain & is advantageous for animals with radial symmetry allowing them to avoid ___4___ from different directions. Their water vascular system has a series of canals involved with ___5___, __5___, & ___5___ sources.

1) Sea stars, sea urchins, & sea cucumbers 2) symmetry 3) decentralized 4) predators 5) movement (locomotion), gas exchange, and attaining food

@____1____ is the outer surface lacks ribosomes Involved with ____2_____ biosynthesis (production of complex molecules within living organisms or cells) such as phospholipids. Also involved with holding and releasing ____3___ in a controlled manner when needed. It is specialized in skeletal muscle and called ____4____ reticulum. Also involved in ____5____ biosynthesis and ____6____ of drugs and poisons in the most abundant and largest cells of the ___7___ called ____8_____, containing large amounts of cytochrome 450. The cytochrome 450 catalyzes reactions to ____9_____ drug toxicity. Cells that are active in the synthesis of ____10____, ____10____, & ____10____ show an abundance of smooth ER.

1) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 2) lipid 3) Ca++ 4) sarcoplasmic 5) steroid 6) detoxification 7) liver 8) hepatocytes 9) decrease 10) cholesterol, triglycerides, and steroids

@Mollusks are Marine organisms & include __1__, ___1__, __1__, __1___, & __1___. Most have hard shells made of ___2__ & an open circulatory system where fluid called __3___ moves in cavities and sinuses. They have __4___ (have a body cavity) that has muscles to move around rather than bones.

1) Snails, oysters, clams, squids, & octopuses 2) CaCO3 3) hemolymph 4) Coelomates

___1__ is the formation of sperm that occurs within the __2__ tubules of testis, Continuously being made. It Involves ___3___ and differentiation to yield ___4__ mature spermatozoa. Involves ___5__ & ___5___ which increase production of sex hormones, working together. In humans, head of sperm = ___6__, which contains ___7__ enzymes which can break down the ___8___ (extracellular egg matrix) which contains sperm receptors allowing for syngamy (fertilization).

1) Spermatogenesis 2) seminiferous 3) meiosis 4) 4 5) LH (Luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) 6) acrosome 7) hyaluronidase 8) zona pellucida

@Stage Five of mitosis is __1__ where ___2__ nuclei form each with a ___3___ number, ___4__ occurs, ___5___ decondense (loosen), & New ___6___ forms. Chromatids are the __7__ # as chromosomes in this stage, ___8__ chromosomes= __9___ chromatids. **In __10__ cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a "__11__" where the cell "pinches" in __12__!! This furrow is the first sign of __13__. Cytokinesis is different in ___14__, which have cell walls. There is no cleavage furrow, but a ___15__ is formed that will partition off the ___16__ cells.

1) Telophase 2) 2 daughter 3) diploid 2N 4) Cytokinesis 5) Chromosomes 6) nuclear membrane 7) same 8) 92 9) 92 10) animal 11) "cleavage furrow" 12) two 13) cleavage 14) plants 15) cell plate 16) daughter

Third step of transcription is __1__ where ___2__ is removed from __3__, by RNA polymerase transcribing what is called a "__4__" in the DNA. The mechanism for termination __5__ between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but both have Detachment of the RNA polymerase and __6__ is released & a newly made __7__ is now able to diffuse away from the DNA template & a "___8__" modification must occur before binding to the ribosome.

1) Termination 2) RNA polymerase 3) DNA 4) "terminator sequence" 5) differs 6) RNA transcript 7) m-RNA 8) "post-transcriptional"

Reptiles include __1___, ___1__, __1___, & __1___ (more than 90% are snakes and lizards). They have a ___2__ circulatory system, Bony ___3__ and scaly skin, __4__ fertilization, most have __5__ chambered heart but crocodilians and alligators have ___6__, & Have an ___7__ (member of amniotes). As amniotes, they have a terrestrially adapted ___8__. Birds descend from reptiles during __9___ times. Fun Fact: Dinosaurs came in __10___ Period which was part of the __11___ Era. The Most Modern Era: ___12__ Era.

1) Turtles, crocodilians, lizards, snakes 2) Closed 3) exoskeleton 4) Internal 5) 3 6) 4 7) amnion 8) egg 9) Jurassic 10) Jurassic 11) Mesozoic 12) Cenozoic

____1___ is a central pathway in nitrogen metabolism. This cycle is involved with both the ___2___ & ___2___ of amino acids linked to the ____3___ Cycle (TCA cycle). In most terrestrial vertebrates, NH4+ is made into ___4___ and then excreted. Before urea cycle occurs, NH3 is made into a compound called _____5____ and requires ___6___ ATP molecules (it does NOT produce ATP). Highly toxic ___7___ must be excreted. Several enzymatic reactions occur: a) b) This cycle occurs mainly in the ___8___, then is released into the blood & destined to where it barley occurs in the ____9___ to then be excreted. Fumarate is produced in this cycle and is also an ____10____ in the TCA cycle, and returned to that cycle. Inherited disorders can interfere with this cycle resulting in elevated NH4+ (____11____). ____12____ & ___12____ result shortly after birth if the urea cycle does not run correctly. High ____13____ levels can also cause brain damage.

1) Urea Cycle 2) catabolism and anabolism 3) Kreb 4) urea 5) carbamoylphosphate 6) 2 7) NH3 a) mitochondrial reaction b) cytosolic reactions 8) liver 9) kidney 10) intermediate 11) hyperammonemia 12) Coma and death 13) NH4+

@describe Lipids. Name 5

1) Used for energy & protection 2) Membrane & nerve cell components -steroid -prostaglandin -triglyceride -terpene -wax

@**_____1____ muscle contains ____2_____ phosphate which readily transfers its phosphoryl group to form a high concentration of ATP during strenuous exercise. The body ____3_____ the concentration of ATP in a steady state, ______4_______, and breaks it down as needed to maintain _____5_____.

1) Vertebrate 2) creatine 3) maintains 4) makes ATP 5) homeostasis

Other than viruses _1__ & __1__ are also infectious particles. __2__ are Circular RNA molecules devoid (lacking) a protein coat, __3__ infectious pathogen known, Seen in >99% __4__, & the Only human disease caused by a viroid is __5__. __6__ cause damage to proteins in the brain & are Infectious proteins that cause proteins to fold incorrectly like __7___ Disease, __8__ in sheep and goats, __9___ & __9___ Disease.

1) Viroids & Prions (VCR & PBF Please Bring Food) 2) Viroids 3) Smallest 4) plants 5) Hepatitis D (liver disease) 6) Prions 7) Mad Cow 8) Scrapie 9) Kuru, and Creutzfelt-Jakob

__1__: No cells- no organelles!! __2__ or __2__ can get a virus, they are Infectious agents that contains only ___3___ or __3____, but never both, Consists of __4__ which is a protein coat, Nucleic Acid Core of DNA or RNA called a __5___, Sometimes a membranous __6__, & Many shapes are possible like __7___, ___7___, & ___7___. **Viruses are Smaller than a __8__! Viruses that infect a bacteria are known as __9__ or __9__. Viruses need a host to reproduce "__10___" and possess a __11___ host range, For example, Virus X only infects your upper respiratory tract and not your GI tract!! If it enters the host cell it causes it to ___12__ & cell death occurs known as the __13__ cycle = Kiss of Death; the phage is __14___. A __15__ cycle is when a virus becomes incorporated in the host cell and replicates more viral particles without killing the host. **A __16__ is a bacteriophage that has become integrated into the bacterial chromosome meaning If in a __17__ cycle, viral genome is incorporated without __18__, then it has been incorporated as prophage. HIV is a RNA __19__ that reproduces by transcribing its __20__ into _20__ using __21__ transcriptase enzyme AKA __22__.

1) Viruses 2) Animals or plants 3) DNA (herpes, small pox, cow pox) or RNA (HIV) 4) Capsid 5) retrovirus 6) envelope 7) Polyhedral, circular, & filamentous 8) ribosome 9) bacteriophages or phages 10) "obligate intracellular parasites" 11) limited 12) rupture (lysis) 13) lytic (lysis) 14) virulent (toxic) 15) lysogenic 16) prophage 17) lysogenic 18) lysis 19) retrovirus 20) RNA into DNA 21) reverse 22) RNA-directed DNA polymerase

@__1__ AKA __1__ #1 function is to fight infections! Leucocytes can leave the bloodstream by what is called __2__. Injured tissue releases chemical signals that cause __3__ of __4_ & __4__ allowing migration from the __5__ to __5__. This greatly __6__ during times of inflammation, which is a __7__ & __7__ defense-type reaction in response to invaders such as __8__. Inflammation Involves: a) b) c) d) e) The five major types of white blood cells are __9__, __9__, __9__, __9__, & __9__. __10__, __10__, & __10__ are granulocytes which means they contain granules in their cytoplasm that has many enzymes & live for __11__. __12__ & _12___ are agranulocytes which means they lack granules in their cytoplasm. Lymphocytes can live for _13__ or _13___.

1) White Blood Cell AKA Leucocyte 2) diapedesis 3) vasodilation (dilates blood vessels) 4) capillary walls and postcapillary venules 5) blood to connective tissues 6) increases 7) vascular and cellular 8) bacteria a) Redness: due to increased blood b) Swelling: due to increased capillary permeability c) Heat: due to more blood d) Pain: nociceptors are stimulated because of the increased fluid pressure e) Disturbed function [Really Strong Hulk Punches & Destroys] 9) neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, & monocytes 10) Neutrophils, basophils, & eosinophils [Granny: No Body Else] 11) a few days [Granny lives a few days] 12) Lymphocytes & monocytes [Animals: Love More] 13) months or years

The order of human development is __1___ -> ___1___ -> __1____ -> ___1___ -> ___1___. The ___2__ genes are regulatory genes responsible for the placement and spatial organization of body parts in __3___, ___3__, & ___3__!! They control the ___4__ and fate of many cell groups. For example, a homeotic mutation may affect the ___5__ gene involved with the development of an antenna, Instead of developing into an antenna, a leg is made!!

1) Zygote -> Morula -> Blastocyst -> Embryo -> Fetus. 2) homeotic 3) animals, plants, and fungi 4) development 5) regulatory

The order for fertilization is [__1___ -> ___1__ -> __1___ -> ___1__]. During gastrulation A new central cavity is formed called the ___2__, which will become the primitive __3__ or __3___. The opening of the archenteron is called the ___4__ & forms the mouth first in __5__ and anus first in __6__. Protostomes include: __7__, __7___, & __7___. Deuterostomes include: ___8__ & ___8___.

1) Zygote -> Morula -> Blastula -> Gastrula 2) Archenteron 3) gut or digestive tube 4) blastopore 5) protostomes (popcorn mouth) 6) deuterostomes (doo-doo anus) 7) mollusks, arthropods, and annelids (popcorn mouths are annoying) 8) chordates and echinoderms (Doo-Doo's Can Explode)

Uncompetitive Inhibitor AKA anti-competitive inhibitor binds to the complex formed between the ____1____. Cannot be ___2___ by increasing [S], Vmax is ____3___, & the inactive form of an enzyme = ____4___. **___5___ cleavage can cause ___6___ activation. Cleavages can cause conformational changes that ____7___ the enzyme active site.

1) [ES] enzyme & substrate 2) reversed 3) decreased 4) Zymogen 5) Proteolytic 6) zymogen 7) expose

Mast Cell Live only __1__ & Produces __2__, __2__, & __2__. If histamine is released by these cells, localized __3__ occurs and your mucosa swells feeling "stuffy" and breathing is hard; Victims of hay fever know this too well. Histamines _4__ capillaries and make them permeable allowing more _5__ & __5__ delivered to the injured area. Their main function is to _6__ the mediators of the inflammation process! **A _7__ are inflammatory chemicals the body releases from an allergic reaction & stimulates the contraction of smooth muscle and enhances vascular permeability derived from a _8__; EX: a person gets an asthma attack and has a hard time breathing, Leukotrienes have caused a bronchiospasm!

1) a few months 2) histamine, heparin (blood thinners) and leukotrienes 3) edema 4) dilate 5) clotting proteins and phagocytes 6) store 7) leukotrienes 8) hematopoietic stem cell

When lactose is __1__, we DON'T need to have it metabolized, This system is shut down by the _2__ protein binding to the operator. This bulky repressor protein takes up too much space, and prevents the __3__ to bind to the promoter, thus no _4__ & __4__ made! The repressor is part of a _5_ control mechanism, for genes that are prevented from carrying out the transcription process.

1) absent 2) repressor 3) RNA polymerase 4) transcription & no lactose-metabolizing enzymes 5) negative in pic: gray block is repressor protein

Microfilaments are built from ___1___ (a globular protein). Like the motor protein dynein, ____2___ is another motor protein that loves to walk along the ____3_____ which is _____4_____ -based and not microtubule-based like dynein. This is seen in ____5____ contraction. Actin and myosin filaments ____6____ past one another. Amoebas move by ____7____ and this movement also involves ____8____ & ___8_____. _____9_____ streaming is the movement of the cytoplasm in plants or animals, it is also believed to involve ____10_____ & ___10_____. Actin also plays a critical role in ____11_____ & _____11____. **A 9+2 ____12___ pattern of the ___13____ & ___13___ (nine outer microtubule doublets and a central microtubule ___14___) for ____15___, and a ___16____ axoneme (____17____ the central pair) typical for ____18____ & ____18____. In most eukaryotic cells, ____19____ is the most abundant protein, and participates in more ______20_____ interactions than any other protein.

1) actin 2) myosin 3) actin filaments 4) microfilament 5) muscle 6) slide 7) pseudopodia 8) actin and myosin 9) Cytoplasmic 10) actin and myosin 11) cytokinesis and phagocytosis 12) axoneme 13) flagella and cilia 14) pair 15) motility 16) 9+0 17) lacking 18) sensory and signaling 19) actin 20) protein-protein 9+2 in photo

@Enzymes contain a specialized "pocket" called the ____1___ that contains ___2____, ____2___, and groups that take part in ____2___. Turnover #: number of _____3____. Turnover # = ___4__ . Enzymatically controlled reactions are about ___5____ to ____5___ times faster than without a catalyst! Enzymes work by specificity of ___6__ & ___6___.

1) active site 2) amino acids, ions, & substrate binding 3) substrate molecules making product 4) Kcat 5) 1 X 10^3 to 1 X 10^9 6) fit and charge

There are 2 types of __1__ immunity; active & passive. Active Immunity: two scenarios occur a) b) **A vaccination gives __2__ immunity. Passive Immunity: two scenarios occur a) b) **Passive immunity differs from active immunity in that it doesn't rely on the hosts immune system to take charge, but results in the _3__ of antibodies that can be used to defend us against a pathogen. If you are bitten by a snake that is poisonous you are given an antivenin (__4__ acquired) which contains antibodies needed to neutralize toxins (_5__). Innate Immunity: You are _6__ with it always present and available at short notice to protect against invaders. Includes cells like __7__, __7__, & __7__ in the CNS, gives __8__, & __8__ (a protein that is made by body cells with numerous functions such as helping nearby cells resist viral infection after it has been infected) & doesn't __9__. Acquired Immunity: protection of the __10__ immune system. You are born with the capacity to mount an immune response, but only when there is direct __11__ with the pathogen is immunity acquired. Initial contact leads to __12__ cell activation and the synthesis of __13__ that exhibit specific reactivity against the invader.

1) adaptive/acquired a) You produce antibodies naturally after an infection (natural) b) Vaccination: able to elicit a protective immune response (deliberate/artificial). 2) artificially acquired active a) Antibody transfer from one person to another. EX: A mother transfers antibodies to infant through breast milk or fetus through placenta (natural) b) Administration (dispensing) of serum (medicine) or immunoglobulins to people with weak immune systems. (artificial) 3) immediate availability 4) artificially 5) passive 6) born 7) neutrophils, macrophages, and microglia 8) fever, & interferon [interfere infection] 9) adapt 10) innate 11) contact 12) white blood 13) proteins

@Archaebacteria/Archaea can survive in both __1__ & __1___ environments. Aerobic means in the presence of ___2__, while anaerobic means a very small amount of ___3__. Mostly they carry out glycolysis (__4___ process) and are capable of additional reactions. They are able to use an electron transport chain to make __5___! Anaerobic bacteria live by using different electron acceptors such as __6___ or __6___ at the end of their electron transport chains. __7___ obtain their energy from sunlight. Prokaryotes decompose __8___ & ___8__ which then return __9___ to the atmosphere. ___10___ produce CH4 which can eventually be oxidized to CO2 & are vital to the __11___ Cycle. Archaea/bacteria also "fix" atmospheric N2, where it is converted into ___12___ known as __13___. Their role in the __14__ cycle is essential for the biosynthesis of important molecules in plants and other life forms. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in the __15___!!

1) aerobic and anaerobic 2) oxygen 3) oxygen 4) anaerobic 5) ATP 6) NO3- or SO4-2 7) Phototrophs 8) plants and animals 9) CO2 10) Methanogens 11) Carbon 12) NH3 13) Nitrogen fixation 14) Nitrogen 15) root nodules (found on roots of plants, form symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria)

Capillaries: Distributed throughout __1__, __1__ blood vessels; __2__ layer of squamous epithelium, & **Speed of blood is __3__. Thin walls allow for substance exchange (i.e. O2 and nutrients diffusion being the most important means of transfer). **__4__ cross-sectional area than in any part to circulatory system. Capillaries converge into a __5__ which merge to form __6__.

1) all body tissues, Smallest 2) single 3) slowest 4) Largest 5) venule 6) veins

An ___1__ enzyme is the type of enzyme that undergoes a conformational change and functional change when binding to specific molecules called ___2____ or ____2___. They do not follow the hyperbolic curve as we saw with the Michaelis-Menton enzymes, but follow a ___3__ curve, e.g. When 2,3-BPG AKA DPG binds to an allosteric site on Hemoglobin, the O2 affinity ___4___. In allosteric regulation we "control" the enzyme by binding an ___5___ molecule at a site other than an enzyme's active site.

1) allosteric 2) activators or inhibitors 3) sigmoidal 4) decreases 5) effector

Glycogen is ____1_____ starch. We store _____2____ as glycogen & is found mainly in the ____3_____ and ______3_____. Again, it is a very large _____4______ molecule similar to amylopectin. Glycogen, however is even more _____4_____. Glycogen is found in animal cells in _____5_____, similar to the starch granules of ____6_____.

1) animal 2) glucose 3) liver and skeletal muscles 4) branched, branched 5) granules 6) plants

The operon is found in __1__ and consists of a _2__. In order for bacteria to utilize __3__, three structural genes must be transcribed to allow for lactose breakdown that code for three enzymes: __4_, __4__, & __4__. An __5__ operon means it is normally turned "off", but can be activated if needed & a __6__ operon, is normally turned "on", but can be shut off when needed. Lac-Operon has three parts: A) Operator: B) Promoter: C) Operon genes: __7__ that are located some distance from the operator produce the repressor proteins. __8__ are in the coding region, while the _9__ & __9__ are in the regulatory region. **Draw regulatory gene and whats inside operon

1) bacteria 2) gene cluster 3) lactose 4) Permease, Transacetylase, and β-Galactosidase [β-Gala Permanent Tranny] 5) inducible [Icky OFF] 6) repressible [Rave ON] A) binding site for repressor protein that prevents transcription ("on-off" switch). B) site where RNA polymerase attaches C) 3 genes 7) Regulatory genes 8) Structural genes [Super Coder] 9) operator and repressor [Officer Rabbit Regulator]

@Domain includes __1___,___1__ & ___1___. ___2__ were the first to inhabit the Earth. **Earth is ___3__ years old, Prokaryotes came about __4__ years, & Eukaryotes came about __5__ years. Prokaryotes are much __6__ than eukaryotes. Low __7__ levels is the reason that it took so long for eukaryotes to evolve. Early Earth had a __8___ atmosphere that lacked O2 & contained __9___, __9___, __9___, __9___, & ___9___. Earth gained O2 because Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green algae) were able to conduct __10___ and gave off O2!!

1) bacteria, archaea, & eukarya 2) Anaerobic heterotrophic prokaryotes 3) 4.5 billion 4) 3.5 billion 5) 2.5 billion 6) smaller 7) O2 8) reducing 9) CH4, H2O vapor, H2, CO, and HCN [Can H2O Hide Huge ClOuds] 10) photosynthesis

@Bacteria and Archaea (prokaryotes) are reproduced by ___1__. We see a ___2___ cell replicating its single chromosome, then ___3___ it into two genetically identical ___4___ cells known as ___5___ reproduction! "__6__" is a term used when the cycle is regulated with "stop" and "go" signals. __7__ check point is the most important & will respond to ___8__ damage. If the cell gets the "OK" signal from G1, the cell cycle can ____9___. In Neil Campbells' textbook, he called it the "___10__". If the G1 checkpoint is not passed, the cell switches to ___11___ state called ___12___. Most cells are ___13___ in our bodies. ___14___ factors allow the G0 phase to be reactivated. Various ___15___ & ___15___ are involved with these checkpoints. In a cancer (malignancy), we see an uncontrolled ___16___ where abnormal changes occur within a cell and ___17____ point activity is lost. Cancer cells can lose their cell ___18___ and spread (metastasize-of a cancer spread to other sites in the body by metastasis) to distant sites for example, a person with breast cancer can eventually get ___19__ cancer. Some ___20___ drugs disrupt the mitotic spindle which would stop cell division. **___21__ is a specific drug that destroys microtubules, thus stopping __22__.

1) binary fission 2) parent 3) dividing 4) daughter 5) asexual 6) "checkpoint" 7) G1 8) DNA 9) continue 10) "restriction point" 11) nondividing 12) G0 13) G0 14) Growth 15) enzymes and growth factors 16) mitosis 17) control 18) attachment 19) liver 20) chemotherapy 21) Colchicine 22) mitosis

amylopectin, a ____1____ polymer of glucose, ____2_____ linkages mainly. Most starch from plants is ____3___% amylopectin... in addition it has ___4____ linkages.

1) branched (longer word is branched) 2) α (1 ⟶ 4) (4 fav #) 3) 80% 4) α- 1, 6 linkages (longer word more #'s)

Cells ____1_____, ____1_____, & ____1_____ free energy in a chemical form. ___2____ functions as the major carrier of chemical energy in all cells between _____3____ pathways by serving as the shared intermediate that ____4_____ endergonic (_______5_______) to exergonic (_____6_____) ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety of _____7_____ molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The ADP that remains is _____8_____ to become ATP. ATP is the major ____9_____ between catabolic and anabolic pathways.

1) capture, store, and transport 2) ATP 3) metabolic 4) "couples" 5) non-spontaneous 6) spontaneous 7) acceptor 8) recycled 9) "crosslink"

@Most enzymes are protein, function as biological ____1___ (lower the energy of activation), & are ____2___ with great complexity. Many end in "___3___" such as lipase & lactate dehydrogenase, but not all. ____4____, ____4___ (pancreatic enzymes that degrade proteins) and ___4___ (stomach enzyme for protein digestion) end in "psin". Have Six Major Classes named: A) B) C) D) E) F)

1) catalysts 2) macromolecules 3) "ase" 4) Trypsin, chymotrypsin & pepsin A) Isomerase B) Oxidoreductase C) Hydrolase D) Lyase E) Ligase F) Transferase/Kinase (I Only Have Lips Like Tranny/Kinky)

The basic functional units of complex organisms are ___1____. Inside them we find _____2____ active structures that are involved in performing many functions. These structures are called ____3____.

1) cells 2) metabolically 3) organelles

Cotton is almost pure _____1____. Many different conformations are possible because of ____2____ about the many single bonds.

1) cellulose 2) rotation

DNA and RNA are ______1_______. DNA forms a ____2____; RNA consists of a _____3_____. DNA is found in the ____4____, as well as the _____5____, & _____5_____. DNA is gigantic, the molecular weight can approach ______6____!! Each ____7___ is a part of a DNA molecule. RNA molecules will leave the cell nucleus and direct the synthesis of proteins in ______8______. Nucleic acids are also _____9_____, the same way as polypeptides and carbohydrates, the monomers of nucleic acids are called ____10____, & are hydrolysable into three components: -a) _________ -b) _________ -c) __________

1) chemical carriers of genetic information. 2) double helix 3) single polynucleotide chain. 4) nucleus 5) mitochondria and chloroplast in plants 6) 50 billion 7) gene 8) ribosomes 9) polymers 10) nucleotides -a) Sugar -b) Phosphate -c) N-base (heterocyclic nitrogen base)(amino acid)

@Although most DNA is packaged in ____1____, ____2____ have a small amount of their own DNA & is ____3___ -stranded, but circular. This has led scientists to believe that mitochondria originated from an ancestral _____4______ & adapted to a symbiotic relationship with an ancestral ___5___ cell. This is the ____6____ Theory. Mitochondria are self-____7____ too, with an average life span of about ___8___ days. ____9____ damage to the mitochondria has been proposed to play a role in the aging process.

1) chromosomes 2) mitochondria 3) double 4) aerobic prokaryotic bacterium 5) host 6) Endosymbiotic 7) replicating 8) 10 9) Oxidative

@**Part of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is _____1____ with the nuclear ____2_____! In an average liver cell, almost ____3_____ ribosomes are present. Ribosomes on the Rough ER are "______4____" and are involved in protein synthesis. Cells that make ____5____ such as pancreas and those of the GI tract have ____6____ Rough ER. The Rough ER works with the _____7_____ and continues the protein assembly. In most cases, _____8____ are moved to the Golgi complex for final modification and "finishing". They are either conveyed (transported) in _____9____ or moved directly between the ___10____ & ____10____ complex before being delivered to their specific locations.

1) continuous 2) envelope 3) 15 million 4) "membrane bound" 5) enzymes 6) abundant 7) ribosome 8) proteins 9) vesicles 10) ER and Golgi

**1° structure: sequence of amino acids, held by _____1_____ including the ____2_____ bond 2° structure: the ___3___ conformation of _____4_____ regions (e.g. helix of ______5_____ held together by ____6____ bonds) 3° structure: the ___7___ shape of the entire molecule held together by ____8_____, ______8_____, ______8______, & _____8_______. 4° structure: Refers to the way one polypeptide chain _____9_____ with another. (e.g. the two ____10____ chains of hemoglobin interact with the two ____11____ chains.) The same four _____12_____ as the 3° are seen in the 4° structure.

1) covalent bonds 2) disulfide 3) 3D 4) localized 5) β-pleated sheet 6) hydrogen 7) 3D 8) hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, salt bridges (electrostatic interactions), and Van der Waals (hydrophobic interactions) 9) interacts 10) alpha 11) beta 12) attractions

Fatty Acid Synthesis occurs in the ____1___ & made from ____2___. Free fatty acids are found incorporated into ____3_____ & ____3_____. Different ____4____ & ____4____ are used in fatty acid synthesis than seen in fatty acid oxidation.

1) cytosol 2) Acetyl CoA 3) triglycerides and phosphotriglycerides 4) enzymes and coenzymes

@Glycolysis occurs in the ___1____. Each step is catalyzed by an ____2____. ____3___ is used in some steps, generated in others, & releasing ____4____ acid, representing ___5____ respiration. What's the reaction equation? Anaerobic metabolism is the only energy source in ____6____ red blood cells. In the absence of ____7___, such as in a muscle that is fatigued, the end product in the human body is ____8____.

1) cytosol 2) enzyme 3) ATP 4) pyruvic 5) anaerobic 6) mammalian 7) O2 8) lactate

In the matrix during oxidative ____1____, CO2 is lost by pyruvate, and ____2___ is formed. Since ____3____ & ____3____ appear here, the enzyme is dehydrogenase! The TCA cycle ____4___ acetyl groups converting them into ____5___ & ____5____ atoms that later lead to the formation of water into the ____6____ to produce ATP. Needs three B vitamins: a) b) c)

1) decarboxylation 2) Acetyl Coenzyme A 3) NAD+ and NADH 4) dismantles 5) CO2 and H 6) electron transport chain a) B1... thiamine b) B2... riboflavin c) B3... Niacin

Essential amino acids must be obtained from the ____1_____. Amino acids do not exist to an appreciable extent as uncharged molecules. They exist as ____2_____... allowing them to have high melting points and be water soluble. amino acids can link together to form a peptide bond as ____3____ is removed.

1) diet 2) salts 3) water

Noncompetitive Inhibitor binds to a site ___1___ from the active site & it ___2__ the conformation of the enzyme! Vmax (maximum velocity) ___3__, Km (Michaelis Menten constant of an enzyme for specific substrate concentration; rate of reaction half maximum rate) is ___4___ because it cannot be overcome by increasing ___5__, .e.g. Pb++ react with the SH group of cysteine in proteins. Can occur with or without the ___6___ present. ____6___ bind to acetylcholinesterase in a noncompetitive inhibitory fashion.

1) distant 2) alters 3) decreases 4) unchanged 5) [S] 6) substrate 7) Insecticides (substance that kills insects)

@Glycolysis Step 1: Is ____1____, thus nonspontaneous. The reaction is driven by coupling it with a reaction that is ____2____, namely ATP _____3____. Once phosphorylated, the molecule ____4____ leave the cell & destined to go forward. We have an ____5____ step at the start of the pathway. Glycolysis has a three-part strategy: a) b) c) When ATP is utilized in glycolysis, ____6___ is often required to complete the reaction by coordinating with two of the negatively charged ____7____ on the phosphate chain of ATP, thus ____8____ their negative charge. As a result, a nucleophile, ____9____ of glucose, can more readily attack the ____10____ group during enzyme-assisted phosphorylation. **The first step uses a ____11___ & will catalyze the transfer of a ____12____ group from a ___13___ energy molecule such as ATP.

1) endergonic 2) exergonic 3) hydrolysis 4) cannot 5) irreversible a) phosphorylates glucose into glucose-6-phosphate b) converts low energy to high energy phosphates c) used high energy phosphates to convert ADP to ATP 6) Mg++ 7) oxygens 8) shielding 9) 6'- OH 10) phosphonyl 11) kinase 12) phosphate 13) high

Implantation occurs in the __1__ of the uterus and occurs before the end of the __2__ week. **The ___3__ adheres to the endometrium & is the mammalian version of a __4___. In contrast to birds, reptiles, and monotremes (an egg laying mammal like a platypus), the mammalian egg is ___5__. A human embryo is not housed in a shell, nor nourished by yolk, but does have a ___6__ that plays a role in forming the ___7___. An umbilical cord will connect the human embryo to parts of the __8__, __8___, & __8___. The umbilical cord has a lot of ___9___. The chorion develops around the embryo and secretes ___10___ hormone that is responsible for maintaining the ___11___. The corpus luteum is a mass of cells which secretes __12___ during the ___13__ three months of pregnancy (trimester 1). After the first three months, the placenta takes over to produce sufficient __14___ & __14___ (steroid hormones). Human __15___ can be divided into three trimesters.

1) endometrium 2) first 3) blastocyst 4) blastula 5) smaller 6) yolk sac 7) digestive tract 8) yolk sac, allantois, and amnion. 9) blood vessels 10) chorionic gonadotropin 11) corpus luteum 12) progesterone 13) first 14) progesterone and estrogen 15) gestation (develpoment)

Each ___1___ has an optimum pH at which its activity is at a maximum. A continued increase in pH results in a sharp decrease in activity as the enzyme's active site changes ____2___ & will ___2___ enzyme activity. Extreme pH values can cause enzymes to ____4____. Most human enzymes ___5___°C is best & over ___6___°C human enzymes begin to denature (lose ___7___, ___7____, & ___7____ structures). The principle (main) intracellular buffer is ___8___ buffer. The principle blood buffer is ___9___. Acidosis and Alkalosis can be classified as ____10___ or ____10___.

1) enzyme 2) shape 3) slow 4) denature 5) 37°C 6) 40°C 7) 2°, 3°, 4° 8) phosphate 9) bicarbonate 10) respiratory or metabolic

Protein glycosylation is an ______1_____ chemical reaction that takes place in the _____2______ and in the _____3_____ of the cell.

1) enzyme-directed 2) Endoplasmic Reticulum 3) Golgi Apparatus

ES represents ___1___ complex & does not change with ____2___. Rate of formation [ES] = ____3____. The best parameter (guideline) for "catalytic efficiency" is ____4___ ratio = efficiency. We need a big ___5__ and a small ___6__ to be highly efficient! Penicillinase (more efficient enzyme) has a Km of 0.05 mM and lysozyme has a Km of 0.006 mM. Why? A small Km means less substrate is needed for the enzyme to reach a rate of ____7___ & implies that lysozyme is the better enzyme. However, you must also consider ___8___, turnover number. If penicillinase has a much larger second order rate constant Kcat, that could be the overall more important factor and be the more ____9___ enzyme.

1) enzyme-substrate 2) time 3) Rate of breakdown 4) Kcat/Km 5) Kcat 6) Km 7) 1⁄2 Vmax 8) Kcat 9) efficient

@**An __1__ gene is a gene that covers up the expression of another gene in the phenotype. It's similar to ordinary dominance except that 2 different genes are involved meaning two _2__ of a gene _3__ the expression of another gene's alleles!! In Labrador Retrievers, we see many different colored dogs which is the result of variations in the __4_ pigment made by a variety of _5__ which are made by __6_. _7__ of a different gene control the extent to which the % of melanin is deposited into the hair & The interactions between the gene pairs produce dogs of different colors. If no melanin is made, an _8__ will result. _9__ Refers to a single gene that can affect an organism in various ways. In sickle cell anemia, a single mutation occurs, and gives rise to a defective hemoglobin __10__. This one gene mutation causes a wide range of problems such as _11__, _11__, & _11__ damage. In PKU (Phenylketonuria) disease, we see an unusual amount of phenylalanine in the _12__ due to a mutant gene. Untreated patients have _13__, _13__, & _13__ all due to a single gene! Heterozygotes can give a _14__ ratio in a Punnett Square if there is a lethal allele then it's not included.

1) epistatic 2) alleles 3) mask 4) melanin 5) enzymes 6) gene pairs 7) Alleles 8) albino 9) Pleiotropy 10) molecule 11) O2 utilization, tissue, and organ 12) blood 13) lower IQ's, larger heads, and lighter hair color 14) 2:1

Fungi Are __1__ that secrete digestive __2___ & __2___ the soluble products of digestion. They are Composed of filaments called __3__; a bunch of them are called __4__. They Can reproduce __5___ or ___5___, __6___ state predominates (dominate) but __7__ between haploid and diploid stages, __8__ (lives on dead/decaying organic matter & breaks down the remains), __9__ (lives off dead/decaying organic matter by getting nutrients from them such as dead animals and waste of living organisms), __10__ (cant move), and have cell __11__ where Energy is stored in the form of ___12__. A fungus not only attacks dead matter, but ___13__ tissue as seen in Athletes Foot. More similar to a __14__ cell than a bacterial cell, Most are ___15__-celled, & Some are __16__ (get nutrients from host tissue). **All Fungi rely on __17__ digestion and __18__ & are needed for decomposition of organic material.

1) eukaryotic heterotrophs 2) enzymes and absorb 3) hyphae 4) mycelium 5) sexually or asexually 6) Haploid 7) alternates 8) Saprophytic (phyt live on) 9) saprobes 10) Immotile 11) walls 12) GLYCOGEN 13) living 14) human 15) multi 16) parasites 17) extracellular 18) absorption

In glycolysis, 3 steps are very ____1___. Too much energy would be needed in ____2____ to simply reverse course. It is like skiing down a mountain; going downhill is fun, but try walking back up!! In order to overcome this problem, three new ____3____ were "created" by nature. ____4____ dictates the reason we needed a slightly different route.

1) exergonic 2) gluconeogenesis 3) enzymes 4) Thermodynamics

Fatty acids can be stored as ____1___, glucose can be stored as _____2____, but surplus (excess) ___3___ cannot be stored & used as _____4____ fuel. Amino acids have their amino group, NH2 removed in a process called ____5____ and used to form urea, their carbon skeletons can make: A) B) C) D) ____6____, ____6____, & ____6____ can be made from amino acids. ____7____ can lead to deficiencies in enzymes that catalyze amino acid metabolism. Phenylketouria (PKU) is made into an amino acid called tyrosine but, the enzyme in this disease is ____8____. Levels of phenylalanine build up in the ____9____ & ____9____ & mental retardation can result. ___10___% of patients in mental institutions have this disease where ____11___ weight is below normal, & myelination of nerves is defective as well.

1) fat 2) glycogen 3) amino acids 4) metabolic 5) deamination A) Acetyl CoA B) Acetoacetyl CoA C) Pyruvate D) TCA cycle intermediates 6) Fatty acids, ketone bodies, and glucose 7) Mutations 8) missing 9) blood and urine 10) 1% 11) brain

All Amniotes contain a ___1__ sac called an amnion & include animals such as __2__, __2__, & ___2__. __3___ membranes is Found in most shelled eggs! Located outside the embryo is a) b) c) d)

1) fluid-filled 2) Birds, reptiles, and mammals 3) Extraembryonic a) Yolk sac: encloses (surrounds) the yolk; provides nutrients b) Chorion: gas exchange, forms part of the placenta c) Amnion: absorbs shocks, keeps embryo from drying out d) Allantois: disposes nitrogen waste and gas exchange. In humans it does not store waste, but involved in O2 and nutrient transport. [You Can All Achieve]

@-ΔG ensures that the reaction drives ____1___. If you see NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2, you are dealing with the enzyme ____2____! Dehydrogenases are a subclass of enzymes called oxidoreductases involved with the catalysis of ____3_____ & ____3____ processes. **After this step the first ___4___ are made!! **When ATP is transferred/made, a ___5___ is involved. This is called ____6___. From this we see a phosphoryl group (PO3) transfer to ___7____ or ___7____ from another phosphorylated compound & form ____8____ or ___8____ .

1) forward 2) dehydrogenase 3) oxidation and reduction 4) 2 ATP 5) kinase 6) substrate-level phosphorylation 7) ADP or GDP 8) ATP or GTP

@a technique called _____1______, we can study the bilayer. This study was the first direct evidence of ____2___ proteins in many biological membranes. The interior and exterior are surely NOT _____3____.

1) freeze-fracture 2) integral 3) symmetrical

Euglena are (unicellular) protist that live in __1__, move by __2__, If deprived of light it loses its __3__ and becomes a ___4__!! The chlorophyll pigments in their chloroplasts are similar to ___5__ & __5___. Dinoflagellates are (unicellular) protists that are __6__ members of marine ___7__, Depending on their pigment color they appear __8__, __8__, __8_, __8__, etc., Certain blooms (colors) can be __9__ to marine life, some species cause a __10__ tide to occur from an enormous "bloom" or growth rate. Diatoms are (unicellular) protists with a __11__-like appearance consisting of __12__ wall structure & Over __13__ species exist! Algae may be (__14_, __14__, or __14__) protists that are __15___ (chrysophyta), __16__ (chlorophyta), __17__ (kelp) (phaeophyte), & __18__ (rhodophyta). Amoeba are (unicellular) protists that Move by __19___ or "false feet", __20__ habitat, feed on __21__, __21___, & __21__. Plasmodium are (unicellular) protists that cause __22__ & A type of __23__ that is bad news! **Paramecium are (unicellular) protists that have a ___24__ used to __25__ water which acts as a water pump, Are __26__, Use __27_ for swimming, __28__ & __28__ habitats, & built for __29_!! Slime Molds are (unicellular) protists that are __30__ & __30__ by creeping around and engulfing food like __31__!

1) fresh water 2) flagella 3) chloroplast 4) heterotroph 5) land plants and green algae 6) photosynthetic 7) plankton 8) red, brown, yellow, green 9) toxic 10) red 11) glass 12) SiO2 13) 5,000 14) unicellular, colonial, or multicellular 15) Golden 16) green 17) brown 18) red 19) pseudopodia 20) Freshwater 21) bacteria, algae, and protozoans (single-celled microscopic animal such as amoeba, flagellate, ciliate, or sporozoan) 22) Malaria 23) sporozoan 24) contractile vacuole 25) expel (eject) 26) ciliates 27) cilia 28) Freshwater and marine 29) speed 30) Free-living (independent) & predatory 31) bacteria ALL ARE UNICELLULAR EXCEPT ALGAE THE IMAGE SHOWS Paramecium & ONLY ONE WITH BOTH FRESHWATER & MARINE HABITAT

Glycolysis Step 2: glucose is made into a ____1____. Glucose and fructose are ____2___, Glucose: C6H12O6... an aldohexose & Fructose: C6H12O6... a ketohexose. The enzyme needed is an ____3___, meaning enzymes that convert a molecule from one isomer to another.

1) fructose 2) isomers 3) isomerase

In the nuclei of cells, chromosomes contain large numbers of genes which represent __1__ unit instructions for the synthesis of over __2__ proteins. All cells except __3__ & __3__ are diploid & contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 in a human. Growth and reproduction of organisms are directed and carried out by __4__ & ___4__ nucleic acids. __5__ took a "photograph" of the double-helix structure that paved the way for __6__ & __6__ to deduce. **__7__ & __7__ interactions between the stacked bases inside the helix stabilize the helical structure. **A __8__ always pairs with a __9__ i.e. A = T, C ≡ G, because there is a limited amount of _10_ in the helix & allows for the most efficient hydrogen bond formation. The space is not sufficient for two purines, and is too large for two pyrimidines. **As we increase the % of GC we increase _11__ & __11__, because more _12_ in GC than AT & A = T regions will be the first to _13_ & _13_!! DNA molecules vary in __14__ from one specie to another & as hydrogen bonds increase with the length, __15__ also increase. Also found in __15___ & _15__!

1) fundamental heredity 2) 250,000 3) ova and sperm 4) DNA and RNA 5) Rosalind Franklin 6) Watson and Crick 7) Hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic 8) purine 9) pyrimidine 10) space 11) stability and melting point 12) hydrogen bonds 13) melt and break 14) length 15) melting point 16) bacteria and viruses

Telomeres Have no __1_, Multiple __2__ of a short nucleotide sequence, A piece is __3__ during each cell division, and when a small "__4__" is left it's the end of cell division and cell death occurs. Telomeric DNA __5__ the genes!! **In __6__ germ cells (egg and sperm) an enzyme called a telomerase is present which is a __7__ enzyme that carries its own __8_, catalyzes the __9__ of the telomeres, and __10__ them to their original length (this enzyme is normally __11__ or __11__ in body cells!!). If we shorten __12__, essential genes would eventually be lost from the egg and sperm cell resulting in a disaster. **90% of human cancer cells show high levels of __13__ activity & as long as it has the needed nutrients and oxygen it's __14__. Cancer cells escape cell death due to chromosomal _15__ like most body (somatic) cells!! Cells that experience severe __16__ may be induced to enter apoptosis or die by other mechanisms. Large areas of dead cells are called a __17__. If a __18__ manages to get enough blood and nutrients it can acquire a network of blood vessels and have plenty of __19__ & __19__ to grow.

1) genes 2) repetitions 3) lost 4) "nub" 5) protects 6) eukaryotic 7) reverse transcriptase 8) RNA 9) lengthening 10) restores 11) absent or very low 12) germ cell chromosomes 13) telomerase 14) immortal 15) shortening 16) hypoxia (low oxygen in tissues) 17) necrosis 18) tumor 19) nutrients and O2

Chitin is a derivative of ____1_____. It is a component of ____2_____ of fungi and part of the exoskeleton of _____3______, such as crustaceans (lobsters, crabs, shrimp) as well as insects. it is a ____4___ linkage.

1) glucose 2) cell walls 3) arthropods 4) 1, 4-linkage (If it goes up at C-1... it is the beta linkage.)

Trimester #1 is The first three months where the Most __1___ & __1___ occur & Most sensitive to __2___ & __2___. **Main period for __3__ is trimester #1. **After __4__ weeks, the embryo is called a fetus. Outer layer of the blastocyst is called the __5__ which grows within the __6__ to form the placenta. **A __7__ development means the young are born alive after being nourished in the uterus from the placenta & __8__ means the young hatch from eggs laid outside the mother!! Trimester #2 are Months 4,5,6 where all major __9__ form, Pregnancy is obvious, __10__ deteriorates as levels of hCG decrease since placenta now takes over the role of making progesterone and estrogen. Trimester #3 are Months 7, 8, 9. About __11___ months the fetus can survive on its own, some even as young as 23 weeks make it alive & By around month 9... you pop out!

1) growth and differentiation 2) radiation and drug toxicity 3) organogenesis 4) eight 5) trophoblast 6) endometrium 7) viviparous (Viva live) 8) oviparous (Outer) 9) organs 10) Corpus luteum 11) 8

@**When a muscle is injured, __1___ or __1___ myoglobin is released into the blood. Within __2__ hours. At about ___3__ hours after injury, Mb levels peak. Mb can also appear in the ___4__ after muscle injury.

1) heart or skeletal 2) 2-3 3) 10 4) urine

The structure of an antibody molecule has Disulfide bonds: a) Link __1__ chains together b) Link _2__ & __2__ chains together **No antibody-pathogen binding can occur once the _3__ or __3__ is hidden in the _4__ cell. Antibodies can "tag" the surface protein of an __5__ for destruction by phagocytes like __6__, __6__, or __6__ attack team. "coating" the antigen with antibodies or complement proteins is called __7__. An __8__ or __8__is a small area on an antigen where the antigen receptor or antibody can bind.

1) heavy 2) heavy and light 3) pathogen or toxin 4) host 5) antigen (toxin or foreign substance which induces immune response) 6) neutrophils, macrophages, or complement protein 7) opsonization 8) epitope or antigenic determinant

Another Symbiosis in fungi involves A fungal __1__ that can also associate with a plant root called __2__. The fungus helps the plant by __3__ needed minerals from the soil and ___4__ them on to the plant. **Antifungal drugs can target the fungal __5__ & __5___ since they are different from our membranes. __6__ used to treat a __7__ disease would not work against fungi and vice versa. Bacterial cell wall = ___8__ & Fungal cell wall = ___9__; Their chemical structure is different.

1) hyphae 2) mycorrhizae 3) absorbing 4) passing 5) cell wall & Fungal membranes 6) Antibiotics 7) bacterial 8) peptidoglycan 9) chitin

@The thalamus is best described as what shape ? What does it do?

Egg shaped. The thalamus transmits 98 percent of sensory information from brain to cortex including vision, taste, touch and balance; but NOT smell. The thalamus also conducts motor signals and relays information from the brain stem to the cortex, coordinating shifts in consciousness such as waking up and falling asleep.

normal alveoli vs alveoli with Emphysema.

Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath & air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) inner walls of weaken and rupture creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones.

Where does the material that went to the Golgi come from & what are the components?

Endoplasmic Reticulum: largest membranous system in the cell that occupies 50% of the total membrane volume & has two components: a) Smooth ER b) Rough ER

What biology or histology technique is used to identify chromosomal material or DNA?

Feulgen stain. DNA stains reddish in color, Mild acid hydrolysis cleaves the molecule

_________ and organogenesis together contribute to morphogenesis: the biological processes that result in an organism's shape and body organization.

Gastrulation

anomeric carbon is which C? If the OH is down at C-1 its __1____ form. If the OH is up at C-1 its ____2___ form. Alpha and beta sugars represent _____3______ called anomers.

I put a "dot" at C-1 anomeric carbon (C derived from the carbonyl carbon compound (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form.) 1) alpha 2) beta 3) diastereomers

if someone suffered extreme blood loss, Which would be expected ?

Increase in Vasopressin secretion, Aldosterone increase, and decreased glomerular filtrate rate. increased ADH (aka arginine vasopressin is a hormone made by hypothalamus in the brain and stored in posterior pituitary gland. It tells your kidneys how much water to conserve, regulates, and balances the amount of water in your blood), and Aldosterone will be increased to retain water......with water retained, blood pressure will increase. As blood is lost, we DECREASE kidney filtration rate. Recall, it is the blood pressure that drives glomerular filtration

three main destinations for the material being shipped out of the trans-Golgi:

Inside the cell- released in vesicles to be delivered to lysosomes. The Plasma Membrane- shipped to be used for repair to the membrane, for cell signaling, etc. Outside the cell- release of hormone insulin.

@_________ cells often communicate with each other and aren't isolated. Name 3 intercellular junctions: a) b) c)

Intercellular Junctions a) Gap Junctions b) Tight Junctions "Zona Occludens" c) Desmosomes

**Transferase AKA

Kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes GROUP transfer (Tranny Kinky)

@All naturally occurring proteins from all living organisms consist of

L amino acids. Most naturally occurring chiral amino acids are S, with the exception of cysteine. Thus....if you have a tripeptide,,,,,,,,the amino acids are L.

Removal of nitrogenous wastes from our hornet friend is carried out by

Malpighian tubules

**Myoglobin VS Hemoglobin graph

Mb holds on to O2 tighter (more saturation) and with a higher affinity

@Ryan Shay, a runner not much older than many of you students took part in the 2007 Mens Olympic Marathon. Ryan died at mile 5.5. What would the Gross and Microscopic examination reveal ? A) Atrophy of skeletal muscles B) Pathologic hyperplasia of the heart C) Physiologic hyperplasia of the heart D) Physiologic hypertrophy of the heart E) Liver fibrosis

D) Physiologic hypertrophy of the heart The myocardial cells do NOT divide, so the heart cannot undergo hyperplasia. [trophy for runner whose cells cant divide & die]

@If a cell contains many ___________ where one mutation can cause them to become oncogenes. A) Carcinogens B) Tumors C) Structural genes D) Proto-oncogenes E) Metastases

D) Proto-oncogenes Proto-oncogenes: can lead to unregulated cell growth

If DNA coding sequence is CCGAGT, the anticodon on the tRNA that binds the mRNA codon will be?

DNA is CCGAGT, then mRNA is GGCUCA thus tRNA is CCGAGU

@what are the 4 DNA Nitrogen-bases? Which species uses this sequence?

DNA of all species is based on the sequences of A, T, C, and G nucleotides.

Detritivores vs Decomposers

Detritivores are animals

What is the difference between digestion and denaturation?

Digestion- breaking of the amide (or peptide bond), we lose the 1° structure. Denaturation- 1° structure is not changed, but we lose 2°, 3°, and 4° structures.

Which of the below would be the most useful method for identifying a specific gene ? A) PCR B) Northern Blot C) Western blot D) NMR E) Southern blot

E) Southern blot Southern blotting is designed to locate a particular sequence of DNA within a complex mixture. For example, Southern Blotting could be used to locate a particular gene within an entire genome.

**Lysosomes are formed by

budding from the Golgi Complex

@Several plants, cacti, and pineapples have adapted to a hot and arid climate. These plants open their stomata during the night, and close them during the day. This is opposite of the usual plants. During the night, when the stomata is open , CO2 is taken in and converted into various organic acids. Which pathway is being depicted ? a) C2 plants b) C3 plants c) CAM plants d) C4 plants e) Epiphytic plants.

c) CAM plants Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid (dry) conditions. In a plant using full CAM, the stomata in the leaves remain shut during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide & reduce water loss.

Where is the purkinje cell located ? a) Medulla b) Heart c) Cerebellum d) Liver e) Cerebrum f) Stomach

c) Cerebellum I am tricky......Purkinje fibers are located in the heart....but purkinje cells are in the CEREBELLUM. the cerebellum is in your BRAIN.....and involved with muscle coordination and balance. Purkinje cells AKA Purkinje neurons, are neurons in vertebrate animals located in the cerebellar cortex of the brain. Each cell also has a single projection called an axon, which transmits impulses to the part of the brain that controls movement, the cerebellum. Purkinje cells are inhibitory neurons: they secrete neurotransmitters that bind to receptors that inhibit or reduce the firing of other neurons.

we wake to find the first frost of the season glistening on our gardens, lawns, automobiles and other objects left outdoors overnight. Which physical property will form frost ? a) Freezing b) Sublimation c) Deposition d) Condensation e) Melting

c) Deposition

The kidney maintains homeostasis. This organ acts like biological membrane which filtrates wastes from blood and involved with salt and pH balance. Consider the renal medulla. Which structure(s) is most likely to be found ? a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule b) Distal Convoluted Tubule c) Loop of Henle d) Glomerulus e) Two of these f) All of these

c) Loop of Henle

@In seven patients (four female), regardless of anticoagulation status, all autopsies demonstrated platelet-rich thrombi in the pulmonary, hepatic, renal, and cardiac microvasculature. A certain cell type was seen in higher than usual numbers in the lungs and heart. Identify this cell type. a) Eosinophil b) Neutrophil c) Megakaryocyte d) Mast e) Null f) T-lymphocyte

c) Megakaryocyte

@Which of the below would most likely contain a mantle ? a) Chordate b) Echinoderm c) Mollusk d) Arthropod e) Annelide f) Mograby Mole

c) Mollusk mollusks that have shells, such as clams, mussels, and snails, the mantle secretes calcium carbonate and a matrix to form mollusk's shell.

The ultimate source of genetic variation in populations is _____________? a) Natural Selection b) Meiosis c) Mutation d) Crossing Over e) Sexual recombination

c) Mutation Mutation is important as the first step of evolution because it creates a new DNA sequence for a particular gene, creating a new allele.

**Fingerprints form from pressure on a baby's tiny, developing fingers in the womb. No two people have been found to have the same fingerprints. Which of the below areas are responsible for fingerprints ? a) Stratum lucidum b) Reticular dermis c) Papillary dermis d) Hypodermis e) Epidermis

c) Papillary dermis

@**__________ is a pathology that involves a vitamin B12 deficiency . It results from impaired uptake of vitamin B-12 due to the lack of a substance known as__________ produced by the stomach lining. a)Beri-Beri , Riboflavin b)Cooley's Anemia, Clotting factor X c)Pernicious Anemia, Intrinsic factor d)Crohn's Disease, Intrinsic factor e)Cushings Syndrome, Intrinsic factor.

c) Pernicious Anemia, Intrinsic factor

Transfer RNAs are cellular courier molecules that decipher the genetic code in messenger RNAs and enable the transfer of appropriate esterified amino acids to the growing peptide chain. The maximum number of transfer RNA molecules that can be on a ribosome simultaneously is ? a) ZERO b) One c) Two d) Three e) Four

c) Two mRNA & tRNA

@Venous blood from the intestines and spleen drain into the liver, with branches in each portal area by which structure? hepatic portal vein VS hepatic artery. a. Bile duct b. Hepatic vein. c. Hepatic Portal vein d. Sinusoid. e. Hepatic artery.

c. Hepatic Portal vein hepatic artery: carries blood from aorta to liver hepatic portal vein: carries blood containing digested nutrients (NOT FAT) from gastrointestinal tract, and also from spleen and pancreas to liver.

@Carbohydrates are composed of

carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

in hypotonic solution, plants dont burst due to

cell wall

CNS vs PNS

central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord. peripheral nervous system (PNS): spinal and cranial nerves

Consider the pathology twins attached, one body. Which of the following is involved ? a) 1 egg, 2 sperm b) 1 egg, no sperm c) Parthenogenesis d) 1 egg, 1 sperm e) 2 eggs, 1 sperm

d) 1 egg, 1 sperm

there is no respiratory system in segmented worms, but rather they breathe via the skin. This is often referred to as cutaneous respiration. Annelids are most closely related to _________ ? a) Roundworms b) Echinoderms c) Mollusks d) Arthropods e) Platyhelminthes

d) Arthropods

The massive use of drugs in medicine and of pesticides in agricultural systems since the 1950's have led to the selection of highly adapted resistant biotypes in natural populations of microbes and pests. This is an example of ? a) Punctuated equilibrium b) Stabilizing selection c) Disruptive selection d) Directional selection e) Artificial transmutation

d) Directional selection

Plasmodium falciparum is the organism that is responsible for the most severe form of malaria in humans. This organism , once in the body can multiply and do severe damage. After invasion which cell type undergoes the most profound structural and morphological changes, dramatically altering their physical properties and impairing circulation ? a) Thrombocytes b) Eosinophils c) Basophils d) Erythrocytes e) Neutrophils f) Null cells

d) Erythrocytes (red blood cell) When a malaria-carrying mosquito bites a human host, the malaria parasite enters the bloodstream, multiplies in the liver cells, and is then released back into the bloodstream, where it infects and destroys red blood cells.

@A female patient has abnormal thickening of the lining of the uterus due to an increase in the number of endometrial glands. This disorder most often affects young women who are just beginning to menstruate and older women approaching menopause. What term best describes this scenario ? a) Atrophy b) Dysplasia c) Anaplasia d) Hyperplasia e) Hypertrophy

d) Hyperplasia

@Medial: Lateral: Proximal: Distal: Ventral: Dorsal:

Medial: toward the midline Lateral: toward the side (away from midline) Proximal: part of limb nearest point of attachment Distal: opposite proximal Ventral: front, underside, belly Dorsal: back [My Love Please Dont Drink Vodka]

A male Tortie is very rare, since it has two X chromosomes and a Y. Which pathology is this most similar ? a) Down Syndrome b) Stevens Syndrome c) Turner Syndrome d) Kleinfelter Syndrome e) Fanconi Syndrome

d) Kleinfelter Syndrome

The nuclear envelope consists of an inner and an outer membrane enclosing the perinuclear cisterna or perinuclear space. The perinuclear space is continuous with the _____________ ? a) Mitochondrial matrix b) Inner mitochondrial membrane c) Cytosol d) Lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum e) Nuclear Lumen.

d) Lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum

**Consider the cells of the epidermis . One of these cells are tactile epithelial cells, and are oval-shaped mechanoreceptors essential for light touch sensation and found in the skin of vertebrates. They are abundant in highly sensitive skin like that of the fingertips in humans. These cells are _________ ? a) Melanocytes b) Keratinocytes c) Fibroblasts d) Merkel cells e) Langerhans cells f) Dendritic cells

d) Merkel cells Merkel cells are located in the basal epidermal layer of the skin. Merkel cells, AKA Merkel-Ranvier cells or tactile epithelial cells.

Proglottids are most closely associated with ? a) Prokaryotes b) Parotid Gland ducts c) Porifera d) Platyhelminthes e) Progesterone -containing organs f) Proto-oncogenes

d) Platyhelminthes

Changes in which of the below would you expect to have the greatest effect in the lowering of a person's serum cholesterol ? (which of the following below if lowered would lower cholesterol) a) Carbohydrates b) Unsaturated fats c) Polyunsaturated fats d) Saturated fats e) Cholesterol

d) Saturated fats If it tastes YUMMY......it is most likely bad for you and high in Saturated fat. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y7-si4rHrlY&feature=youtu.be&t=5&fbclid=IwAR3q9SwvR4Y070N9F8dXyvq8fEuo9P5SKet2b7aLSqNcnVwQv1NsLvzybc8

**The cortical reaction was studied best in the sea urchin. This reaction is most associated with ? a) Apoptosis b) Fast Block to Polyspermy c) ATP production d) Slow Block to Polyspermy e) Protein synthesis

d) Slow Block to Polyspermy

@Protozoa are eukaryotic unicellular organisms, which together with single-cell algae and slime molds belong to the Protista kingdom. Protozoa classification is most often based upon?

Mode of locomotion

what is a Phosphodiester group & Phosphodiester link?

Phosphodiester group: connects 3′ of one sugar with the 5′ of the other. (Count C starting from right) Phosphodiester link: connection between successive monomer units in nucleic acids (in picture). It is between the 3' OH group of one sugar and the 5' OH of another sugar.

The primary control mechanism that is most involved with the clotting of blood is ?

Proteolytic zymogen cleavage. Specific proteolysis is a frequent way of activating enzymes and certain other proteins in biological systems. For instance, digestive enzymes which hydrolyze proteins are made as zymogens in the stomach and pancreas, in which pepsinogen is the inactive precursor (zymogen) and pepsin is the activated form of the enzyme. Another example is seen in blood clotting which is carried out by a cascade of proteolytic activations. Also, certain protein hormones are synthesized as the inactive precursors such as proinsulin which then leads to the activated form, insulin by proteolytic cleavage.

When DNA from E.coli is heated it reversibly melts at 72°C whereas when DNA from the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa is heated it reversibly melts at 79°C. Explain.

Pseudomonas DNA has more G ≡ C & three H-bonds which stabilize the helix, thus higher melting point.

Which is more sensitive to base... DNA or RNA? Why?

RNA has a 2′ OH that can launch intramolecular attack

Acetyl CoA contains what functional group?

Thioester!!

The key event that leads to the association of a protein that signals the protein-transport machinery to ferry the protein to the proteasome for degradation is

Ubiquitination The "kiss of death" process for a protein. In ubiquitination, a protein is inactivated by attaching ubiquitin to it. Ubiquitin is a small molecule. Proteosomes are the cells's protein recyclers. They provide a controlled method for protein breakdown safely in cells.

CoQ AKA _______ participates in the Electron Transport Chain. It receives electrons from _______ & _______ and passes it to Complex III.

Ubiqunione, Complex II and Complex I

@Why can't a hydrocarbon such as hexane dissolve in water?

Water molecules are very tightly attracted to each other by hydrogen bonding. Even though water may be weakly attracted to hydrophobic (non-polar) molecules by the Van der Waals forces, water would have to break H-bonds to make room for a hydrophobic solute. no favorable interactions back, not spontaneous do not mix.

Is ΔG related to K?

Yes...

@At physiological (study of functions and mechanisms in a living system) pH, we see the neutral form, +NH3 and COO-, and we call it a

Zwitterion

@Ligase

[gluing enzyme] that catalyzes formation of bonds like C-O, C-N, C-C and C-S. [CONS] (legs form muscle)

lac operon/Operator acts as what? Lactose is...

a switch. on: lactose present off: lactose not present

**Bacterial Diseases include: a) b) c) d) e) f)

a) Anthrax b) Sepsis c) Salmonellosis... food poisoning d) Leprosy e) Syphilis f) Gonorrhea [All Senior Samurais Lead Successive Goals]

A) Why does alkaline conditions partially denature (i.e. unwinds DNA in certain areas) the helix? B) Would the regions that unwind be richer in A = T or C ≡ G? Why?

a) By increasing the pH (i.e. making it more alkaline), we ionize some nucleic acid bases, and all phosphate groups, thus increasing # of negatively, which promote unwinding of the helix to reduce charge repulsion!! b) A = T and C ≡ G the H-bonds help to "counter" the unwinding, but since C ≡ G has three H-bonds it will be stronger than A = T two H-bonds, thus a region richer in C ≡ G would unwind less. A = T unwind more.

What occurs in the Calvin-Benson Cycle: a) b) c) d) e) ____1___ is attached to Rubisco at the very start & produces very unstable ____2___ that splits into 2 molecules of ____3____.

a) Carbon fixation.. sugar making b) ATP used c) 6 turns d) NADPH oxidized e) Rubisco regenerated, cycle continues 1) CO2 2) intermediate 3) phosphoglycerate

@**Energy can be put into two categories ________ & ________. Describe them and give examples.

a) Kinetic: energy of motion (e.g. blood flows) b) Potential: energy that is stored (e.g. glycogen) stored in liver & skeletal muscle

Cytoskeleton is a complex network of: a) b) c) They determine the ___1___ of cells and movements of _____2____, ____2_____, _____2____. Sperm cells can swim and white blood cells ____3____ across cell surfaces to destroy invaders. These cells are powered and guided by the cytoskeleton composed of many subunit proteins, and is always _____4_____ itself. Sometimes it loses or gains ____5_____. Biggest to smallest size of cytoskeleton network: _____6_____ > _____6____ > ____6_____

a) Microfilaments (actin) b) Microtubules c) Intermediate filaments 1) shape 2) organelles, vesicles, & entire cell movement 3) crawl 4) reorganizing 5) subunits 6) microtubules > intermediate filaments > microfilaments

Lysosomes will digest: a) __________ b) _________ c) __________ Enzymes include _____1___, ____1____, _____1_____, _____1_____, etc. not many ____2_____ escape. Any leaked lysosomes are normally ____3____ to the cell since the cytosol has a pH ≈ ___4___ and will make lysosomal enzymes ____5____.

a) Microorganisms like fungi or bacteria b) Cellular debris such as old cells c) Old organelles such as mitochondria 1) proteases, nucleases, phosphatases, sulfatases 2) macromolecules 3) harmless 4) 7.2 5) inactive

Cell size is limited by two main factors: a) b) Having a large surface area to volume ratio allows ___1___ & ___1___ to go into and out of the cell more ___2___ & ___2___. As a cell grows, its surface area to volume ____3___ because, both area and volume naturally increase, but ____4___ increases at a higher rate. When the ____5___ gets too low, the cell cannot meet its ___6___ & ___6___ requirements & the cell undergoes a cell ___7___. Difference between surface area & volume.

a) Nucleus Capacity: must have enough DNA b) Surface area to volume ratio 1) materials and wastes 2) rapidly and efficiently 3) decreases 4) volume 5) surface area 6) energy and metabolic 7) division (in a cube for EX: surface area is the area (L x W x 6 sides, & volume is (L x W x H)

Mitosis is divided into 5 stages: a) b) c) d) e) Mitosis is a ___1___ part of the cell cycle, 90% is ___2__. M-phase includes ___3___ & ___3___. It's ___4___ of the cell cycle & the __5__ stages occur. **Interphase includes G1 "___6__" where cell begins to ___7__, ___8___ phase is the duplication of chromosomes, G2 "second gap phase" is where cell prepares to ___9___. During all three phases, cell growth is seen, we make __10___ & __10___.

a) Prophase b) Prometaphase c) Metaphase d) Anaphase e) Telophase 1) small 2) interphase 3) mitosis and cytokinesis 4) shortest 5) 5 6) "first gap phase" 7) grow 8) S 9) divide 10) organelles and proteins

2 forms for Hb: a) b) Represents a change in ___1___ structure! At ___2__ altitudes, the amount of BPG ___3___ substantially & Hb curve shifts to the right because O2 will be dumped off Hb and released to the tissues. This ___4___ for lowered oxygen concentration. Not easy running at a very high altitude; the higher the metabolic rate (number of calories required to keep your body functioning at rest) of an organism, the greater its ___5__ demand. On a graph which Organism would have the highest O2 demand?

a) T form: low O2 affinity "deoxyhemoglobin" (Turtles Love Dancing) b) R form: high O2 affinity "oxyhemoglobin" (Rabbits Hide Octopuses) 1) quaternary 2) high 3) increases 4) compensates 5) O2 Organism #3 the curve furthest to the right has highest O2 demand.

ADP

adenosine diphosphate: product of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) breakdown.

@Epinephrine, more commonly known as ____________, is a hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal glands. Strong emotions such as fear or anger cause epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream. how else can it be described?

adrenaline, 1) catecholamine which is a hormone or neurotransmitter. 2) cause bronchodilation 3) decreases vascular permeability and gives energy 4) relaxes smooth muscle 5) effective even AFTER anaphylactic (allergy) symptoms commence (begin)

Proteins are made up of individual units called

amino acids

the smallest unit of an element that retains all the properties of the element.

atom

A population of birds on island DESTROYER in the South Pacific are in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. 16% are homozygous recessive. What % of the population is homozygous dominant ? a) 74% b) 36% c) 84% d) 44% e) 32%

b) 36% p^2 + 2pq + q^2=1 p+q=1 6% homozygous recessive means this is the q^2 value. Therefore q=.4...p must equal .6 and the homozygous dominant percentage equals p^2. p^2=.36 so 36% of the population is homozygous dominant

The bone marrow, liver, and spleen can store iron in the protein compounds ferritin and hemosiderin. Which cell is most likely to contain the greatest amount of hemosiderin ? a) Eosinophil b) Macrophage c) Basophil d) Mast cell e) Osteoblast

b) Macrophage

Consider a cell that has turned malignant. As cellular damage accumulates and additional control mechanisms are lost, some cells may break free of the primary tumor, pass into the blood or lymph system, and be transported to another organ, where they develop into new tumors. The spread of malignant cells from the site of origin to sites forming secondary tumors is called a) Apoptosis b) Metastasis c) Proliferation d) Diapedesis e) Transformation f) Oncological mutation

b) Metastasis The main reason that cancer is so serious is its ability to spread in the body. Cancer cells can spread locally by moving into nearby normal tissue and regionally, to nearby lymph nodes, tissues, or organs. And it can spread to distant parts of the body. When this happens, it is called metastatic cancer.

Which cell would NOT be found in a germinal center of a lymph node ? a) Macrophage b) Monocyte c) Plasma cell d) Dendritic cell e) B-lymphocyte f) More than one of these g) None of these. All are easily found.

b) Monocyte The lighter staining areas are germinal centers, where the B-cells proliferate (multiply fast) into antibody secreting plasma cells . Macrophages are also present in these regions, together with dendritic cells, and some T-cells trap antigens and present them on their surfaces to B-cells. Monocytes are the largest of the leukocytes & are found in all vertebrates and produced in the bone marrow before being released into the circulation. Under normal conditions, monocytes make up between 3% and 8% of the circulating cell population and their numbers increase in response to infection.

Before birth and throughout childhood, which of the below is most instrumental in the production and maturation of T-lymphocytes to become immunocompetent (normal immune system)? a) Spleen b) Thymus c) Tonsils d) Peyer's patches e) MALT

b) Thymus

Chemotrophs

derive free energy from the oxidation of fuel molecules.

A ____ cross is a cross between two different individuals that differ in two observed traits. This was evidence that genes located on 2 homologous chromosomes travel into ____ independently of other gene pairs located on other homologous chromosomes.

dihybrid, gametes

Which chromosome most likely contains the most genes ? a) #21 b) #6 c) Y d) X e) #1 f) #4 g) #17

e) #1 in a karyotype we see that the LARGEST chromosome would carry the most genes,

Cell nuclei are highly compartmentalized and contain numerous structures such as chromosomes and nuclear bodies (NBs). Chromosomes are the most prominent structures, and most genetic processes occur in chromosomes including transcription, DNA replication and repair, and repression of gene expression, which are modulated by interactions with gene-regulating proteins. Which of the below cells lack a nucleus ? a) Leucocyte b) Hepatocyte c) Mature erythrocyte d) Thrombocyte x f) A and C g) All lack a nucleus

e) C and D

A pigment known as melanin is synthesized by melanosomes found in skin cells called melanocytes. Besides functioning as a broadband UV absorbent, it has antioxidant and radical scavenging properties that protect us from UV damage and skin cancers. The GREATEST number of melanocytes would be found in? a) A Norwegian blond- haired girl b) A Mexican brown -haired boy c) A black-haired man from Kenya d) A red-haired man from Ireland e) None of these

e) None of these

Motor neurons are a diverse group of cells without which complex life would not be possible. These neurons are responsible for integrating signals from the brain and the sensory systems to control voluntary and involuntary movements.A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies is called a(n) a) neuromuscular junction b) motor end plate c) synaptic cleft d) axon terminal e) motor unit

e) motor unit

Oxidoreductase

enzyme that catalyze redox reaction; look for dehydrogenase, NADH, or FADH2!!

Lyase

enzyme that cuts C-C, C-S, and C-N bonds. (lying cuts your heart)

@Hydrolase

enzyme that cuts bonds by H2O

@Isomerase

enzyme that transfers groups within a given molecule

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote cells

eukaryotic: have a nucleus containing cell's genetic material. prokaryotic: don't have nucleus and have free-floating genetic material.

In __________, the CO2 made after pyruvate is why beer and sparkling wine has bubbles.

fermentation

If a peptide had six amino acids, we have _______ peptide bonds.

five

karyoplasm

forms contents of the nucleus.

Bone provides shape and support for the body, as well as protection for some organs. Bone also serves as a storage site for minerals and provides the medium—marrow—for the development and storage of blood cells. Which is NOT found in bone ? a) Veins b) Nerves c) Capillaries d) Arteries e) Pain Receptors f) B and D g) None of these. All are found in bone.

g) None of these. All are found in bone.

Haploid vs Diploid

haploid (n): one copy of each chromosomes diploid (2n): 2 copies of each chromosome (twice the number of haploid)

cytoplasm involves what? The fluid suspension is the ______.

involves contents of cell excluding the nucleus. It's mainly H2O, and various organic and inorganic substances are dissolved or suspended. fluid suspension is the cytosol.

macromolecules

large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms like Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. They are formed by many monomers linking together, forming a polymer.

Disaccharides are made by the

linking of monosaccharides in a process called dehydration synthesis

INTERNAL organ that is directly involved with drug detox.

liver

what is Protoplasm and what does it include?

living substance of the cell and includes: a) Cytoplasm b) Karyoplasm

In ______, synaptic pair of bivalents (two chromosomes, four chromatids total) align on the metaphase plate. This is different from metaphase in mitosis, where all chromosomes align single file on the metaphase plate. Microtubules attached to the _______.

metaphase I, kinetochore

@Acetyl CoA is what? hydrolysis of this molecule is ?

molecule that goes into the TCA cycle. ΔG° = -7.5 Kcal/mol. same as ATP

@Which lipid do you think has the lowest melting point? A _____1_____ fat is more likely to clog an artery from diets high in ____2____, ____2___, & ____2____. There is tight packing making a ___3___ with a ___4___ melting point. A double bond puts a "____5____" into the molecule and will prevent tight packing.

most unsaturated (most double bonds) 1) saturated 2) meats, cheese, & milk 3) crystal lattice 4) high 5) "kink"

Can fat be used in gluconeogenesis?

no, its a one way reaction; majority of the carbons in fat are unavailable for incorporation into glucose because they are converted into Acetyl CoA units. However, the glycerol (fat) backbone can be used as a C source for gluconeogenesis!

Inclusions are the _________ components of a cell. They includes what and where are they found? a) b) c) d) e)

nonliving a) Pigments... melanin pigment in skin and hair b) Lipid droplets in fat cells c) Glycogen granules in liver and skeletal muscle cells d) Vacuoles... membrane bound vesicle... more prominent in plants. Used for storage. e) Crystals... remnants (remains) of certain proteins

nucleoside VS nucleotide

nucleoside: sugar and N-base (in pic) nucleotide: sugar, phosphate, and N-base

ovary develops into _________ and ovule develops into ________

ovary-fruit ovule-seed

dehydration synthesis

process where Sugars are formed

what are NADH and FADH2. Are they reduced or oxidized?

represent the major electron carriers. They are reduced. NAD+ & FAD are oxidized

saponifiable vs non-saponifiable lipids

saponifiable: complex lipids or simple -has an ester functional group, which can undergo saponification (hydrolysis under basic conditions) (waxes simple, triglycerides simple, phospholipids complex, sphingolipids complex) -- Simple lipids: fatty acid and an alcohol -- Complex lipids: fatty acids, an alcohol, and other components non-saponifiable: -do not contain ester groups, and cannot be saponified (steroids, prostaglandins, & terpene)

Which biome would you most likely find lions, giraffes, zebras, horses and elephants?

savanna

is Combustion of a fuel oxidation of glucose spontaneous exothermic or non-spontaneous endothermic?

spontaneous exothermic

what is deoxy sugar? _____1_____ sugar is in RNA; ____2_____ sugar is in DNA.

sugar lost an OH. [ribose (top) and deoxyribose (bottom)] 1) Ribose 2) 2-deoxyribose (one less O at ) 2' position

**what forms the structural framework of DNA and RNA?

sugar-phosphate "backbone"

Carbohydrates AKA ________ & _______ are what? How can you tell if R or S?

sugars and starches are polyhydroxy aldehydes and polyhydroxy ketones. These are monosaccharides that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler compounds. Carbohydrates represent a storehouse of chemical energy! (at a chiral carbon... If the OH on the right... R If OH on the left... S )

Electrostatic interactions are relatively weak (similar in strength to dipolar and H-bond interactions) when they exist on the surface of a soluble protein. However, they can be very strong when they are buried in the interior of the protein. Explain.

surface of the protein has charges in hydrophilic, aqueous environment. H2O is very polar & "shields" the charges from each other, so they interact weakly. There is no H2O in the hydrophobic interior of the protein, so the charges interact strongly!!

Fertilization is also called __________.

syngamy

Elements that are vital (essential) such as Mo, Zn, or Cu are present in small amounts and we sometimes call them

trace elements

@the oral surgeon in clinic tells you that your patient suffers from Emesis. The patient will display ?

vomiting